Advancement in EEG Machine

Submitted by-Ravishu nagpal

Submitted to- Mukesh kumar

Reg-10809751
RN6802B53

Electroencephalograph The brain's electrical charge is maintained by billions

of neurons. Neurons are electrically charged (or
Electroencephalography (EEG) is the recording
"polarized") by membrane transport proteins that
of electrical activity along the scalp produced by the
pumpions across their membranes. When a neuron
firing of neurons within the brain. In clinical
receives a signal from its neighbor via an action
contexts, EEG refers to the recording of the brain's
potential, it responds by releasing ions into the space
spontaneous electrical activity over a short period of
outside the cell. Ions of like charge repel each other,
time, usually 20–40 minutes, as recorded from
and when many ions are pushed out of many neurons
multipleelectrodes placed on the scalp. In neurology,
at the same time, they can push their neighbors, who
the main diagnostic application of EEG is in the case
push their neighbors, and so on, in a wave. This
of epilepsy, as epileptic activity can create clear
process is known as volume conduction. When the
abnormalities on a standard EEG study. A secondary
wave of ions reaches the electrodes on the scalp, they
clinical use of EEG is in the diagnosis
can push or pull electrons on the metal on the
of coma, encephalopathies, and brain death. EEG
electrodes. Since metal conducts the push and pull of
used to be a first-line method for the diagnosis
electrons easily, the difference in push, or voltage,
of tumors, stroke and other focal brain disorders, but
between any two electrodes can be measured by a
this use has decreased with the advent of anatomical
voltmeter. Recording these voltages over time gives
imaging techniques such as MRI and CT.
us the EEG. 
Derivatives of the EEG technique include evoked
The electric potentials generated by single neurons
potentials (EP), which involves averaging the EEG
are far too small to be picked by EEG or MEG. EEG
activity time-locked to the presentation of a stimulus
activity therefore always reflects the summation of
of some sort (visual, somatosensory, or
the synchronous activity of thousands or millions of
auditory). Event-related potentials (ERPs) refer to
neurons that have similar spatial orientation. If the
averaged EEG responses that are time-locked to more
cells do not have similar spatial orientation, their ions
complex processing of stimuli; this technique is used
do not line up and create waves to be
in cognitive science, cognitive psychology,
detected. Pyramidal neurons of the cortex are thought
and psychophysiological research.
to produce most EEG signal because they are well-
Source of EEG actvity aligned and fire together. Because voltage fields fall
off with the square of the distance, activity from deep
sources is more difficult to detect than currents near Electrode locations and names are specified by
the skull. the International 10–20 systemfor most clinical and
Advancement research applications (except when high-density
arrays are used). This system ensures that the naming
Opportunities for advancement are good for of electrodes is consistent across laboratories. In most
registered EEG technologists. Those without clinical applications, 19 recording electrodes (plus
registration will find opportunities for advancement ground and system reference) are used. A smaller
severely limited. number of electrodes are typically used when
Usually, registered electroneurodiagnostic recording EEG from neonates. Additional electrodes
technologists are assigned to conduct more difficult can be added to the standard set-up when a clinical or
or specialized electroencephalograms. They also research application demands increased spatial
supervise other electroencephalographic resolution for a particular area of the brain. High-
technologists, arrange work schedules, and teach density arrays (typically via cap or net) can contain
techniques to new trainees. They may also establish up to 256 electrodes more-or-less evenly spaced
procedures, manage a laboratory, keep records, around the scalp.
schedule appointments, and order supplies. Each electrode is connected to one input of
EEG technologists may advance to chief a differential amplifier (one amplifier per pair of
electroencephalographic technologists and thus take electrodes); a common system reference electrode is
on even more responsibilities in laboratory connected to the other input of each differential
management and in teaching new personnel and amplifier. These amplifiers amplify the voltage
students. Chief electroencephalographic technologists between the active electrode and the reference
generally work under the direction of an (typically 1,000–100,000 times, or 60–100 dB of
electroencephalographer, neurologist, or voltage gain). In analog EEG, the signal is then
neurosurgeon. filtered (next paragraph), and the EEG signal is
output as the deflection of pens as paper passes
underneath. Most EEG systems these days, however,
Method are digital, and the amplified signal is digitized via
an analog-to-digital converter, after being passed
In conventional scalp EEG, the recording is obtained
through an anti-aliasing filter. Analog-to-digital
by placing electrodes on the scalp with a conductive
sampling typically occurs at 256–512 Hz in clinical
gel or paste, usually after preparing the scalp area by
scalp EEG; sampling rates of up to 20 kHz are used
light abrasion to reduce impedance due to dead skin
in some research applications.
cells. Many systems typically use electrodes, each of
which is attached to an individual wire. Some Interpreting the EEG
systems use caps or nets into which electrodes are
Techniques for interpretation of EEG by visual
embedded; this is particularly common when high-
inspection have changed little since the discovery of
density arrays of electrodes are needed.
EEG in the 1920s by Berger and its extension to
clinical issues in the 30s and 40s by Gibbs and sleep hours and be awakened at 4:00 a.m.
Lennox. Typically the EEG is screened for features
that stand out ( transient responses) like the spike or
spike and wave associated with epilepsy. Next, the Normal activity
frequency or spectral content of the remaining EEG The EEG is typically described in terms of (1) rhythmic
background is visually evaluated. There are four
broad spectral bands of clinical interest: delta (0-4 activity and (2) transients. The rhythmic activity is divided
Hz), theta (4-8 Hz), alpha (8-12 Hz), and beta (above into bands by frequency. To some degree, these
12 Hz). Not everyone agrees on the exact boundaries frequency bands are a matter of nomenclature (i.e., any
of these rhythms and many subdivide these bands,
rhythmic activity between 8–12 Hz can be described as
especially beta. Pathology typically increases slow
activity (delta, theta) and diminishes fast activity "alpha"), but these designations arose because rhythmic
(alpha, beta). Thus overlying a localized brain tumor activity within a certain frequency range was noted to have
one would expect increased slowing and decreased
a certain distribution over the scalp or a certain biological
fast activity. Similarly following a global brain insult
one might expect globally increased slowing and significance. Frequency bands are usually extracted using
decreased fast activity. However, there are many spectral methods (for instance Welch) as implemented for
exceptions to this oversimplified explanation. EEG instance in freely available EEG software such as 
interpretation requires considerable skill and often
years of clinical experience. The mere determination
of whether an EEG spectral band is normal,
increased, or decreased may require years of Wave patterns
experience. Some have likened EEG reading to the
grading of equine or canine conformation by judges
who have spent their careers learning what to look
for. EEG interpretation is as much an art as a science.

prepare for an EEG  Delta is the frequency range up to 4 Hz. It

tends to be the highest in amplitude and the
Most tests in the Clinical Neurophysiology slowest waves. It is seen normally in adults
Laboratory are scheduled for two hours. These
include EEG, brain stem auditory response, and in slow wave sleep. It is also seen normally in
visual evoked potentials. A prolonged EEG is babies. It may occur focally with subcortical
scheduled for approximately four hours, as are brain lesions and in general distribution with diffuse
electrical mapping (BEAM) studies.
lesions, metabolic encephalopathy hydrocephalus
Electromyograms (EMGs) take approximately one
hour. or deep midline lesions. It is usually most
prominent frontally in adults (e.g. FIRDA -
Patient preparation for EEGs is very important. In
Frontal Intermittent Rhythmic Delta) and
order for the technician to obtain readings during
awake, drowsy, and asleep periods, we ask that the posteriorly in children (e.g. OIRDA - Occipital
patient be sleep deprived the night prior to the test. Intermittent Rhythmic Delta).
Patients older than eight years should receive four
hours of sleep only, between midnight and 4:00 a.m.
Younger children should sleep one-half their normal
Theta is the frequency range from 4 Hz to 7 Hz.
Theta is seen normally in young children. It may be Beta is the frequency range from 12 Hz to about 30
seen in drowsiness or arousal in older children and Hz. It is seen usually on both sides in symmetrical
adults; it can also be seen in meditation. Excess theta distribution and is most evident frontally. Beta
for age represents abnormal activity. It can be seen as activity is closely linked to motor behavior and is
a focal disturbance in focal subcortical lesions; it can generally attenuated during active movements Low
be seen in generalized distribution in diffuse disorder amplitude beta with multiple and varying frequencies
or metabolic encephalopathy or deep midline is often associated with active, busy or anxious
disorders or some instances of hydrocephalus. On the thinking and active concentration. Rhythmic beta
contrary this range has been associated with reports with a dominant set of frequencies is associated with
of relaxed, meditative, and creative states. various pathologies and drug effects,
especially benzodiazepines. It may be absent or
reduced in areas of cortical damage. It is the
dominant rhythm in patients who are alert or anxious
or who have their eyes open.

Alpha is the frequency range from 8 Hz to 12

Hz. Hans Berger named the first rhythmic EEG
activity he saw, the "alpha wave. This was the
"posterior basic rhythm" (also called the "posterior
dominant rhythm" or the "posterior alpha rhythm"),
seen in the posterior regions of the head on both
sides, higher in amplitude on the dominant side. It
emerges with closing of the eyes and with relaxation,  Gamma is the frequency range approximately
and attenuates with eye opening or mental exertion. 30–100 Hz. Gamma rhythms are thought to
The posterior basic rhythm is actually slower than 8
represent binding of different populations of
Hz in young children (therefore technically in the
theta range).  neurons together into a network for the purpose of
In addition to the posterior basic rhythm, there are carrying out a certain cognitive or motor function 
other normal alpha rhythms such as the mu
rhythm (alpha activity in the  Mu ranges 8-13 Hz., and partly overlaps with
contralateral sensory and motor cortical areas that
emerges when the hands and arms are idle; and the other frequencies. It reflects the synchronous
"third rhythm" (alpha activity in the temporal or firing of motor neurons in rest state. Mu
frontal lobes). Alpha can be abnormal; for example, suppression is thought to reflect motor mirror
an EEG that has diffuse alpha occurring in coma and
is not responsive to external stimuli is referred to as neuron systems, because when an action is
"alpha coma". observed, the pattern extinguishes, possibly
because of the normal neuronal system and the
mirror neuron system "go out of sync", and
interfere with each other. 
"Ultra-slow" or "near-DC" activity is recorded using completely still, this corneo-retinal dipole does not
DC amplifiers in some research contexts. It is not affect EEG. However, blinks occur several times per
typically recorded in a clinical context because the minute, the eyes movements occur several times per
signal at these frequencies is susceptible to a number second. Eyelid movements, occurring mostly during
of artifacts. blinking or vertical eye movements, elicit a large
potential seen mostly in the difference between
Some features of the EEG are transient rather than
the Electrooculography (EOG) channels above and
rhythmic. Spikes and sharp waves may represent
below the eyes. An established explanation of this
seizure activity orinterictal activity in individuals
potential regards the eyelids as sliding electrodes that
with epilepsy or a predisposition toward epilepsy.
short-circuit the positively charged cornea to the
Other transient features are normal: vertex waves and
extra-ocular skin . Rotation of the eyeballs, and
sleep spindles are seen in normal sleep.
consequently of the corneo-retinal dipole, increases
the potential in electrodes towards which the eyes are
Artifacts rotated, and decrease the potentials in the opposing
electrodes. Eye movements called saccades also
1) Biological artifacts
generate transient electromyographic potentials,
Electrical signals detected along the scalp by an EEG, known as saccadic spike potentials (SPs) The
but that originate from non-cerebral origin are spectrum of these SPs overlaps the gamma-band
called artifacts. EEG data is almost always (see Gamma wave), and seriously confounds analysis
contaminated by such artifacts. The amplitude of of induced gamma-band responses requiring tailored
artifacts can be quite large relative to the size of artifact correction approaches[22]. Purposeful or
amplitude of the cortical signals of interest. This is reflexive eye blinking also
one of the reasons why it takes considerable generates electromyographic potentials, but more
experience to correctly interpret EEGs clinically. importantly there is reflexive movement of the
Some of the most common types of biological eyeball during blinking that gives a characteristic
artifacts include: artifactual appearance of the EEG (see Bell's
phenomenon).
 Eye-induced artifacts (includes eye blinks,
eye movements and extra-ocular muscle activity) Eyelid fluttering artifacts of a characteristic type were
previously called Kappa rhythm (or Kappa waves). It
 EKG (cardiac) artifacts
is usually seen in the prefrontal leads, that is, just
 EMG (muscle activation)-induced artifacts
over the eyes. Sometimes they are seen with mental
 Glossokinetic artifacts
activity. They are usually in the Theta (4–7 Hz) or
The most prominent eye-induced artifacts are caused Alpha (8–13 Hz) range. They were named because
by the potential difference between they were believed to originate from the brain. Later
the cornea and retina, which is quite large compared study revealed they were generated by rapid fluttering
to cerebral potentials. When the eyes and eyelids are of the eyelids, sometimes so minute that it was
difficult to see. They are in fact noise in the EEG drip; such devices can cause rhythmic, fast, low-
reading, and should not technically be called a voltage bursts, which may be confused for spikes.
rhythm or wave. Therefore, current usage in
electroencephalography refers to the phenomenon as
an eyelid fluttering artifact, rather than a Kappa
rhythm (or wave).

Some of these artifacts can be useful in various

applications. The EOG signals, for instance, can be
used to detect and track eye-movements, which are Artifact correction
very important in polysomnography, and is also in Recently, independent component analysis techniques
conventional EEG for assessing possible changes in have been used to correct or remove EEG
alertness, drowsiness or sleep. contaminates[25][26][27][28][29]. These techniques attempt
EKG artifacts are quite common and can be mistaken to "unmix" the EEG signals into some number of
for spike activity. Because of this, modern EEG underlying components. There are many source
acquisition commonly includes a one-channel EKG separation algorithms, often assuming various
from the extremities. This also allows the EEG to behaviors or natures of EEG. Regardless, the
identify cardiac arrhythmias that are an principle behind any particular method usually allow
important differential diagnosis to syncope or other "remixing" only those components that would result
episodic/attack disorders. in "clean" EEG by nullifying (zeroing) the weight of
unwanted components. Fully automated artifact
Glossokinetic artifacts are caused by the potential
rejection methods, which use ICA, have also been
difference between the base and the tip of the tongue.
developed.
Minor tongue movements can contaminate the EEG,
especially in parkinsonian and tremordisorders.

References
Environmental artifacts [Link]
In addition to artifacts generated by the body, many [Link]
artifacts originate from outside the body. Movement
[Link]
by the patient, or even just settling of the electrodes,
[Link]/tour/equipment/eeg_machine.htm
may cause electrode pops, spikes originating from a
momentary change in the impedance of a given [Link]
electrode. Poor grounding of the EEG electrodes can
cause significant 50 or 60 Hz artifact, depending on
the local power system'sfrequency. A third source of
possible interference can be the presence of an IV