Chapter 1 Introduction
History of Flight
History of Flight
Flight of birds
Bird-men
Leonardo da Vinci (1500s)
The sketches of flying machines
Robert Hooke (1655)
Human flight would require some form of artificial propulsion.
Problems of human flight
Balloons
Joseph and Etienne Montgofier (1783) : hot air balloon
Professor Jacques Charles (Ten days later) : the first gas balloon
Kites
History of Flight
History of Flight
Sir George Cayley (1773 – 1857)
“Father of Aerial Navigation”
The basic principles on which the modern science of
aeronautics is founded
The first full-size man-carrying airplane
William Samuel Henson
Otto Lilienthal
Wilbur and Orville Wright
December 17, 1903 (the age of flight had arrived)
98 seconds on four flights
History of Flight
History of Flight
Measurements
Length and Distance
English system
Inch, foot, yard, mile, pint, gallon, pound, and ton
Nautical mile (nm)
Internationally for navigation
Approximate 6080 ft
1 nm/h = 1 knot (kt)
International System of Units or SI unit
Meter
Metric Prefix
Area
Square of length
English system
Square inch (in2)
Square foot (ft2)
Square yard (yd2)
Square mile (mi2)
SI unit
Square centimeter (cm2)
Square meter (m2)
Square kilometer (km2)
Volume and Capacity
The amount of space occupied by an object.
Three-dimensional units or cubes
English system
Cubic inch (in3)
Cubic foot (ft3)
Pint, quart, gallon
SI unit
Cubic centimeter (cm3)
Cubic meter (m3)
liter
Volume And Capacity
Figure 1-4 One-inch cube
Weight
English system
Grain
Troy ounce
Avoirdupois ounce
Troy pound
Avoirdupois pound
Ton
SI unit
Gram
Kilogram
Other units of
measurement
Force
Density
Electrical values
Light intensity
Sound intensity
Velocity
Energy
Gravity, Weight, and
Mass
Gravity, Weight, and
Mass
Gravity or gravitation
The universal force that all bodies exert upon one another
Universal law of gravitation
m1m2
F=G 2
r
Weight
The pull exerted upon the body by the gravitation of the
earth
Mass
The amount of material the body contains
Density
Mass per unit volume
Important physical property
Example
Density of water 1000 kg/m3
Density of water 1.94 slugs/ft3
Weight density
Weight per unit volume
Specific Gravity
The ratio of the density of the substance to the
density of water
Hydrometer
Often used to determine the specific gravity of the
electrolyte
Density of gas
According to standard pressure and temperature
condition
Dry air (1.293 g/L or 0.081 lb/ft3)
Specific Gravity
Figure 1-5 Hydrometer measuring the electrolyte in an aircraft battery
Speed and Velocity
Speed and Velocity
Often used in the same sense
How fast something is moving
Speed
The ratio of the distance traveled to the time of travel
Velocity
The rate at which position changes over time and the
direction of the change
Force and Motion
Units of Force
Pound (lb)
Newton (N)
Dyne (dyn or dy)
1 dy = the force required to accelerate a mass of 1 g 1
centimeter per second per second
1 N = 100 000 dy = 0.225 lb
Newton’s Law of
Motion
Newton’s First Law of Motion
A body at rest tends to remain at rest and a body in
motion tends to remain in motion in a straight line
unless forced to change its state by an external force
Unbalanced
Inertia
Newton’s Law of
Motion
Newton’s Second Law of Motion
The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to
the force causing it and inversely proportional to the
mass of the body
Acceleration of gravity
Terminal velocity
The highest velocity reached by a falling object
Friction
Force opposes motion between two surfaces that are
touching
Newton’s Law Of
Motion
Newton’s Third Law of Motion
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
Thrust
Reaction force
The basic formula for the thrust of a gas-turbine engine
w
F=
g
(V2 − V1 )
where F = force, lb
w = flow rate of air and fuel gases
g = acceleration of gravity
V1, V2 = initial and final velocity of gases
Newton’s Law of Motion
Figure 1-6 Newton’s Third Law of Motion
Newton’s Law of
Motion
Momentum
Two kinds of momentum
Linear
A measure of the tendency of a moving body to
continuous in motion along a straight line
Angular
A measure of the tendency of a rotating body to
continuous to spin about an axis
Centrifugal and
Centripetal Force
Centrifugal and
Centripetal Force
Centrifugal force
Force tending to cause the weight to fly outward from
the center of the circle
Centripetal force
An equal and opposite force pulling the weight
inward and preventing it from flying outward
Two formula for centripetal force
mv 2 Wv 2
F= (SI) F= (English)
r gr
Centrifugal and Centripetal Force
Figure 1-7 Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces
Composition and
Resolution of Forces
Composition and
Resolution of Forces
Vector
Any quantity involving both magnitude and direction
Resultant
The combination of vectors
Trigonometric function
Sine
Cosine
Tangent
Composition and Resolution of Forces
Figure 1-8 Vector representing 40 lb directed upward
Composition and Resolution of Forces
Figure 1-9 Resultant of two vectors acting from the same point
Composition and Resolution of Forces
Figure 1-10 Functions of a right triangle
Work, Energy, and
Power
Work
Work
Work (W) = force (F) x distance (D)
foot-pound (ft-lb)
joules (J)
1 J = 1 Nm
1 J = 0.738 ft-lb
1 ft-lb = 1.36 J
Work
Figure 1-11 Work done by means of a lever
Energy
Energy
The capacity for doing work
Two forms of energy
Potential energy
Form of energy possessed by a body because of its position
or configuration
The force of gravity, a tightly wound spring, a gas
compressed
Kinetic energy
Form of energy possessed by a body because of its motion
Law of conservation of energy
Energy can be neither destroyed nor created; it can be
changed only in form
Power
Power
The rate of doing work
Unit of power
Watt
Foot-pounds per second
Horsepower
1 hp = 550 ft-lb/s = 746 watts
Machines
Machines
Any mechanical device which aids in doing work
Effort force
Force applied to a machine
Resistance force
Force produced by machine
Mechanical advantage (MA)
The number of times a machine increases the effort force
Types of simple machines
Lever, Pulleys, Gears and Pulleys, Inclined Plane, Screw,
and Compound Machines
Machines
Figure 1-12 Mechanical advantage of lever
Machines
Figure 1-13 Three classes of levers
Machines
Figure 1-14 Balancing a lever
Machines
Figure 1-15 Mechanical advantage of pulleys
Machines
Figure 1-16 Multiplication of forces by means of pulleys
Machines
Figure 1-17 Mechanical advantage produced by gears
Machines
Figure 1-18 Mechanical advantage with a pulley drive
Machines
Figure 1-19 Principle of the inclined plane
Machines
Figure 1-20 Worn-gear to develop mechanical advantage
Heat
Measuring Temperature
Another form of energy
The motion of the matter molecules
Temperature = the degree of heat or cold
Scale
Absolute temperature
9
°F = °C + 32
5
°C + 273 = kelvins
°F + 460 = °R
Measuring Temperature
Table 1-1 Comparison of temperature scales
Effect of Heat
The effects of heat make possible many of the powerful
machines.
Calorie (cal)
1 cal = the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of 1 g of water 1°C (≈ 4.186 J)
British thermal unit (Btu)
1 btu = the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of 1 lb of water 1°F (≈778 ft-lb)
Q: if an engine is burning 40 lb/h of gasoline, how much
power will the engine deliver if it is 35% efficient?
Effect of Heat
Table 1-2 Heat Value
Specific Heat
The number of calories (or Btu) required to rise 1 g
(or 1 lb) of substance 1°C (or 1°F)
The specific heat of different substances varies
substantially
Specific Heat
Table 1-3 Specific heat for various substances
Change of State
Activity of particles
Heat of fusion
The energy needed to change from a solid state to a
liquid state or from a liquid to a solid
Heat of vaporization
The energy needed to change from a liquid to a gas or
from a gas to a liquid
Expansion
Heat increases, kinetic energy of particles increases
Particles move faster, collide violently
Material’s volume increases (expand)
Coefficient of linear expansion
The increase in length of a metal per unit length per
degree of rise in temperature
Turbine engine design (ex. Clearance)
Expansion
Table 1-4 Coefficient of thermo expansion
Laws Of
Thermodynamics
The branch of the science of physic dealing with the
mechanical action and relations of heat
The first law of thermodynamics
Heat energy cannot be destroyed; it can only be
changed in form
The second law of thermodynamics
Heat cannot flow from a body of a given temperature
to a body of a higher temperature
Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer
Conduction
The transfer of energy through a conductor by means of
molecular activity and without any external motion
Heat conductivity
The number of calories per second flowing through the
material
Convection
The transfer of energy through fluids by the movement of
matter
Radiation
The transfer of energy that does not require the presence of
matter
Heat Transfer
Table 1-5 Heat conductivity of different materials
Fluids
Properties of Liquids
A substance that flows readily
Assumes the shape of its container
Does not tend to expand indefinitely
Virtually incompressible
Viscosity
The resistance of the liquid to flow
Stiffness of a fluid or internal friction of a fluid
Viscosity index
A measure of the change in the viscosity of a fluid with
change in its temperature
For most liquids, viscosity decreases with increasing
temperature
Viscosity
Table 1-6 Viscosities of liquids at 30°C
Archimedes’ Principle
A body placed in a liquid is buoyed up by a force
equal to the weight of the liquid displaced
Archimedes’ Principle
Figure 1-21 Displacement of a liquid by a floating solid
Fluid Pressure
Pressure = force per unit area
P = dh
Fluid Pressure
Figure 1-22 Force exerted by a liquid
Fluid Pressure
Figure 1-23 Total effect of liquid pressure on differently shaped vessels
Pressure and Force in
Fluid Power Systems
Pascal’s law
A liquid under pressure in a closed container transmits
pressure undiminished to all parts of the enclosing
wall
Hydraulic system
Pascal’s Law
Figure 1-24 Pressure transmitted by a liquid
Pascal’s Law
Figure 1-25 Multiplication of force by means of hydraulic pistons
The Nature and Laws of
Gases
The Nature and Law of
Gases
Boyle’s law
P1V1 = P2V2 (temperature constant)
Charles’ law
V1/V2 = T1/T2 (pressure constant)
P1/P2 = T1/T2 (volume constant)
General gas law
P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2
Sound
The Nature of Sound
That which can be heard
A vibration of a substance (solid, liquid, or gas)
Exist even though there may be no human ear in the
vicinity to hear
Cannot travel in a vacuum
Vibration
A rhythmic motion back and forth across a position of
equilibrium
Period
Time required for the motion to complete one cycle
Frequency
Number of complete cycles occurring per second
Amplitude
Distance from the midpoint of the swing to maximum point
Displacement
Distance form midpoint to vibrating point at any particular
time
Vibration
Figure 1-26 Demonstration of harmonic motion
Vibration
Figure 1-27 Sound Wavelength
Wave Motion
Transverse waves
Back and forth, sideways, or up and down
Surface waves on water
Compressional wave
A series of alternately compressed and expanded
Sound
Harmonic motion
Wave Motion
Figure 1-28 Wave motion in a liquid
Wave Motion
Figure 1-29 Wave motion in a coiled spring
Wave Motion
Figure 1-30 Vibratory motion
Sound of Transmission
Transmitting medium
Air
A series of expansions and compressions in the
molecules of air
Similar nature in liquid or solid
Velocity of sound
Density of substance
Elasticity of substance
Sound Transmission
Table 1-6 Speed of sound in Various Substances
Measurement of Sound
Intensity
The intensity of sound is defined in terms of the
energy being carried by the sound wave
Volume (the loudness)
The amplitude of the sound waves
Decibel (dB)
120 dB (threshold pain)
Measurement of Sound Intensity
Table 1-7 Intensity Levels of Sounds
Resonance
Two objects have the same natural vibrational
frequency
Matching the vibration of the aircraft structure with
the engine vibration
Vibration testing
Doppler Effect
The source of a sound wave changes its direction
with respect to the hearer
Electronic signals are transmitted by means of waves
Navigation radar equipment
Doppler Effect
Figure 1-31 The Doppler effect