Human Development
Tuesday, October 16, 2018 10:06 PM
Methods
Cross-Sectional Studies
Participants of various ages compared at one point in time to determine age-related differences
Advantages:
Cheap
Quick
Low attrition rate
Disadvantages:
Different age groups not necessarily alike
Differences may be attributed to cohort differences as opposed to age differences
Longitudinal Studies
Same participants studied at various ages to determine age-related changes
Advantages: detailed info, in-depth study of developmental changes, eliminates cohort differences
Disadvantages: expensive, time consuming, potential for high attrition rate, differences might be due to assessment tools not just age
Cross-Sequential Studies
Different participants of various ages compared at several points in time to determine both age-related differences and age-related changes.
Combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal studies
Newborn
Assessment
Assessment scoring system:
Activity - muscle tone dealing w/ spontaneous movement
Pulse - heart rate
Grimace - reflex irritability - cries, pulls away, coughs
Appearance - skin color
Respiration - breathing = good, healthy cry
Score between 10
Reflexes
Rooting reflex - newborn's tendency when touched on cheek to turn towards touch, open mouth and search for nipple
Sucking reflex - newborn's tendency to suck on things placed in mouth
Grasping reflex - newborn's tendency to close fist around anything placed in hand
Stepping reflex - newborn's tendency to make stepping motions when held upright
Startle reflex - newborn's tendency to throw head back, extend arms/legs, cry and bring back arms/legs when startled
Physical
Brain Development
During prenatal development, brain produces 250,000 neurons/min.
Peak - 28 billion neurons at 7 months
By birth, number reduced to 23 billion
By end of 1st year, brain 35% larger than at birth
Brain development unfolds due to genetics - causes various bodily/mental functions to occur in sequence
Maturation - orderly sequence of bio growth processes. Uninfluenced by experience
Ex: memory not solidified until after 3rd birthday (infantile amnesia)
Motor Development
Cephalocaudal development
Head develops before arms/trunk
Arms/trunk develop before legs
Proximodistal development
Head, trunk, legs develop before hands and fingers
Motor milestones
1) Raising head and chest (2-4 months)
2) Rolling over (2-5 months)
3) Sitting up w/ support (4-6 months)
4) Sitting up w/o support (6-7 months)
5) Crawling (7-8 months)
6) Walking (8-18 months)
Piaget
Class Notes Page 1
Piaget
3) Concrete Operational Stage
7-11 years
Description of stage: capable of logical thought. Physical, concrete, touchable reality. Lack abstract thinking
Developmental phenomena: conservation, reversible thinking, math transformation
Developmental limitations: abstract thinking - freedom, peace, love
4) Formal Operational Stage
Description of Stage: capable of abstract thinking
Developmental phenomena:
Abstract logic
Hypothetical thinking - If women were in charge, would there be few wars?
Mature moral reasoning
Reflecting on Piaget's Theory
Globally influential, but today we believe:
Development is continuous
Children express mental abilities & operations at an earlier age
Formal logic smaller part of cognition
Psychosocial
Deprivation of attachment
Impact of denying monkeys physical attachment to mother
"Genie" and "Victor"
Attachment
Erik erikson
Basic trust
Securely attached children believe world is predictable and trustworthy
Attributed basic trust and attachment to parenting
8 stage of psychosocial development. 1st 4 during childhood. Each has developmental crisis
Trust vs. mistrust (Birth - 1 year)
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1-3 years old)
Initiative vs. guilt (3-5 years)
Industry vs. inferiority (5-12 yrs)
Parenting Styles
3 primary styles:
1) Authoritarian - demanding, not responsive. Impose rules. Expect obedience
2) Permissive - not demanding. Responsive. Little punishment
3) Authoritative - demanding and responsive. Exert control by establishing/enforcing rules - also explain rules for rules.
Adolescence
Cognitive development
Moral development - Kohlberg
Sequence is unvarying
1) Preconventional
2) Conventional
3) Postconventional
Adolescents and adults can be found in all 3 levels
Preconventional
Typical of very young children
Self-interest; consequences determine morality
Obey rules to:
1) Avoid punishment
2) Gain concrete awards
Ex: a child steals, doesn't get caught and doesn't see that as wrong
1) Punishment - Avoidance and obedience
2) Exchange of favors
Conventional
Typical of older children, adolescents and most adults
Conformity right. Nonconformity wrong
Uphold law simply b/c it's the law
EX: criticize someone speeding b/c its law
Class Notes Page 2
EX: criticize someone speeding b/c its law
1) Good boy/girl
2) Law and order
Postconventional
~20% of adults
Moral principles determined by individual. May disagree w/ societal norms
Actions judged right b/c come from own basic ethics
EX: journalist goes to jail even though he breaks law
1) Social contract
2) Universal ethical principle
Criticism of Kohlberg's Stage Theory
Carole Gilligan - Male oriented. Used only males in his studies. Proposed men/women have different perspectives on morality.
Men - actions lead to fair/just end
Women - nonviolent actions. Hurt fewest people
Biased against collectivist societies (Ex: China/India)
Adulthood
Psychosocial Development
Erikson's Adult Stage (6-8)
Young adulthood - intimacy vs. isolation
Middle adulthood - generativity vs. stagnation
Late adulthood - integrity vs. despair
Adult lives determined by 2 major factors: crises of stages 6 and 7
Intimacy
Marriage trends - age, education, cohabitation
Children
Generativity
Find career that gives sense of accomplishment
Elizabeth Kubler-Ross
Death and dying
1) Denial
2) Anger
3) Bargaining
4) Depression
5) Acceptance
Research doesn't support such predictable stages.
Class Notes Page 3