CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

This chapter discussed the theoretical framework related to the study. It

covers the teacher-students interaction, teacher-student relationships & classroom

climate, covered aspects in the EFL standards, improving students' relationships

with teachers to provide essential supports for learning, evaluation of teacher-

student relationship, and measures of teacher-student relationships.

2.1 The Teacher-Students Interaction

The first aspect that will be discussed in order to understand the teaching-

learning activities is teacher-students interaction. Interaction or the involvement

all of the elements of the classroom in teaching-learning activities that often

revealed as ‘participation’, ‘engagement’, or ‘investment’ (Allwright and Balley,

1991, cited in Suherdi, 2007:73) is the complex concept and not only involve the

concrete behavior, but also the abstract behavior.

So, the study of interaction must involve analysis through cover up

information and concrete data such as, eye contact, rising hand, oral answer, etc.

Hilman (1996) in Suherdi, 2007:73) argued that the difference of pattern influence

and intensity of students participation in teaching-learning activities is influenced

by development of interaction pattern.

Interaction pattern very braced with philosophical belief of teacher education

and development of relation role in teaching-learning activities. For example, the

teacher who beliefs that teaching is transfer of knowledge from teacher to students

8
will choose the speech method in his teaching. Moreover, there are several

teachers who think that students have the right for choosing teaching material. In

this case, teacher will give the guidance and student will explore their ability by

themselves.

There is no problem for teachers to choose the interaction patterns that

appropriate with the situation in the class as long as they realize the strengths and

the weakness each pattern, also they have to know the appropriate pattern which

they choose with the competence that will be developed. In addition, the

difference of pattern and intensity of interaction will influence toward successful

students’ level.

2.2 Teacher-student relationships & classroom climate

When first grade teachers use practices that demonstrate caring toward

students and practices that foster interpersonal skills among students, students are

less likely to reject one another (Donahue et al, 2003:65). Also, aggressive

students who have positive relationships with teachers are more likely to be

accepted by peers than aggressive students who lack positive relationships with

their teachers (Hughes, Cavell et al., 2001:4). Ultimately, constructive teacher-

student relationships have an important positive influence on the social skills of

difficult as well as typical students. Such findings suggest that enhancing

individual teacher-student relationships has beneficial and cumulative effects for

other aspects of classroom life.

9
 Improving teacher-student relationships is only the first step toward meeting

students’ emotional and relational needs. A teacher should also work on

producing a caring community of learners. Such efforts improve the nature of

interactions among students and promote students’ engagement in school (Hamre

& Pianta, 2005; McCombs, 2004; Meece, 2003; Meece et al., 2003; Weinberger

& McCombs, 2003 cited in Rimm-Kaufman & Chiu, 2007:7).

Studies have been conducted to examine the effectiveness of interventions

designed to create more caring school and classroom communities; each has

resulted in specific recommendations for improving teacher-student relationships

as well as peer-relationships. One such intervention is the Child Development

Project (CDP) (Solomon, Battistich, Watson, Schaps, & Lewis, 2000:23). It

focuses on fostering caring peer relationships, including students in decision-

making, and teaching students to better understand the feelings, needs, and

perspectives of others.

The goal of CDP is to promote positive development among children and

build upon their strengths. Students exposed to this intervention feel more positive

about school and are more motivated (e.g., showed more task orientation and

greater intrinsic motivation) than their counterparts not receiving this intervention

in elementary school. Likewise, CDP appears to have some long-lasting effects;

students enrolled in the CDP elementary schools were less antisocial and more

pro-social in middle school as well (Battistich et al., 2004:51). Further, in a

district that pressed for high achievement, CDP was linked to positive effects on

achievement outcomes as well as gains in socio-emotional skills.

10
 Another example is the Responsive Classroom (RC) approach. This is a

classroom-based intervention designed to integrate social and academic learning.

When RC was examined to determine whether there were links between the use of

its approach and the quality of teacher-student relationships, it was found that

teachers using more RC practices had closer relationships with students in their

classrooms (Rimm-Kaufman & Chiu, 2007:7).

2.3 Covered Aspects in the EFL Standards

English as Foreign Language (EFL) indicates the use of English in a non–

English-speaking region. Study can occur either in the student's home country, as

part of the normal school curriculum or, for the more privileged minority, in an

Anglophone country that they visit as a sort of educational tourist, particularly

immediately before or after graduating from university (Snell, 1999:2). TEFL is

the teaching of English as a foreign language; note that this sort of instruction can

take place in any country, English-speaking or not.

Typically, EFL is learned either to pass exams as a necessary part of one's

education, or for career progression while working for an organization or business

with an international focuses (Paul, 2003:10). EFL may be part of the state school

curriculum in countries where English has no special status; it may also be

supplemented by lessons paid for privately (Nunan, 2005:7). Teachers of EFL

generally assume that students are literate in their mother tongue. The Chinese

EFL Journal and Iranian EFL Journal are examples of international journals

11
dedicated to specifics of English language learning within countries where

English is used as a foreign language.

Furthermore, unity is our greatest strength and given the present political

situation and condition an urgent measure to strengthen it need to be taken. It

should be kept in mind; however, that unity is by no means identical with

uniformity. In addition, to develop a strong personality with high integrity within

individual citizens within the framework of national unity, the educational system

should be developed in such a way that it enables children to develop to become

total persons with their own unique characteristics (Rimm-Kaufman & Chiu,

2007:20).

For this purpose, EFL standards as part of educational standards should be

formulated, but the ways to reach the standards should be left with the teachers

and other related parties concerned. Regarding the diversity and existing

disparities in development, the national standards should simultaneously give

hope and challenge the students. In this way, everyone will have opportunity to

learn in the true sense. In other words, the minimum standard should be

diversified but each group's standard should be improved with different its

development (Helgesen & Brown, 1994:5).

The term standard (plural) implies a passion for excellence and habitual

attention to quality. High standards, be in people or institutions, are revealed

through reliability', integrity, self-discipline, passion, and craftsmanship (Wiggins,

1995:8). Persons or institutions with high standards are those who live by a set of

mature, coherent, and consistently applied values evident in all their actions.

12
Higher standards are not stiffer test results quotas but a more vigorous

commitment to intellectual values upheld consistently and daily in the face of

entropy, fatalism, and the occasional desire on everyone's part to not give a damn.

So there is a difference between `standard' and `standards'. For purposes of our

discussion, both meaning will be referred to.

Decide the EFL standard depends on many factors, of which one is the

quality of the related people. Moreover, Indonesian EFL teachers hardly have time

to think about setting the standards in EFL on their own initiatives since many of

them have to find additional work to get more money to support their families. In

principle; however, the development of the standards in EFL should involve as

many parties concerned with education as possible, including EFL teachers, EFL

teacher educators, and the users of the school graduates.

Referring to the first meaning, standards can be reached if EFL policy

makers, teacher educators, and teachers are all of high quality understanding of

the nature of EFL teaching and learning, its technical know-how, and interactive

and human skills. Therefore, the minimum qualification of these people should be

formulated. For consideration, the minimum qualification should be a first degree

in EFL education. The next standard to be formulated is concerned with class size.

The formulator should refer to results of studies about effective EFL class size.

Helgensen (1994:105) as cited by Snell (1999:5) suggests that the first

consideration should be focused on providing the students with a sample

opportunity as possible to practice using EFL to ensure the development of their

communicative skills. For consideration, the class size likely to meet this

13
requirement is around 20. To ensure the success of EFL teaching and learning in

the true sense, adequate teaching and learning materials and facilities should be

provided. Again a standard in this area should be formulated. With varying

degrees of sophistication, the minimum standard to be considered is the provision

of quality textbooks, a collection of authentic materials enough for every student,

dictionaries and reference books available in the library both for students and

teachers, and equipment necessary for executing listening programs (Snell,

1999:6).

The 1994 secondary school EFL syllabi have in fact been macro skill-

oriented. The final assessment system; however, has created a test-orientated

teaching-learning situation. This is not conducive to learning to communicate in

the target language throughout the country. This situation certainly has

disadvantaged those in unfavorable teaching and learning situations and

conditions. Therefore, a diversified standard should be formulated in the macro-

skill areas. The important thing to remember is that the standard should both give

hope and challenge to students in striving for the better achievement. To ensure

the achievement of an EFL communicative skills standard according to the

characteristics of different groups of students, there must be a change of

assessment policy. It seems that the standardized testing applied to everyone at the

same time throughout the country is not empowering anyone. Instead, its wash-

back effect upon the teaching and learning practices has been too strong.

Therefore, assessment should be decentralized. Besides, the assessment

system should ensure that all the macro-skills are given equal attention, as has

14
been required by the 1999 Supplementary Syllabi. For consideration, the receptive

skills of listening and reading should be mass- tested, though not necessarily

nation-wide, and the productive skills of speaking and writing should be

authentically assessed and also locally tested in the final year. The final grade

should be determined by using a certain formula. For consideration, equal

percentage should be given to the four macro skills (Rimm-Kaufman & Chiu,

2007:14).

The last aspect is concerned with EFL teacher education. Since the EFL

teaching and learning should focus on the development of communicative skills,

the EFL teacher education program should be directed towards helping the EFL

student teachers to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills as well as attitude.

In other words, the program should focus on (I) the development of EFL

communicative competence and skills of executing this competence, (2) the

development of communicative EFL teaching competence and skills in executing

this competence, and (3) the development of positive attitudes towards

professional development. This is the standard to be considered and this requires

that the existing EFL teacher education curriculum be redesigned (Snell, 1999:3).

If it is conducted successfully, EFL teaching might contribute to the

acceleration of Indonesia's development. It has so far been unable to reach its

declared goals due to unfavorable situations and conditions. In the

decentralization context, however, a new hope has arisen. It is now left with all

parties concerned whether to seize this good opportunity to make improvement.

One thing which seems to be certain is that success is a great possibility if all

15
aspects of EFL teaching and learning meet the necessary standard and it is high

time for TEFLIN to contribute significantly to the improvement of this situation

(Berg, 2004:77).

2.4 Improving Students' Relationships with Teachers to Provide Essential

Supports for Learning

Improving students’ relationships with teachers has important, positive and

long-lasting implications for students’ academic and social development. Solely

improving students’ relationships with their teachers will not produce gains in

achievement. However, those students who have close, positive and supportive

relationships with their teachers will attain higher levels of achievement than

those students with more conflictual relationships (Rimm-Kaufman & Chiu,

2007:11).

If a student feels a personal connection to a teacher, experiences frequent

communication with a teacher, and receives more guidance and praise than

criticism from the teacher, then the student is likely to become more trustful of

that teacher, show more engagement in the academic content presented, display

better classroom behavior, and achieve at higher levels academically. Positive

teacher-student relationships draw students into the process of learning and

promote their desire to learn.

Teachers who foster positive relationships with their students create

classroom environments more conducive to learning and meet students’

developmental, emotional and academic needs. Here are some concrete examples

16
of closeness between a teacher and a student: 1) A seven-year-old girl who is

experiencing divorce at home goes to her former first grade teacher in the

mornings for a hug of encouragement, even though she is now in the second

grade; 2) A fourth grade boy who is struggling in math shows comfort in

admitting to his teacher that he needs help with multiplying and dividing

fractions; 3) A middle school girl experiences bullying from other students and

approaches her social studies teacher to discuss it because she trusts that the

teacher will listen and help without making her feel socially inept (Solomon,

Battistich, Schaps & Lewis, 2000:20).

2.5 Evaluation of Teacher-Student Relationship

To improve the effectiveness of teacher-student interactions, we must first

know how to assess them. Several common and readily available instruments have

been developed to assess teacher-student relationships. Although used primarily

for research, these instruments can also serve as diagnostic tools to identify

strengths and weakness in your own teaching. Some of these instruments rely on

teacher reports of relationships, others are observationally-based measures of

teacher-student interactions in the classroom, and yet others rely on students’

reports of their relationships with teachers. Murray & Malmgren, (2005:110)

argue that one particularly innovative technique to use with young children relies

on children’s drawings of their teachers.

There are less formal ways to assess your relationships with children. If you

have a particular child with whom you have had a challenging relationship, you

17
might invite a school psychologist into your classroom to observe your

interactions, take notes and reflect with you about the child. Alternatively, you can

set up a video camera and critique your own interactions with the student who is

causing you difficulty. Another strategy is to directly ask your students. You can

give them anonymous questionnaires or ask small groups of students about how

they feel while they are in your classroom. Through this process, it is important to

realize that even the best teachers have difficulties with a few students from time

to time. The reasons for these difficulties are numerous and getting help from a

collaborating teacher, the school psychologist, or a supportive administrator may

offer you an outside view of what is occurring and help you improve your

relationships with the challenging students in your classroom (Murray &

Malmgren, 2005:112).

2.6 Measures of Teacher-Student Relationships

One teacher-report instrument, designed for elementary school teachers, is the

Student-Teacher Relationship Scale (STRS); developed by Pianta, (2001:71). This

instrument measures a teacher’s perception of conflict, closeness, and dependency

with a specific child. Another instrument, designed for teachers of middle and

high school, is the Teacher-Student Relationship Inventory (TSRI) Ang, 2005). It

measures teachers’ satisfaction with their students, the help they perceive they are

offering to their students, and their level of conflict with their students.

The presence of supportive relationships can be measured in the classroom

using the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (Pianta, La Paro & Hamre,

18
2006:25). This system measures teachers’ sensitivity as well as positive and

negative climate in the classroom. Different forms of this instrument can be used

for preschool through twelfth grade.

Students’ reports of their relationships with teachers can be assessed in young

children with the Feelings about Scholl instrument (Valeski & Stipek, 2001:11)

or by having a child draw a picture of him/herself and his/her teacher at school

and analyzing the picture for signs of negativity (Harrison, Clarke, & Ungerer,

2007:44). In elementary school, students can be assessed with the “Loneliness

and Social Dissatisfaction Questionnaire for Young Children” (Cassidy &

Asher, 1992:72); in middle school with the “Teacher Treatment

Inventory” (Weinstein & Marshall, 1984:11); and in high school students with an

adapted measure of perceived social connection.

Another set of validated instruments designed for teachers and students are

the “Assessment of Learner-Centered Practices” (ALCP) surveys. These surveys,

each designed for a different age group (grades K-3, 4-8, and 9-12), provide

teachers with tools for self-assessment and reflection (McCombs, 2004:10). The

emphasis of this work has been to identify discrepancies between teacher and

student perceptions in order to assist teachers as they reflect upon and change their

practices (McCombs & Miller, 2006:18). The ALCP process focuses on student

learning and motivational outcomes, as well as the classroom practices that

contribute most to maximizing these outcomes.

Finally, this chapter has so far reviewed the theoretical concepts of the study.

The forthcoming chapter will explain the way how the study was designed and

19
carried out by the researcher. Hence, the focus of discussion covers the research

methodology including the design, population and sample, research site,

procedures, instruments for collecting data, data analysis technique, and ethical

consideration.

20