High Rise Structures

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A high-rise is a tall building or structure

• —Buildings between 75 feet and 491 feet (23 m to 150 m) high are
considered high-rises. Buildings taller than 492 feet (150 m) are
classified as skyscrapers.
• The materials used for the structural system of high-rise buildings are
reinforced concrete and steel. Most American style skyscrapers have a
steel frame, while residential tower blocks are usually constructed out
of concrete.
• High-rise structures have certain features. The structures are high &
lead to higher vertical loads and higher lateral loads (mainly due to
wind stress) in comparison with lower buildings.

LOADS ON THE HIGHRISE STRUCTURES

Vertical Loads

• Dead loads arise from the weigh to the individual construction

elements and the finishing loads.
• Live loads are dependent on use depending on the number of stories;
live loads can be reduced for load transfer and the dimensioning of
vertical load-bearing elements.
— However, the reduction of the total live load on a construction element may
not exceed 40%.

Horizontal Loads

• Calculation of lateral loads should be carefully scrutinized.

• It generally arises from unexpected deflections, wind and earthquake
loads

Unexpected Deflections

• It arises from imprecision in the manufacture of construction elements

and larger components.
• Another cause is the uneven settling of the foundation at an in-
homogeneous site.
• Any deflection produces additional lateral forces.

Wind Loads

• High-rise buildings are susceptible to oscillation. It should not be

viewed as statically equivalent loads, but must be investigated under
the aspect of sway behaviour.
• Wind tunnel experiments are used to see the influence of the
building?s shape on the wind load.
• The ability of wind loads to bring a building to sway must also be kept
in mind. This oscillation leads both to a perceptible lateral acceleration
for occupants, and to a maximum lateral deflection.

Earthquake Loads

Definition

• Seismology (from the Greek seismos= earthquake and logos= word)

• scientific study of earthquakes
• propagation of elastic waves through the Earth.
• studies of earthquake effects, such as tsunamis
• diverse seismic sources such as volcanic, tectonic, oceanic,
atmospheric, and artificial processes such as explosions.

Earthquake

• Produce different types of seismic waves.

• It travel through rock, and provide an effective way to image both
sources and structures deep within the Earth.
Seismic Waves

There are three basic types of seismic waves in solids:

• P-waves
• \S-waves
• P-and/or S-waves.
waves.
• The two basic kinds of surface waves (Raleigh and Love).

Pressure waves,/Primary
Primary waves /P-waves,
/P

• Travel at the greatest velocity within solids and are therefore the first
waves to appear on a seismogram.
• P-waves
waves are fundamentally pressure disturbances that propagate
through a material by alternately compressing and expanding
(dilating)
ilating) the medium, where particle motion is parallel to the direction
of wave propagation.

Shear waves/secondary waves/S-waves,

waves/S

• Transverse waves that travel more slowly than P-waves

P waves and thus
appear later than P-waves
P on a seismogram.
• Particle motion is p
perpendicular
erpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
Shear waves do not exist in fluids such as air or water.

Type of High-Rise
Rise Structure

1. Braced Frame
2. Rigid Frame Structure
3. Infilled Frame Structure
4. Flat Plate and Flat Slab Structure
5. Shear wall structure
6. Coupled wall structure
 7. Wall-frame structure
8. Framed tube structure
9. The trussed tube
10. Tube in tube or Hull core structure
11. Bundled tube structure
12. Core and Outriggers system
13. Hybrid structure

Braced Frame

• Braced frames are cantilevered vertical trusses resisting laterals loads

primarily through the axial stiffness of the frame members.
• The effectiveness of the system, as characterized by a high ratio of
stiffness to material quantity, is recognized for multi-storey building in
the low to mid height range.
• Generally regarded as an exclusively steel system because the
diagonal are inevitably subjected to tension for or to the other
directions of lateral loading.
• Able to produce a laterally very stiff structure for a minimum of
additional material, makes it an economical structural form for any
height of buildings, up to the very tallest.

Advantages:-

• Girders only participate minimally in the lateral bracing action-Floor

framing design is independent of its level in the structure.
• Can be repetitive up the height of the building with obvious economy
in design and fabrication.

Disadvantages:-

Obstruct the internal planning and the locations of the windows and doors;
for this reason, braced bent are usually incorporated internally along wall
and partition lines, especially around elevator, stair, and service shaft.-
Diagonal connections are expensive to fabricate and erect.
 ACT Tower, Himatsu Japan

Rigid Frame Structure

Consist of columns and girders joined by moment resistant connections.

Lateral stiffness of a rigid frame bent depends on the bending stiffness of the
columns, girders, and connection in the plane of the bents. Ideally suited for
reinforced concrete buildings because of the inherent rigidity of reinforced
concrete joints. Also used for steel frame buildings, but moment
moment-resistant
connections in steel tend to be costly. While rigid frame of a typical scale
that serve alone to resist lateral loading have an economic height limit of
about 25 stories, smaller scale rigid frames in the for of perimeter tube,
tu or
typically rigid frames in combination with shear walls or braced bents, can
be economic up top much greater heights.

Advantages:-

• May be place in or around the core, on the exterior, or throughout the

interior of the building with minimal constraint on the planning
module.
• The frame may be architecturally exposed to express the grid like
nature of the structure.
• The spacing of the columns in a moment resisting frame can match
that required for gravity framing.-Only
framing. Only suitable for building up to 20 –
30 storiesonly; member proportions and materials cost become
unreasonable for building higher than that.
 Fig. WTC OSAKA JAPAN

In-filled
filled Frame Structure

Most usual form of construction for tall buildings up to 30 stories in height

Column and girder framing o off reinforced concrete, or sometimes steel, is in-
in
filled by panels of brickwork, block work, or cast
cast-in-place
place concrete. Because
of the in-filled
filled serve also as external walls or internal partitions, the system
is an economical way of stiffening and strengthe
strengthening
ning the structure. The
complex interactive behaviour of the infill in the frame, and the rather
random quality of masonry, has made it difficult to predict with accuracy the
stiffness and strength of an in-filled
in frame.

Fig. Infilled Frame.

Flat-Plate and
nd Flat Slab Structure
 • Is the simplest and most logical of all structural forms in that it
consists of uniforms slabs, connected rigidly to supporting columns.
• The system, which is essentially of reinforced concrete, is very
economical in having a flat soffit requiring the most uncomplicated
formwork and, because of the soffit can be used as the ceiling, in
creating a minimum possible floor depth.
• Lateral resistance depends on the flexural stiffness of the components
and their connections, with the slab corresponding to the girder of the
rigid frame.
• Particularly appropriate for hotel and apartment construction where
ceiling space is not required and where the slab may serve directly as
the ceiling.
• Economic for spans up to about 25 ft (8m),above which drop panels
can be added to create a flat-slab structure for span of up to 38 ft
(12m).
• Suitable for building up to 25 stories height.

Shear Wall Structure

Concrete or masonry continuous vertical walls may serve both architecturally

partitions and structurally to carry gravity and lateral loading. Very high in
plane stiffness and strength make them ideally suited for bracing tall
building Act as vertical cantilevers in the form of separate planar walls, and
as non-planar assemblies of connected walls around elevator, stair and
service shaft. well suited to hotel and residential buildings where the floor-by
floor repetitive planning allow the walls to be vertically continuous and
where they serve simultaneously as excellent acoustic and fire insulators
between rooms and apartments. Minimum shrinkage restraint reinforcement
where the wall stresses are low, which can be for a substantial portion of the
wall.

• Tensile reinforcement for areas where tension stresses occur in walls

when wind uplifts stresses exceeds gravity stresses.
• Compressive reinforcement with confinement ties where high
compressive forces require the walls is designed as columns.
Individual shear walls, say at the edge of a tall building, are design as
blade walls or as columns resisting shear and bending as required.
• High strength concrete has enable wall thickness to be minimized,
hence maximizing rentable floor space.
• Technology exists to pump and to place high-strength concrete at high
elevation.
• Fire rating for service and passenger elevator shafts is achieved by
simply placing concrete of a determined thickness.
 • The need for complex bolted or side-welded steel connections is
avoided.
• Well detail reinforce concrete will develop about twice as much
damping as structural steel. This advantage where acceleration
serviceability is critical limits state, or for ultimate limits state design
in earthquake-prone area.

Action to be considered:-

• Shear wall formed around elevator and service risers requires a

concentration of opening at ground level where stresses are critical.
• Torsional and flexural rigidity is affected significantly by the number
and the size of opening around the shear walls throughout the height
of the building.
• Shear wall vertical movements will continue throughout the life of the
building.
• Construction time is generally slower than for a steel frame building.
• The additional weight of the vertical concrete elements as compared to
steel will induce a cost penalty for the foundations.
• An increase in mass will cause a decrease in natural frequency and
hence will most likely produce an adverse affect of the acceleration
response depending on the frequency range of the building. But shear
wall systems are usually stiff and cause a compensating increase in
natural frequency.

Problem associated with formwork systems:

• A significant time lag will occur between footing construction and wall
construction, because of the fabrication and erection on site of the
moving formwork systems
• Time will be lost at the levels where wall are terminated or decrease in
thickness, alignment of the shear walls are within tolerance.
• Regular survey check must be undertaken to ensure that the vertical
and twist alignment of the shear walls are within tolerance.
• In general it is difficult to achieve a good finish from slip-form
formwork systems, and hence rendering or some other type of
finishing may be necessary.
 Shear wall Structure

Coupled Wall Structure

• Consist of two or more shear walls in the same plane, or almost the
same plane, connected at the floor levels
levels by beam or stiff slabs.
• The effect of the shear
shear-resistant
resistant connecting members is to cause the
sets of wall to behave in their partly as a composite cantilever,
bending about the common centroidal axis of the walls.
• Suited for residential construction wher
where lateral-load
load resistant cross
walls, which separate the apartments, consist of in-plane
in plane coupled
pairs, or trios, of shear walls between which there are corridor or
window openings. Besides using concrete construction, it occasionally
been constructed of h heavy
eavy steel plate, in the style of massive vertical
plate or box girders, as part of steel frame structure.

Coupled shear walled structure

Wall-Frame
Frame Structure

• The walls and frame interact horizontally, especially at the top, to

produce stiffer and strong
stronger
er structure. The interacting wall-frame
wall
combination is appropriate for the building in the 40 –60
– story range,
well beyond that of rigid frames or shear walls alone.
• Carefully tuned structure, the shear of the frame can be made
approximately uniform over the height, allowing the floor framing to
be repetitive. Although the wall-frame
wall frame structure is usually perceived as
a concrete structural form, with shear wall and concrete frames, a
steel counterpart using braced frames and steel rigid frames offers
similarr benefits of horizontal interaction.
• The braced frames behave with an overall flexural tendency to interact
with the shear mode of the rigid frames.

Wall frame structure

Majestic building, Wellington, New Zealand.

The lateral resistant of the framed-tube

framed tube structures is provided by very stiff
moment-resistant
resistant frames that form a “tube” around the perimeter of the
building. The basic inefficiency of the frame system for reinforced concrete
buildings of more than 15 stories resulted in member proportions of
prohibitive size and structural material cost premium, and thus such system
were economically inviable. The frames consist of 6-12 ft (2-4m) between
centers, joined by deep spandrel girders. Gravity loading is shared between
the tube and interior column or walls. When lateral loading acts, the
perimeter frame aligned in the direction of loading acts as the “webs” of the
massive tube of the cantilever, and those normal to the direction of the
loading act as the “flanges”. The tube form was developed originally for
building of rectangular plan, and probably it?s most efficient use in that
shape.

Suitable for reinforced concrete and steel construction and has been used for
building ranging from 40 to more than 100 stories. Aesthetically, the tube
externally evident form is regarded with mixed enthusiasm; some praise the
logic of clearly expressed structure while other criticizes the grid like façade
as small-windowed and uninterestingly repetitious. Depending on the height
and dimensions of the building, exterior columns spacing should be in order
of 1.5 m to 4.5 m on center maximum. Spandrel beam depths for normal
office or residential occupancy application are typically 600 mm to 1200 mm.
Frame tube in structural steel requires welding of the beam-column joint to
develop rigidity and continuity. The formation of fabricated tree elements,
where all welding is performed in the shop in a horizontal position, has made
the steel frame tube system more practical and efficient. The 110 story
World Trade Center twin towers, New York are examples whereby the
structuralist notion of a punched wall tube with extremely close exterior
columns is architecturally exploited to express visually the inherent
verticality of the high rise building.
The Trussed tube:

• The trussed tube system represents a classic solution for a tube

uniquely suited to the qualities and character of structural steel.
• Interconnect all exterior columns to form a rigid box, which can resist
lateral shears by axial in its members rather than through flexure.
• Introducing a minimum number of diagonals on each façade and
making the diagonal intersect at the same point at the corner column.
• The system is tubular in that the fascia diagonals not only form a truss
in the plane,
e, but also interact with the trusses on the perpendicular
faces to affect the tubular behaviour. This creates the x form between
corner columns on each façade.
• Relatively broad column spacing can resulted large clear spaces for
windows, a particular characteristic
characteristic of steel buildings.
 • The façade digitalisation serves to equalize the gravity loads of the
exterior columns that give a significant impact on the exterior
architecture.

Tube-in-Tube
Tube or Hull Core Structure

• This variation of the framed tube consists

consists of an outer frame tube, the
“Hull,” together with an internal elevator and service core.
• The Hull and core act jointly in resisting both gravity and lateral
loading.
• The outer framed tube and the inner core interact horizontally as the
shear and flexurall components of a wall-frame
wall frame structure, with the
benefit of increased lateral stiffness.
• The structural tube usually adopts a highly dominant role because of
its much greater structural depth.
Bundled-Tube
Tube structures

• The concept allows for wider column spacing in the tubular walls than
would be possible with only the exterior frame tube form.
• The spacing which make it possible to place interior frame lines
without seriously compromising interior space planning.
 • The ability to modulate the cells vertical
vertically
ly can create a powerful
vocabulary for a variety of dynamic shapes therefore offers great
latitude in architectural planning of a tall building.

Core and Outrigger Systems

• Outrigger serve to reduce the overturning moment in the core that

would otherwise
se act as a pure cantilever, and to transfer the reduced
moment to columns outside the core by the way of tension-
tension
compression coupled, which take advantage of the increase moment
arm between these columns.
 • It also serves to reduce the critical connection where the mast is
stepped to the keel beam.
• In high-rise building this same benefit is realized by a reduction of the
base core over-turning moments and the associated reduction in the
potential core uplift forces.

In the foundations system, this core and outrigger system can lead to the
need for the following:

• The addition of expensive and labour-intensive rock anchors to an

otherwise “simple” foundation alternative such as spread footing.
• Greatly enlarged mat dimensions and depth solely to resist overturning
forces.
• Time-consuming and costly rock sockets for caisson systems along
with the need to develop reinforcement throughout the complete
caisson depth.
• Expensive and intensive field work connection at the interface between
core and the foundation. This connection can become particularly
troublesome when one considers the difference in construction
tolerances between foundations and core structure.
• The elimination from consideration of foundation systems which might
have been nsiderably less expensive, such as pile, solely for their
inability to resist significant uplift.

Advantages:

• The outrigger systems may be formed in any combination of steel,

concrete, or composite construction.
• Core overturning moments and their associated induced deformation
can be reduced through the “reverse” moment applied to the core at
each outrigger intersection. This moment is created by the force
couple at the exterior columns to which the outrigger connect. It can
potentially increase the effective depth of the structural system from
the core only to almost the complete building.
• Significant reduction and possibly the complete elimination of uplift
and net tension forces throughout the column and the foundation
systems.
• The exterior column spacing is not driven by structural considerations
and can easily mesh with aesthetic and functional considerations.
• Exterior framing can consist of “simple” beam and column framing
without the need for rigid-frame-type connections, resulting in
economies.
• For rectangular buildings, outriggers can engage the middle columns
on the long faces of the building under the application of wind loads in
 the more critical direction. In core-alone and tubular systems, these
columns which carry significant gravity load are either not incorporated
or under utilized. In some cases, outrigger systems can efficiently
incorporate almost every gravity column into lateral load resisting
system, leading to significant economies.

Disadvantages

The most significant drawback with use of outrigger systems is their

potential interference with occupiable and rentable space. This obstacle can
be minimized or in some cases eliminate by incorporation of any of the
following approaches:

• Locating outrigger in mechanical and interstitial levels

• Locating outriggers in the natural sloping lines of the building profile
• Incorporating multilevel single diagonal outriggers to minimize the
member?s interference on any single level.
• Skewing and offsetting outriggers in order to mesh with the functional
layout of the floor space.
• Another potential drawback is the impact the outrigger installation can
have on the erection process. As a typical building erection proceeds,
the repetitive nature of the structural framing and the reduction in
member sizes generally result in a learning curve which can speed the
process along.

The incorporation of a outrigger at intermediate or upper levels can, if not

approached properly, have a negative impact on the erection process.
Several steps can be taken to minimize this possibility Provide clear and
concise erection guidelines in the contract documents so that the erector can
anticipate the constraint and limitation that the installation will impose. If
possible, avoid outriggers locations or design constraints that will require
“backtracking” in the construction process to install or connect the outrigger.
The incorporation of intermediate outriggers in concrete construction or
large variation in dead-load column stresses between the core and the
exterior can in some cases result in the need to “backtrack”. Such a need
can be minimized if issues such as creep and differential shortening are
carefully studied during the design process to minimize their impact. Avoid
adding additional outrigger levels for borderline force or deflection control.

Hybrid Structure

Combination of two or even more of basic structural forms either by direct

combination or by adopting different forms in different parts of the structure.
This systems provide in-plane stiffness, its lack of Torsional stiffness requires
that additional
onal measures be taken, which resulted in one bay vertical
exterior bracing and a number of level of perimeter Vierendeel “bandages” –
perhaps one of the best examples of the art of structural engineering. Hybrid
structures are likely to be the rule rather than the exception for future very
tall buildings, whether to create acceptable dynamic characteristics or to
accommodate the complex shapes demanded by modern architecture. High High-
strength concrete, consist of stiffness and damping capabilities of large
concrete
crete elements are combined with the lightness and constructability of
steel frame exhibits significantly lower creep and shrinkage and is therefore
more readily accommodated in a hybrid frame.

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6 Comments

1. The Constructor says:

15/11/2009 at 20:03

High Rise Structures: A high-rise is a tall building or structure

·Buildings between 75 feet and 491 feet (2.. [Link]

Reply

2. The Constructor says:

 16/11/2009 at 07:33

High Rise Structures: A high-rise is a tall building or structure

·Buildings between 75 feet and 491 feet (2.. [Link]

Reply

3. Emo says:

09/10/2010 at 21:31

I actually think so too=] I have been browsing around the internet for some time this
week, and its kinda hard to find anything interesting to read on blogs. Maybe thats
because there are too many of them around =) But your place actually keeps catching my
attention. Great posts, and cool design ^__^. Ill be sure to give it more time from now on
.

Reply

4. Syed Anwar Kamal says:

03/05/2011 at 05:02

Dear.
I need help in finding out the minimum and maximum permissible dimension of Pre-
stressed Flat Slab.
Shall be grateful if I can be provided with any PSFSlab Stuctural Detail.
Thanks and best regards
[Link]
sakamal56″@[Link]

Reply

5. [Link] says:

16/05/2011 at 14:41

this webside has helped me very much.

Reply

6. Sabahat Ali Khan says:

20/08/2011 at 02:21

Gr8 work indeed!!! I really appreciate it!!!

Sir can u also help me on the following topic in detail:

Explain different Structural systems for high rise [Link] examples for the
same.(Atleast 10 Systems)
I would be highly grateful to you if you can help me on this topic asap.

With Best Regards

Sabahat