PRESIDIUM MODEL UN CONFERENCE 2017

INTERNATIONAL PRESS (IP)

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International Press
Corps Study Guide for
Presidium MUN 2017

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Dear International Press Corps,

It is with immense pride that I welcome you at the International Press Corps
(IPC) at Presidium MUN 2017.

We are sure that it is in your inherent knowledge, that journalism is one of the
strongest and the most impactful tenet of the contemporary world. Establishment
of public opinion as an authoritative critique and its aftermath has created a
dimension that has changed the course of history as we know it.

The vision here is to create a journal which echoes the power of press or
journalism. Articles which give the readers food for thought combined with well
placed satire or humour. An ideal reporter or an interjector during simulations of
international organizations and think tanks requires more research and presence
of mind than an international delegate. The entire image of a press delegation
without adequate research, is flawed. The very basic roots that this draft is based
on are research and a strong value of transforming the role of press. This
approach is referred to as an idealistic approach to journalism.

This will be an experience that you will cherish and it shall be etched in your
memory forever. There will be deadlines, work, tempers flared and a lot of
running around, but there will also be memories you create and the people you
meet, and of course, the knowledge you gain. Just remember, that it is persons
who make a team and not a team who makes the persons

This is a guide that will take you step by step in the realm of what are you going to
face in the four days of conference. This guide shall take you through the notion
and the methodology you will follow at Presidium MUN 2017 and together we can
create what we aspire!

May the force be with you!

Regards,

Pallav Kumar Singh

+91-9958186381
pallav.singh2710@[Link]

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Overview
Editorial Policy
Role of International Press Corps
Reporting
Opinion Pieces
Interviews
Elements of Style
Research Methodologies
Correlation with Photographers
Submission
Code of Conduct
Issues to Stress on

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Overview

Presidium MUN 2017 is simulating Press Corps with an idealistic vision and it
would not be simulating any news agency but come out as an indigenous journal
that reflects the editorial policy of Reuters and Al-Jazeera

Contrary to popular belief, there is not much difference in their reporting style.
All three of them are objective and pursue a level of neutrality. The only
difference that therein lies is the issues that they pick up. A detailed presentation
will be sent to you to propagate this theory and thought once all reporters are on
board.

The reporter will not merely report the council proceedings but also draw upon
the debate and analyze it. The essence of this news letter will be the political
analytical articles and debate drawings and interviews. We are looking at a
simulation of press corps which will be deliberative and well researched. It will be
filled with articles, editorials, Op-eds, Interviews, press conferences and subtle
form of intelligent humour.

You shall be familiarized with all these forms in one-by-one manner through this
guide.

ROLE OF PRESS CORPS AT Presidium MUN 2017

1. News Articles: The bulk of writing for the newsletter will consist of news
reporting, drawing upon debates, caucuses, resolutions, press releases and
interviews observed by the Reporters in the various Presidium MUN council
simulations. Depending on the availability of personnel, individual Reporters will
be assigned a “beat” of one or more committee/council simulations on which to
report, and may be assigned to conduct interviews during tea or lunch.

2. Editorials and Op-Eds: Editors and Directors of International Press may

choose to write Editorials on one or more of the debates on-going in the council.
Reporters may write Op-Eds for the newsletter after they have finished reporting
from the council, which may include their take on the agenda. Editorials or Op-
Eds do not have to contain any information on what happened in the
council/committee but concerns what the author thinks of the discussion at
hand. Editorials and Op-Eds have to be very high in standards of writing and
expression, and publication shall be at the subject of discretion of the Editorial
Board. In clear words, Editorials and Op-Eds differ from News articles in matters
of substance than events.

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3. Interviews: An interview is an opportunity of a personal interaction with a

person. It is an effective tool which should be utilized to bring out those aspects
which will not come in light otherwise in the course of the MUN. Interviews can
be done with the Executive Board members, delegates, secretariat and various
organizing committees. However, intelligent and conference pertaining issues are
to be considered.

4. Press Conference: The basic ingredient of the press conference is research.

You will allowed to ask 4-5 delegates of your councils and polite subsidiary
questions on probably the second or the third day of the conference, with the
prior permission of your Executive Board. You will be trained and guided by your
editor in chiefs for the press conference in the briefing. However, the opportunity
to conduct a press conference will be subjected to the time constraints that the
organizers have. Their permission and word will be deemed final.

Reporting
One of the most important tasks that journalists in the International Press
perform is formal reportage. They are primarily required to cover the event and
describe it to others in the most structured and concise way possible, and for this
purpose, they take notes and submit articles that contain the major
happenings/discussions in their respective councils. A good news report ought to
be articulate, succinct, neutral in tone and opinion, and be able to convey the
essence of a discussion/occurrence to someone who has not personally witnessed
it.
The key points to remember while writing are:
1) Keep your article brief and to-the-point. Council reports should ideally not
exceed 300-350 words.
2) Your article must not betray your personal perspective on the agenda. It
is very important to maintain objectivity and report the
incidents/conversations with as much neutrality and accuracy as possible.
This is a key difference between reporting and writing an Op-Ed article.
For this purpose, you are advised to be meticulous with your notes and
include quotes as much as possible, with due credit to the speaker. The
correct format and punctuation required for quoting is, for example:

"Those people are criminals who want to take over the city and kill the
community," said Sheikh Rafe'a Abdulkareem Albu Fahad, who is leading
the tribal fight against al-Qaeda in Ramadi.

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3) Your article must be coherent and well-structured. It ought to contain an

identifiable opening, two descriptive paragraphs, and a conclusion. You
must give your article a relevant headline and a by-line
containing “By (Your Name)”. Lack of the same may result in
negative marking.
Every line mentioned in the article ought to be pertinent to the idea you
are attempting to convey. (For further elaboration, read next
section on Beat)
4) Grammar and punctuation must not be compromised with. A spell-check
of the final draft is essential.

Beat Reporting
Considering that any Model United Nations conference has multiple discussions
in every session, it is virtually impossible to report every Caucus/Point in your
article. Therefore, your focus should not be on putting in as much information
as you can, but to put in only the relevant information. The best way to include
the most pertinent information in your article is to recognise a ‘beat’ and write a
beat-based article.
A beat-based article is essentially a specialized article wherein the
journalist presents an in-depth coverage of a particular issue,
situation, institution, or likewise, and which also involves
amassment of more knowledge than a traditional news report. The
beat of such an article, then, is a central idea around which the
contents of the article are formed. Ideally, it is the core concern or
subject and should pertain to every single line used in the forming of
the article.
You shall be able to identify the beat of the day’s discussion only through careful
observation and attention, so be sure you are present, mentally and physically,
during all formal sessions. All the previously mentioned rules of reporting apply
to beat reporting as well. Include as many factual details and quotes as possible,
within the context of the article, as facts help readers understand your work
better.
Beat Capturing Exercises:-
1.) Consider this excerpt:- President Barack Obama and Afghan President
Hamid Karzai agreed on Friday to speed up the handover of combat
operations in Afghanistan to Afghan forces, raising the prospect of an
accelerated U.S. withdrawal from the country and underscoring Obama's
determination to wind down a long, unpopular [Link] a
narrowing of differences, Karzai appeared to give ground in talks at

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the White House on U.S. demands for immunity from prosecution for any
American troops who stay in Afghanistan beyond 2017, a concession that
could allow Obama to keep at least a small residual force there.

Now you have three options for the beat:-

 Obama Karzai accelerate the end of US combat role in Afghanistan
 USA set to withdraw troops from Afghanistan
 Afghanistan welcomes US peace talks

 The correct Answer:- Obama Karzai accelerate the end of US

combat role in Afghanistan (Because it conveys the essence of the
press statement)

2.) We praise the courage of the Republic of South Sudan's leadership

in taking this decision. As I said in Juba yesterday, the interests of their
people were at stake. The oil impasse has lasted more than six months.
Now was the time to bring this impasse to a close, for the good of the
people of South Sudan and their aspirations for a better future in the face
of on-going challenges. South Sudan's leaders have risen to the occasion.
They tabled a bold comprehensive proposal at this latest round of talks,
and an agreement was hammered out with the strong assistance of the
African Union High Level Implementation Panel for Sudan (AUHIP). The
future of South Sudan is now brighter.

Try figuring it out yourself.

Examples of Beat Reporting

[Link]
[Link]
significant-trees-dead-wood-proposal
[Link]
[Link]
After you have seen the best of beat reporting, please visit [Link]
and read the daily reports. Familiarize yourself with the reporting style.

All of the articles given above talk about a specific

incident/development/debate, and contain facts, figures and quotes to

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substantiate their subject. If you observe carefully, the contents of each article
point to one core idea being communicated to the reader.

Opinion Pieces
Op-Ed in very simple terms refers to an opinionated article. It is often
understood to be an abbreviation for opinion editorials or an abbreviation for
‘opposite to the editorial’ page. Different textbooks would claim either to be the
more authoritative definition but ‘opposite to the editorial page’ is a more
commonly found definition, particularly in conventional books.
There are different styles of writing op-eds as different op-eds serve different
functions. There are really no specific types of op-eds but familiarizing oneself
with the variety of writing styles would help one write interesting and informative
op-eds.
The first step to writing any op-ed is research. Research does not just include
finding or verifying facts but also examining different perspectives on an issue.
For instance if I am an Indian writer writing an op-ed on the withdrawal of US
troops from Afghanistan, it is imperative for me to read publications from
Pakistan, India and US , at the very least to be able to comment on the issue. At
the end of the day, an op-ed is very simply a comment but cannot be a senseless
one.
Some of the functions that op-eds perform include, but are not restricted to:
- Debating a proposition and/or providing rebuttals
- Providing background and/or historical perspective on a contemporary
issue
- Highlighting aspects/dimensions that are hitherto not covered by ‘news
pieces’
- Provide suggestions and/or map out a plan of action
- Explain an idea, concept in immense detail
- Share expertise

An op-ed is almost like an essay though an essay may demand a holistic

perspective or an all-round approach- something that is not mandatory for an op-
ed. However, an op-ed differs from an editorial in the sense that an op-ed reflects
an individual’s views while an editorial reflect a newspaper’s policy. Hence, the
moral onus on an editorial is much higher and an editorial cannot take sides on
an issue openly. It is supposed to be a presentation of views, yet abstain from
being subjective. For instance, an editorial on US withdrawal from Afghanistan
can list the repercussions of this move for the two countries in terms of

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possibilities but an editorial cannot take a moral high ground supporting a

particular side in order to maintain neutrality and objectivity.

Things to keep in mind while writing an op-ed:

As much as an op-ed is an opinion and doesn’t require one to state facts, it should
still be based on facts, verified accurate facts. I need not mention the date of US
troops’ withdrawal but if I am examining the immediate aftermath of this move,
not knowing the right date defeats the entire purpose of my oped.
Again, since an op-ed is not factual, it doesn’t mean one can beat around the bush
easily. An op-ed is a fairly long piece of writing and hence, it is important to
structure it in a way that the audience doesn’t lose interest.
Even though the primary purpose of an op-ed is to express opinion, it cannot
express senseless arguments. An informed opinion should find its way to the
audience’s mind after reading the op-ed. There is a possibility that readers may
disagree with your stance but nothing is worse than arguments that can’t be
comprehended or are too complicated. If you are attempting to express a
complicated argument, try to break it down into simple concepts and use easy
language to express it.
The way one structures an argument also makes a difference to how it is
comprehended. In a conventional structure, it is preferable to focus on a single
point and arrange arguments in such a way that they build up to the concluding,
final point which is the key emphasis of the article. However, a lot of writers
prefer to write op-eds that focus on more than one aspect and is multi-
dimensional in its analysis of the issue at hand. What is important to always
remember is that too many points can lead to confusion and one should use the
given word limit as a yardstick to determine how many aspects could be covered.
The key defining feature of an op-ed is ANALYSIS. What comprises analysis?
Analysis refers to examining an argument against different perspectives and
paradigms. The more perspectives one would engage with, the more holistic
analysis will one generate. One can derive new and interesting arguments by
reading different publications with different ideologies. Further, a smart
journalist/op-ed writer should be able to read between the lines as well.
What makes an argument? An argument should begin with a statement of the
proposition followed by the reasoning and if possible, concluded with an
example. For example, if I am trying to state that popular culture also shapes
rape culture, then my argument should not just state this fact, it should also
explain how that happens. When arguments are not backed with reasoning, they
become assertions and assertions make an op-ed shallow.

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Different styles of writing an op-ed

The following section includes some op-eds. These are not necessarily the most
amazing pieces of writing but have been included just to illustrate the different
styles. More than their individual merit, it would help if you compare these with
each other.
Example 1 : [Link]
reconsider-eid-slaughter/
Now this article serves the sole function of providing rebuttals to another article.
It is structured in the same fashion as the article it is trying to demolish.
Pros: Very structured, argument-by-argument analysis is presented, multiple
points lead to a final conclusion
Cons: Since it is a response, one would want to read the original article to get a
complete understanding of the issue.
Example 2:
[Link]
feminism_b_4191116.html
It is difficult to pinpoint pluses and minuses because it may work for some and
not for others. But some key features are it deals with too many issues in the
same article. One can almost write an individual piece on every argument stated.
The last para is a brilliant summary for someone who gets caught in the larger
web of arguments.
Example 3:
[Link]
still-need-cambridge-union-society_b_2858567.html

Some of the best op-eds are written when they attempt to answer a
why/what/how question. As a writer, coming up with a question why/what/how
question helps to gain clarity and sort otherwise muddled thoughts.
Example 4:
[Link]
This (wannabe) op-ed is trying to deal with an extremely important and valid
thought. But like AAP, the article too seems to have missed the opportunity.
Apart from reeking with assertions, there is absolutely no substantiation.
Extremely poor read. No arguments are examined, no hypothesis or if-then-else
analysis. This topic easily be expanded into an excellent op-ed by creating
linkages which are currently missing in this piece.
Example 5:

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[Link]
city/[Link]
Structurally, this piece goes back and forth from facts to opinion and vice versa. It
contains background information about the people. The facts are provided to us
as a build up to the arguments. This op-ed can almost be mapped
diagrammatically as it attempts to build linkages- like understanding a rapist and
his circumstances in the context of the city and its geography, just an example of
the several intricate links that the author attempts to build.
Example 6:
[Link]
[Link]
This piece is interesting because of its conclusion. Compare this conclusion with
that of example 2. While one is a summary, the other states the framework within
which one is expected to examine these arguments.
Some more examples:
[Link]
hai/1108319/0
[Link]
wi_b_3306168.html
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

At the end of the day, there isn’t really a standard way of writing op-eds.
However, some strategies and structures make some articles more readable than
others. And the only way to learn those is by reading and analysing as many op-
eds as possible.

Interviews

Conducting interviews for news stories is an important skill for any journalist. A
“source” – anyone a journalist interviews - can provide the following elements
that are vital to any news story:

 basic factual information

 perspective and context on the topic being discussed
 direct quotes
 ideas on how to approach the story

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 names and contact information of other people to interview

Interviews in MUNs

The constant debating may provide with little opportunities of you getting ample
time for a detailed interview. The ideal interview times are refreshment breaks
and through chits. Chits are one tool which we encourage you to use for
substantive purpose only. You can bring out the relevant points through chits
and you can take permission for a prior interview through them.

Preparing for the Interview:

Research – Do as much research as you can. If you’re going to interview, say,

a head of state, read up on the subject and make sure you understand basic
terms such as “fiscal policy.” A well-prepared reporter inspires confidence in
the person being interviewed.

Developing Questions – Once you’ve thoroughly researched your topic,

prepare a list of questions to ask. That will help you remember all the points
you want to cover once the interview is underway.

Keys to a Successful Interview

Establish a Rapport – When starting out, don’t abruptly launch into your
questions. Chitchat a little with your source. Compliment them on their office,
or comment on the weather. This puts your source at ease.

Keep it Natural – An interview can be an uncomfortable experience, so keep

things natural and conversational. Instead of mechanically reading out your
list of questions, weave your queries naturally into the flow of the conversation.

Also, maintain eye contact as much as possible. Nothing is more unnerving to a

source then a reporter who never looks up from their notebook.

Be Open – Don’t be so focused on getting through your list of questions that

you miss something interesting.

For instance, if you’re interviewing the cardiologist and she mentions a new
heart-health study that’s coming out, ask her about it. This may take your

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interview in an unexpected direction – but if it leads to something interesting,

so what?

Maintain Control – Be open, yes, but don’t waste your time. If your source
starts to ramble on about things that are clearly of no use to you, don’t be
afraid to gently – but firmly – steer the conversation back to the topic at hand.

Wrapping Up – At the end of the interview, ask your source if there’s

anything they want to discuss that you hadn’t asked about. Double-check the
meanings of any terms or words they used that you’re unsure about. And
always ask if there are other people they recommend that you speak with.

A Note about Note-taking – Beginning reporters often freak out when they
realize they can’t possibly write down everything the source is saying, word-
for-word. Don’t sweat it. Experienced reporters learn to take down just the
interesting stuff they know they’ll use, and ignore the stuff they won’t. This
takes some practice, but the more interviews you do, the easier it gets.

Taping – Recording an interview is fine, and generally it's best to get the
permission of the person you're recording. Taping can be helpful if you’re
doing a long interview that you’ll have time to listen to and type out later.

Instead of putting a lot on your plate, I will just request you to read only the
following interview.
[Link]

[Link]/interviews

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Elements of style

Abbreviations. No periods should be used separating letters of an abbreviated

organization or agency. Only standard acronyms and approved abbreviations
should be used. If questions arise see the Editor or Publisher. Some example
abbreviations include: Presidium MUN, CS, DS, ECOSOC, FAO, GA, HG, HSC,
ICJ, IPD, NATO, UK, UN, US, USSR.

Apostrophes. This punctuation mark will only be used to indicate possessive

nouns or secondary quotations. Apostrophes are never used to indicate
pluralisation.

Currency. Dollar values are displayed with the appropriate currency symbol.
Values on orders at or greater than one million are summarized, for example
$54,000, $135,000 or $214 million. Indian Rupees shall be written as INR and
not Rs.

Capitalization. Nowhere shall anything but Abbreviations be capitalized.

Boldface text. There is no situation in which boldface should be used in an

article. Headlines and article titles may be bolded by the Publisher.

Books and print sources. Names of all books and print sources should be
capitalized and italicized, such as the the newsletter, New York Times and The
Economist.

Developing nations. Within the international community, the use of the term
“third world” is actively discouraged. No nation will be referred to as “Third
World.‟
Diplomatic courtesy. While Reporters are encouraged to faithfully report on
the statements of representatives within each Presidium MUN simulation, no
quotation should violate the dictates of diplomatic courtesy. All articles,
editorials, letters, press releases and personals to be included in the newsletter
will be carefully edited to ensure that all content remains courteous to all
participants at Presidium MUN. If a Reporter feels that a quotation by a
representative is discourteous, the representative should be encouraged to
rephrase the statement in a more courteous fashion or risk having it omitted
from the Reporter’s article.

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Hyphenation. Hyphens should only be applied according to American English

grammar. If questions arise, consult the Editors. Examples of typically
hyphenated prefixes include non-, sub- and ex-. Some compound words are
hyphenated as well, such as socio-political.

Member States. In print, references to United Nations "Member States" should

be initially capitalized.

Names. Reporters should never guess the spelling of a person’s name to be

reported. Verbal verification is mandatory on all named sources. Also note that
all participants at Presidium MUN wear credentials with their names
prominently displayed. Naturally, all proper names are capitalized.

National references. When referring to any UN Member State or Observer,

standard UN country names should be used. These names match those with
which each nation signed the UN Charter. For example, the People’s Republic of
China should always be referred to as “China.” Additionally, some national names
are longer than those commonly used. For example, Libya is recognized at the
UN as “Libyan Arab Jamahiriya.”

Numerals. Any numeral ten or less should be spelled out in English. Numerals
over ten are reported using standard Arabic numerals, such as 2001. Numerals
with five or more digits should include commas, such as 1,345,000. Fractions and
decimal numbers should be reported as decimal numerals or percentages, such as
0.5 or 50% (rather than “one half” or “1/2”). Roman numerals are used only when
referring to a source which was originally designated using Roman numerals,
such as Chapter VII of the UN Charter (articles of the UN Charter are written as
“Article 7”). Ordinal numerals are spelled out within the text of an article, such as
the First Committee of the General Assembly. In article headings or titles, the
Publisher may choose to use ordinal abbreviations, such as 1st Committee.

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Percentages. Percent symbols will be used to report percentages, for example

35.8%.

Quotation marks. As per standard English grammar, punctuation at the

conclusion of quotation must always be included inside the closing quotation
mark.

Quotations. All quoted statements within articles should be incorporated

grammatically into the sentence being written. Additional capitalizations should
be avoided. If only part of a sentence is being used in a quotation, an ellipsis
(i.e.:...) should be used to indicate the omitted portions of the statement. If the
ellipsis comes at the end of a sentence, it should have a period at the end as well
within the quotation marks (....”) to indicate the conclusion of a sentence. If,
within a quotation, the speaker uses an abbreviation or reference which would be
unclear to the reader, the Reporter may interject a clarification within brackets
(i.e.:[...]). This indicates that the bracketed information is not a direct quotation;
rather it is a clarification on the part of the author. As an illustration of these
rules, consider the following example. Amb. Kamal explained that “...while the
matters are being studied by the UN, there is a commitment by the UN, such as
the UNV [United Nations Volunteers], to take part in conflict zones.

Spacing. One space is used to separate words, as well as following commas,

semicolons, colons and periods. Since the The newsletter is published in a
variable width font, two spaces between sentences will not be necessary.

Spelling. Reporters should be sure to spell check all articles before the editorial
deadline. This will greatly assist the Editor.

Titles. The categories of title to be used include:

• Standard professional titles: Periods will be used on abbreviated titles, such as
Mr., Ms., Amb., Dr., Pres.

• UN titles: These titles will not be abbreviated. UN and Presidium MUN official
titles include
Secretary-General, Under-Secretary-General, Director-General, Assistant
Secretary-General, Deputy Secretary-General. Secretary-General shall never
be abbreviated as Sec Gen.

Research Methodology:-

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The confines of an in-house conference limit us to what we want to call

investigative journalism but your preparations will be severe. You can use the
following guidelines for effective research. You must be adequately prepared to
understand the debate.
 Go through the backgrounds for basic understanding of the agenda and
then the documents and links it mentions. The background guide can be
obtained from the website of the conference.
 Read about the agenda and various perspectives on it. Aid and form an
opinion.
 Understanding the legal, social, cultural and economical implications of
the debate.
 Read about the foreign policy and agenda perspective of nations that you
might think will majorly impact the debate.
 Access the quality of research required through [Link] and see
how the research and content is balanced.

Submission

Deadlines:- Following deadlines is one of the most important parts of this press.
Understand that you not following deadlines will impact a chain of events causing
much trouble. You will be made aware of the deadlines in your briefing.

Format:- your articles and opinion pieces will be named in the following
manner. The name of your article and then your name separated by a hyphon.

Eg:- Supposedly your article is a beat reporting of “India denies signing nuclear
deal” then it shall be renamed as In”diadeniesssigningnucleardeal-Pallav”

It shall be followed similarly with the opinion pieces such as

“AnopenletterfromNSAtoIndia-Pallav”

In interviews, you shall write the designation of the person and council and then
your name for submission. But your article however will have the headline of the
most important quote according to you.

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Eg: File submission name- “Interview with Iran(HRC)-Pallav” but my head line
might be “We believe in capitol punishment”

Pendrive- All your submissions must be done through individual pen drives
which will suitably be named by your name.

You will not be allowed to edit your articles after your submission and you will be
evaluated on what you submit.

Correlation with photographers-

The role of photographers will be highly well defined in this MUN and so will be
their substantive output. They will receive an equally detailed guide too from
their head. With your beat based articles you will submit a photograph depicting
your understanding. It will be a part of your job to make sure you get such a
picture clicked. Suppose, your beat is on a Iran denying allegations of procuring
nuclear weapons then submit it with an appropriate photograph. You will be
evaluated on the kind of photograph you submit. It will be named the same as
your article with the prefix image attached to it.

In case of opinion pieces, you may submit a picture from internet or you can
create an image with the help of your photographer. Creating images will be
explained to you in the briefing. You should have sound justifications supporting
your choice of the photo.
The font shall be size 12 Times New Roman.

Code of conduct and personal responsibilities:-

I am sure you all are aware of the dress code being followed at these conferences.
The dress code for international press will be Indian/Western formals. Wearing
jeans, casual shoes will be not allowed and may result in your disqualification.
Diplomatic courtesy should be followed at all times. Addressing people with
courtesy will be encouraged. Derogatory remarks to conference staff, secretariat,
delegates or any members of the conference will not be tolerated.

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Please make sure you are self dependent at the time of conference. Keep your
laptops and cameras charged. Make sure you do not disturb the conference
participants. You will be provided with the kits.
Hope it is a fruitful experience for you in the council.
=======================================================

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