PreCalculus: Rational Functions

Day Topics HW Grade

1 Domain and vertical asymptotes I HW RF – 1

2 Domain and vertical asymptotes II HW RF – 2
3 End behavior: Horizontal asymptotes HW RF – 3
4 End behavior: Slant asymptotes; other HW RF – 4
5 Graphing practice HW RF – 5
6 Applications of rational functions HW RF – 6
7 Review HW RF – Review
8 **TEST**
 PreCalculus HW RF – 1

1. Let A be a positive number. Without using a calculator, sketch rough graphs of the following.
A -A A -A
a. f ( x ) = b. f ( x ) = c. f ( x ) = d. f ( x ) =
( x - 3) ( x - 3)
2 2
x-3 x-3
( x - a)
m

2. Let m and n be positive integers. There are two possible behaviors of the function f ( x) = near
( x - a)
n

x = a. It will have either a vertical asymptote or a removable discontinuity (a “hole in the graph”). If it has
a removable discontinuity, the discontinuity may either be on or not on the x-axis. Review examples f, g and
h on the second page of notes. Then match parts a – c with choices (1) – (3) below.
a. m < n (1) Vertical asymptote
b. m = n (2) Removable discontinuity on the x-axis.
c. m > n (3) Removable discontinuity not on the –axis.

3. Match of the following functions in a – e with its behavior at x = a as described in (1) – (5).
x 2 + b2
a. f ( x ) = (1) Zero
x-a
x-a
b. f ( x ) = 2 (2) Odd vertical asymptote
x + b2

c. f ( x ) =
( x2 + b2 ) ( x - a )
(3) Even vertical asymptote
( x - a)
(x 2
+ b2 ) ( x - a )
d. f ( x ) = (4) Removable discontinuity on the x-axis
( x - a)
2

e. f ( x) =
( x2 + b2 ) ( x - a )
2

(5) Removable discontinuity not on the x-axis

( x - a)
18
4. Let f ( x ) = .
( x + 2 ) ( x - 3)
2

a. Where does f have vertical asymptotes. Classify each as even or odd.

b. What is the y-intercept of f?
c. Where does f have a zero?
d. Evaluate lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ) .
x �� x � -�

e. Use the information from parts a – d above to sketch a graph of the function without using your
calculator.

5. Let f ( x ) = (
x - 1) ( x - 4 )
2

.
x2 - 4
a. Where does f have vertical asymptotes. Classify each as even or odd.
b. What is the y-intercept of f?
c. Where does f have zeros? Tell whether the multiplicity of each is even or odd.
d. To evaluate lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ) , you need only consider the highest degree term in each of the
x �� x � -�

numerator and denominator. Find both limits.

e. Use the information from parts a – d above to sketch a graph of the function without using your
calculator.
 PreCalculus HW RF – 2

For 1 – 3, sketch a graph of each function without using your graphing calculator (check your graph with your
calculator after you have drawn it). Your graph should clearly show the y – intercept (if any), all real roots, all
vertical asymptotes, and removable discontinuities (if any). (Do not worry about the “tails” of the graphs – what
happens for very large positive or negative values of x. We will cover that next class.)

25( x - 1)( x + 2) x2 - 6 x + 8
1. f ( x) = 2. f ( x) =
( x - 1)( x - 2)( x + 5) 2 x 3 - 2 x 2 - 9 x + 18

( x + 1) ( x - 2 )
2
x3 - 3x 2 + 4
3. f ( x) = 4 =
x - 10 x + 32 x - 32 x x ( x - 2 ) ( x - 4 ) 2
3 2

4 Construct a single rational function, f ( x) , that fits all of the following criteria:
 f ( x) has an odd vertical asymptote at x = 2
 f ( x) has an even vertical asymptote at x = –3
 f ( x) has a removable discontinuity at x = 4
 f ( x) has a root at x = 3
 f ( x) has a y-intercept of +4
(This assignment is continued on the next page.)
( x - a) ( x - c) ( x - d ) ( x - e)
2

5. Consider the function f ( x ) = where a, b, c, d and e are all distinct real

( x - b) ( x - c) ( x - d ) ( x - e)
2

numbers. Tell whether f should have a root, an asymptote or neither at each of the points a, b, c, d and e.

1
6. Consider the function f ( x ) = , where n is a positive integer.
xn
a. What happens to the value of f as x  ? What is the sign of f as x  ?
b. What happens to the value of f as x  –? What is the sign of f as x  –?
a
c. How will the answers to the above change if f is changed to f ( x ) = n where a is a constant.
x

PreCalculus HW RF – 3

You should try doing this assignment without using your graphing calculator.

1. Describe and sketch the end behavior of each of the following:

4x +1 4 - 9 x2 x3 + 4 x
a. f ( x) = b. f ( x) = c. f ( x) =
x2 - 4 3x 2 + 4 x2 - 9

2 x2 + 4 1 - 5x 1 - x + x 2 - x3
d. f ( x) = e. f ( x ) = f. f ( x ) =
( x - 2) 2 x3 - 8 x +1

For #2 and #3, sketch a graph of the function. Clearly show all intercepts and vertical asymptotes and indicate
the end behavior.
 2 x2 - 8x x 2 - x - 20
2. f ( x) = 2 3. f ( x ) = .
x -4 2x - 6

4. Write a rational function that has odd vertical asymptotes at x = ±1 and a horizontal asymptote of x = 2.

5. a. Write a rational function that has an even vertical asymptote at x = –2, has the x-axis as a horizontal
asymptote, has y-intercept 1 and has no roots.
b. Write a rational function that has an even vertical asymptote at x = –2, has the x-axis as a horizontal
asymptote, has y-intercept 1 and a root at x = 2.

6. a. Use long division (not your calculator!) to divide 130 by 7 and express the quotient as a mixed number.
Recall (from about 6th grade): what do you do with the remainder?
b. In your answer to part a, what mathematical operation is understood to be between the whole number
and the fraction?
 PreCalculus HW RF – 4

-2 x + 3
1. Let f be the function f ( x ) = 5 + .
x3 + 1
a. Describe the end behavior of f. Include an equation.
b. Is the positive (right) tail of f above or below its asymptote? The negative (left) tail?

2 x3 - 3x 2 - 4 x + 5
2. Let g be the function g ( x ) = .
x2 - 4
a. Express g as a sum of a polynomial and a proper rational function.
b. Describe the end behavior of g. Include an equation.
c. Is the positive (right) tail of g above or below its asymptote? The negative (left) tail?

3. Sketch a graph of each of the following. Write the equations of all asymptotes.

2 x 2 - 3x - 2 x3 + 1 - x3 + x 2 + 2 x
a. f ( x) = 2 b. f ( x ) = c. f ( x) =
( x - 1)
2
x + 4x + 4 x -1

4. A certain rational function has a vertical asymptote at x = 2 and a slant asymptote of y = x + 3. The roots of
the function are x = –2 and x = 1.
a. If the function is written in the form f(x) = p(x) + r(x), where p(x) is a polynomial and r(x) is a proper
rational function,
1) What is p(x)? 2) What is the simplest possible form of r(x)?
b. Find a rational function that meets the above criteria.
 PreCalculus HW RF – 5

1. Multiple choice. For each of the following, use the choices below to characterize the end behavior of each
function.
(A) Horizontal asymptote at y = 0. (B) Horizontal asymptote at y = k, k > 0.
(C) Horizontal asymptote at y = k, k < 0 (D) Slant asymptote with positive slope.
(E) Slant asymptote with negative slope. (F) Nonlinear end behavior.

Assume a, b and c are positive constants.

ax 2 + bx + c ax 2 - 4 1 - ax3
a. f ( x) = b. f ( x) = c. f ( x) =
x -3 bx 2 + 4 bx

f. f ( x) = (
ax 2 + 4 ax + 1 x + a)
2
d. f ( x) = e. f ( x) =
( x - 2) 2 x2 - 4 b2 - x2

2. Without using your calculator, sketch a graph of each of the following. Clearly identify all intercepts and
asymptotes. Check your graphs with your calculator.

c. y = x - 3x + 2 = (
5 x + 10 x - 1) ( x + 2 )
3 2

a. y = 2
x - 4x + 4 x +1 x +1

2x2 - 4x x2 ( x - 2) ( x - 4) 1 28 x 2 - 24 x - 64
b. y = 2 d. f ( x ) = = x-4+ 3
2 ( x + 2) ( x - 2) 2 x + 4 x 2 - 8 x - 16
2
x -9 2

3. In #2b above, one of the tails intersected the horizontal asymptote. Find the value of x where this occurred.

4. In general, if f(x) = l(x) + r(x) where l is a linear function (possibly constant) and r is a proper rational
function, then l(x) is the equation of the horizontal/slant asymptote of the function. How can we determine
whether the function intersects its asymptote and, if so, where?
 PreCalculus HW RF – 6

1. The DEC has introduced 50 deer into newly acquired state land. They predict the population of the herd will
grow according to the function

10(5 + 3t )
P (t ) = , t (years)  0
1 + 0.04t

a. Evaluate P(0). Does this make sense?

b. Find the predicted deer population after 5 years.
c. According to the model, how long does it take the population to reach 400?
d. What is the limiting size of the herd?

2. The total cost C of producing x widgets at the ACME Widget Company is C = 0.02x2 + 10x + 50.
a. Write a formula for the average cost per widget C as a function of x.
b. What is the domain of the function in part a?
c. Sketch the graph of the average cost function.
d. How many widgets should be produced to minimize the average cost?
e. Would producing the number of widgets found in part d maximize the company's profits?

3. Psychologists have developed mathematical models, called "learning curves," to predict performance of a
certain task as a function of the number of trials (amount of practice). Consider the learning curve given by

0.5 + 0.9(n - 1)
p ( n) = for n > 0,
1 + 0.9(n - 1)

where p is the percentage (as a decimal) of correct responses on the nth trial.

a. What is the predicted percentage of correct responses on the first trial?

b. How many trials are necessary before the percentage of correct responses exceeds 0.9?
c. What happens to p as n  ? Explain what this means in this problem.

4. A very rare, very contagious disease is spreading through the school. Students 4
who get it break out in purple spots and lose all their hair. Unless school is  t 
2 + 580  
canceled and everyone is allowed to go home, the disease will spread according  3.84 
to the equation at right where N is the number of students infected, t is time in N= 4
 t 
hours after the start of the epidemic (assumed to be 7:30 AM), 580 is the number 1+  
of students in the school (grades 7 – 12), and 3.84 is a parameter related to the  3.84 
rate at which the disease spreads.
a. How many people are initially infected?
b. If nothing is done to prevent the spread of infection, how many people are infected by the end of 4th
period (10:42 AM)?
c. At what time (clock time, please) will half the students be infected?
d. If the school day is 6 hours and 45 minutes long and the infection started at the beginning of the day,
what is your probability of not having the disease at the end of the day?
e. What is the horizontal asymptote of this function? What does it mean in the context of this problem?
f. Find the average rate of infection during fifth period (approximately t = 3.25 to t = 4.5).
g. What happens to the rate of infection as the day goes on? Explain why this should be so.
h. If the 3.84 is increased in both numerator and denominator, does the disease spread more rapidly or more
slowly? Justify your answer.
 Answers to selected problems
HW – 1
1a. When N = 0 b. When D = 0 c. No. n = D = 0 is still undefined, not 0.
2a. {x | x  , x  1}
1
b. ∞. When x > 1, x – 1 > 0 so fraction is positive. But as x  1+, x – 1  0+ and 1 divided by a very
x -1
1
small number is very large: loosely speaking + = �.
0
1 1
c. –∞. In this case, x – 1  0– (denominator is negative) so is negative: - = -�.
x -1 0
3a. {x | x  , x  –3}
b. ∞. c. ∞. Because denominator is squared, it will be positive for both cases.
4a. Even asymptote at x = a, odd asymptote at x = b.
b. k < 0 so graph will go down on both sides of asymptote.
c. k > 0; graph will go down on left side of asymptote, up on right side.
5a. {x | x  , x  2}
c. There is an odd vertical asymptote at x = 2. d. There is a “hole” in the graph at x = –2.
4
e. f s =
x-2
f. They are the same except at the point x = –2. fs has no “hole” there. f(–2) is undefined; fs(–2) = –1.
g. At x = –2, the factor (x + 2) in the numerator wants f to have a root there while the (x + 2) in the
denominator wants f to have a vertical asymptote there. f can’t do both. In this case, the two “cancel” each
other out, leaving just the “hole” in the graph where f is undefined. When the factors themselves are
canceled, the simplified function has been changed (at just that one point) to “remove” the hole in the graph.
At x = 2, there is no (x – 2) factor in the numerator to “cancel” the one in the denominator so f (and fs) has a
vertical asymptote there.
6a. Odd VA b. Root c. RD d. Odd VA (why isn’t it even?) e. RD (at y = 0)
7a. Only if 0 = m < n
b. When 0 < m ≤ n Rather than memorizing these, try to understand them.
c. When 0 ≤ n < m

HW – 2
1. 2. 3.

x = –5 x=2
x = –3 x=3 x=4
24 ( x - 3) ( x - 4 )
4. f ( x ) = 5. Root at x = a. Odd vertical asymptotes at x = b and x = d. Removable
( x + 3) ( x - 2 ) ( x - 4 )
2
discontinuities at x = c and x = d (the one at x = d is on the x-axis).

6a. lim f ( x ) = 0 ; f (x) > 0 b. xlim f ( x ) = 0; f(x) > 0 if n even, f(x) < 0 if n odd.
x �� � -�

c. The limits will still be 0 but the signs will change.

HW – 3
1a. Horizontal asymptote at y = 0. b. Horizontal asymptote at y = –3.
c. Slant asymptote with slope 1. d. Horizontal asymptote at y = 2.
 e. Horizontal asymptote at y = 0. f. Tails behave like downward parabola.
b. y = –3. Both tails above asymptote.
c. y = 1. Left tail below asymptote, right tail above.
d. y = 2. Left tail below asymptote, right tail above.
e. y = 0. Both tails below asymptote.
2. 3.
3.33 y=
2

y= –4 0 5
2
0 4
x=3
Note: The slant asymptote has slope 0.5
but it does not actually pass through the
x = –2 x=2 origin. That’s a problem for next class.
2 x2 4 -2 x + 4
4. f ( x) = 2 is one example 5a. f ( x) = b. f ( x) =
x -1 ( x + 2) 2 ( x + 2) 2

HW – 4
1a. Horizontal asymptote at y = 5. b. Both sides below.
4x - 7
2a. g ( x ) = 2 x - 3 + 2 b. Slant asymptote of y = 2x – 3 c. Right above ; left below.
x -4

3a. b.

y=x+2
y=
2

x = –2
x=1
4a. p(x) = x + 3
c. a
b. r ( x) = for some (non-zero) value of a
x-2
4 x2 + x - 2
y = –x2 + 2 c. f ( x ) = x + 3 + or f ( x ) =
x-2 x-2

x = –2 x=1

HW – 5
1a. (D) b. (B) c. (F) d. (B) e. (A) f. (C)
2a.
y = x2 – x – 2

x = –2 x = –1
3a. c.

b. d.

y=2

y =0.5x – 4

x = –3 x=3 x = –2

3. x = 4.5 4. Find the solutions, if any, to r(x) = 0

3. In #2b above, one of the tails intersected the horizontal asymptote. Find the value of x where this occurred.

4. In general, if f(x) = l(x) + r(x) where l is a linear function (possibly constant) and r is a proper rational
function, then l(x) is the equation of the horizontal/slant asymptote of the function. How can we determine
whether the function intersects its asymptote and, if so, where?

HW – 6
1a. 50 b. 167 c. 25 yrs d. 750
0.02 x + 10 x + 50
2
2a. C= b. Natural numbers, presumably c. 50 d. No
x
3a. 50% b. 6 c. p  1 (100%) “Practice makes perfect.”
4a. 2 b. 190 c. 11:20 d. 0.094 e. 580 (all the kids in the school)
f. 145.4 new cases/hour g. Increases, then decreases. h. More slowly.
 PreCalculus Review: Rational Functions

You do not need to write out the answers to questions 1 – 15. However, if you do not know the answer to any
of them, you may be unprepared for the test.

1. How do you find the y-intercept of a rational function?

2. What is the domain of a rational function?
3. Where will a rational function have a removable discontinuity?
For the remaining questions, assume the function has no common factors in the numerator and denominator.
4. Where are the roots of a rational function?
5. How do you know if a root has even or odd multiplicity? In terms of the graph, what is the difference?
6. Where are the vertical asymptotes of a rational function?
7. How do you tell if a vertical asymptote is even or odd? In terms of the graph, what is the difference?
8. Is it possible that a rational function could have a root and a vertical asymptote at the same x-value?
9. How do you quickly tell how the tails of a rational function will behave?
10. How do you know if a rational function has a horizontal asymptote? How do you find the equation of a
horizontal asymptote?
11. How do you know if a rational function has a slant asymptote? How do you find the equation of a slant
asymptote?
12. How do you tell if the tails of a rational function are above or below the horizontal or slant asymptote?
13. Can a rational function have more than one
a. vertical asymptote?
b. horizontal asymptote?
c. slant asymptote?
14. Can a rational function have both.
a. vertical and horizontal asymptotes?
b. vertical and slant asymptotes?
c. horizontal and slant asymptotes?
15. Can a rational function cross (continuously) a
a. vertical asymptote?
b. horizontal asymptote?
c. slant asymptote?

Now that you’re warmed up, do these on paper to hand in.

1. For each of the following functions, tell what happens at x = 4. The choices are
(A) f has a root of odd multiplicity (B) f has a root of even multiplicity
(C) f is continuous but does not have a root (D) f has a removable discontinuity
(E) f has an odd vertical asymptote (F) f has an even vertical asymptote.
5 ( x + 1) ( x - 4 ) 5 ( x + 1) ( x - 4 ) 5 ( x + 1) ( x - 4 )
2

a. ( )
f x = b. ( )
f x = c. f ( x ) =
( x + 3) ( x - 4 ) ( x + 3) ( x + 4 ) ( x + 3) ( x - 4 )
2 2 2

5 ( x + 1) ( x 2 - 4 ) 4 ( x + 1) ( x - 4 ) 4 ( x + 1) ( x + 4 )
d. f ( x ) = e. f ( x ) = f. f ( x ) =
( x + 3) ( x - 4 )
2 2
( x + 3) ( x - 4 )
2 3
( x + 3)
2
(x 3
- 64 )

2. Describe the behavior of the tails of each of the following rational functions.
4 2x + 4 x2 + 2x + 4 2x + 4
a. y = b. y = c. y = d. y =
( x - 3)
2
x-3 x-3 x -3

3. a. Write the equation of a rational function that has root even multiplicity at x = 1 and no other real roots,
an odd vertical asymptote at x = –2, and an even vertical asymptote at x = 3.
 b. Is it possible to write the equation of a rational function that satisfies the conditions in part a and also has
a y-intercept of 2? If so, write it.
c. Is it possible to write the equation of a rational function that satisfies the conditions in part a and also has
a horizontal asymptote of y = 2? If so, write it.
d. Is it possible to write the equation of a rational function that satisfies the conditions in part a and also has
a slant asymptote with slope 2? If so, write it.

x 4 - 4 x 3 + 3 x 2 x ( x - 1) ( x - 3)
2

4. The function f is defined by f ( x) = 3 = . Without using your calculator:

x - 3x 2 + 4 ( x - 2 ) ( x + 1)
2

a. Find the coordinates of all the intercepts of f

b. Find the equations of all vertical asymptotes of f and classify each as even or odd.
c. Write f as a sum of a polynomial function and a proper rational remainder.
d. Describe the behaviors of the tails of f. Be specific.
e. Sketch a reasonable graph of f.

3x ( x - a ) ( x - c )
2

5. Solve for x: > 0 where 0 < a < b < c < d

( x - b) ( x - d )
2 3

-9
6. The function f has equation f ( x ) = x 2 + 1 + .
x - 2x - 3
2

a. What is the y-intercept of f?

b. Where does f have vertical asymptotes?
c. If f is written as the ratio of two polynomials, what will be the leading term in the numerator?
d. At most, how many real roots can f have?
e. Write an equation representing the end
behavior of the graph of f. y = g(x)
f. Will the tails fo f be above or below y
the graph of the equation from part e?
How do you know?

7. The function f is given by

-3
f ( x) = g ( x) + where the function g
x-2
is sketched at right. Using your common
sense and all you have learned in this unit,
make a rough sketch of the function f on
the same graph as g and identify its
features of interest (intercepts and x
asymptotes) as accurately as possible.
Review Answers
1. Sub in x = 0 2. All real x for which denominator  0.
( x - a)
n

3. f will have a removable discontinuity at x = a if f contains where 0 < m ≤ n.

( x - a)
m

4. Where the numerator = 0 (remember, we are assuming denominator does not equal 0 at same x-value).
5. By its multiplicity (exponent). Odd roots, graph of f crosses x-axis; even roots, graph is tangent.
6. Where the denominator = 0. 7. By its multiplicity. Odd asymptotes, the two sides go in opposite directions
(one up, one down); even asymptotes the two sides go in the same direction.
8. No. 9. Look at the ratio of the leading terms.
a
a. f ( x ) � n  HA at y = 0 b. f ( x ) �a  HA at y = a
x
c. f ( x ) �ax  SA with slope ad. f ( x ) �ax , n > 1  nonlinear end behavior
n

10. See 9a and 9b above.

11. See 9c above, then use long division.
12. Use long division and consider the remainder for |x| >> 1. If r > 0, graph is above asymptote, if r < 0, graph
is below asymptote.
13. a. Yes b. No c. No (b and c: Don’t over-generalize. Other kinds of functions can.)
14. a. Yes b. Yes c. No (Again, don’t over-generalize.)
14. a. No b. Yes c. Yes
1. a. (D) b. (A) c. (D) d. (F) e. (F) f. (E)
2. a. HA at y = 0 b. HA at y = 2 c. SA, m = 1 (specifically, y = x + 5) d. HA at y = 0
( x - 1) 36 ( x - 1)
2 2

3. a. y = 2 is one example b. y = c. No
( x + 2 ) ( x - 3) ( x + 2 ) ( x - 3)
2

2 ( x - 1)
4

d. y = is one example.
( x + 2 ) ( x - 3)
2

4a. (0, 0); (1, 0); and (3, 0)

b. x = –1 (odd) and x = 2 (even) 7.
-4 x + 4
c. f ( x ) = x - 1 + 3
x - 3x 2 + 4
d. y = x – 1 is a slant asymptote. For |x| >> 1, f is
below the asymptote
e.

5. (0, a)  (d , ∞)
6a. 4 b. x = –1 and x = 3 c. x4 d. 4
e. y = x2 + 1 f. Both below.