78. Areas between curves.

4A-1
a)

b) x3 = ax =⇒ x = ±a or x = 0. There are two enclosed pieces (−a <

x<0
and 0 < x < a) with the same area by symmetry. Thus the total area is:

5/2
(1,2) a3/2
1 1

(1/2,1/2) a1/2 a1/2 1 2

a 3/2

1a 1b 1c 1d

c) x + 1/x = 5/2
=⇒ x2 + 1 = 5x/2 =⇒ x = 2 or 1/2.
Therefore, the area is

d)

4A-2 First way (dx):

Second
way
 y = 1-x 2

-1 1

1
x = 1-y
x = - 1-y

4A-3 4 − x2 = 3x =⇒ x = 1 or − 4. First way (dx):

1
2
− 3x)dx = 4x − x 3/3 − 3x 2/2 1− 4 = 125/6 (4 −
x
−4
Second way (dy): Lower section has area

4
(1,3)
x=- 4-y x= 4-y

x= y
3

(-4,-12)

Upper section has area

(See picture for limits of integration.) Note that 117/6 + 4/3 = 125/6.

4A-4 sin x = cos x =⇒ x = π/4 + kπ. So the area is

 2

5π/4
π/4
79. Volumes by slicing; volumes of revolution

4B-1 a)

b)

c)

d)
0

e)
16π/15

(Why (e) the same as (a)? Complete the square and translate.)
1b 1d 1f 1g 1h
b

0 a
−a ∆x a 0 a 0 a
2 2
y=a−x y=x y = 2ax − x2 y= ax
2
y = b 2(1 − x 2/a 2)
(for 1a, set a = 1) (for 1c, set a = 1) (for 1e, set a = 1)

f) 02a π(2ax − x2)2dx = 02 a π(4a2x2 − 4ax3 + x4)dx

 3

(Why is (f) the same as (b)? Complete the square and translate.)

g)

h)

4B-2 a) b)

c) d)
e) . Using the method of washers:

(In contrast with 1(e) and 1(a), rotation around the y-axis makes the solid
in
2(e) different from 2(a).)

a 2 2b 2d a,2fa2) (a,a)
2g 2
a b
∆y

0 a
a 0
2 2
x = a2 − y x=y x = a + a 2− y 2
x = y /a x = a2(1 − y2 /b )
(for 2a, set a = 1) (for 2c, set a = 1) (for 2e, set a = 1)
 f) x2 − 2ax + y = 0 =⇒ x = a ± a2 − y. Using the method of washers:

4
g) Using washers:

. h)

(The answer in 2(h) is double the answer in 1(h), with a and b reversed. Can
you see why?)

4B-3 Put the pyramid upside-down. By similar triangles, the base of the
smaller bottom pyramid has sides of length (z/h)L and (z/h)M.
The base of the big pyramid has area b = LM; the base of the smaller
pyramid forms a cross-sectional slice, and has area
L M

h
z

(z/h)L · (z/h)M = (z/h)2LM = (z/h)2b

Therefore, the volume is

4B-4 The slice perpendicular to the xz-plane are right triangles with base of
length x and height z = 2x. Therefore the area of a slice is x2 . The volume
is
y
2

x
z 2x
x
1
x
1 x
side view of top view of side view of
wedge along wedge along slice along
 y-axis z-axis y-axis

√
4B-5 One side can be described by y = 3x for 0 ≤ x ≤ a/2.

Therefore, the volume is

y = 3x

a/2

4B-6 If the hypotenuse of an isoceles right triangle has length√ h, then its
area

is√ h2/4. The endpoints of the slice in the xy-plane are y = ± a2 − x2, so h =
2 a2 − x2 . In all the volume is

4B-7 Solving for x in y = (x − 1)2 and y = (x + 1)2 gives the values

a2-x 2

a
x 2 a2-x 2

top view slice

√ √
x=1± y and x = −1 ± y
The hard part is deciding which sign of the square root representing the
endpoints of the square.
 x = - 1+ y x =1 - y
1

-1 1
2 (x- y)

Method 1: The point (0, 1) has to be on the two curves. Plug in y = 1 and x
=0
√
to see that the square root must have the opposite sign from 1: x = 1 − y
and
√
x = −1 + y.

√
Method 2: Look at the picture. x = 1+ y is the wrong choice because it is
the
√
right half of the parabola with vertex (1, 0). We want the left half: x = 1
− y.
√
Similarly, we want x = −1+ y, the right half of the parabola with vertex (−1,
0).
√ √
Hence, the side of the square is the interval −1 + y ≤ x ≤ 1 − y, whose
length
√
is 2(1 − y), and the

Volume .
80. Volumes by shells

4C-1 a)

Shells:

b) (x − b)2 = a2 − y2 =⇒ x = b ± a2 − y2

Washers:

2
y = a2 - (x - b) x = b - a 2- y 2
a a
x = b + a 2- y 2

b-a b+a b-a b+a

-a -a
2
y = - a 2- (x - b}
Washers
Shells

c) 2, because it’s the area of a

semicircle of radius a.

Thus (b) =⇒ Volume of torus = 2π2 a2 b

d) z = x − b, dz = dx

because the part of the integrand with the factor z is odd, and so it integrates
to 0.

9
 1

1 1

y = x2 y= x x = y2
4C−2 (shells) 4C−3a (shells) 4C−3b (discs)

4C-3 Shells:

Disks:

4C-4 a)

b)

c)

d)

2
− 2x + y = 0 =⇒ x = 1 ± √1 − y.
e) x

The interval 1 − 1 − y ≤ x ≤ 1 + 1 − y has length 2 1 − y

10
 f) x2 − 2ax + y = 0 =⇒ x = a ± a2 − y.

The interval a − a2 − y ≤ x ≤ a + a2 − y has length 2 a2 − y

4b 4d 4f 4g 4h
2
a2 (a, a )
a (a,a) b

0 a
a 0

x = a 2 - y (right) x=y x = a + a 2- y 2
x = y /a
2 2
x = a 1 - y /b
x = - a 2- y (left) x = a - a2 - y

g)

h)

(Why is the lower limit of integration 0 rather than −b?)

4C-5 a) c)

b) d)

e) f)

11
 5b 5d 5f 5g b 5h

-a ∆x a a 0 a b
0
2
y=a-x
2 2
y=x y = 2ax - x 2
y = ax y = b 1 - x 2/a
(for 5a, set a = 1 ) for 5c, set a =1 ) (for 5e, set a =1 ) 2 2
y = -b 1 - x /a

x 2)dx g)

h)

(Why did y get doubled this time?)

4C-6

12
81. Average value

4D-1 Cross-sectional area at x is = πy2 = π · (x2)2 = πx4 . Therefore,

2
y= b - x 2

Shells
a b

2 2
y=- b - x
base of removed
cylinder

average cross-sectional area .

4D-2 Average .

4D-3 Let s(t) be the distance function; then the velocity is v(t) = s(t)

1 s(b) − s(a)
Average value of velocity = s (t)dt = by FT1 b −
aa b−a

= average velocity over time interval [a,b]

4D-4 By symmetry, we can restrict P to the upper semicircle.

By the law of cosines, we have |PQ|2 = 12 + 12 − 2cos θ. Thus

average of

(This is the value of |PQ|2 when θ = π/2, so the answer is reasonable.))

13
 P
1
θ
1 Q

4D-5 By hypothesis, To express f(x) in terms of g(x),

multiply thourgh by x and apply the Fund. Thm:

, by FT2..

4D-6 Average value of

If rT is small, we can approximate: , so we get

(If T ≈ 0, at the end of T years the interest added will be A0rT ; thus the
average is approximately what the account grows to in T/2 years, which
seems reasonable.)

4D-8 The average on each side is the same as the average

over all four sides. Thus the average distance is

2 2
x + (a/2)
a/2

14
 Can’t be evaluated by a formula until Unit 5. The average of the square
of the distance is

4D’. Work

4D’-1 According to Hooke’s law, we have F = kx, where F is the force, x is

the displacement (i.e., the added length), and k is the Hooke’s law constant
for the

15
spring.
To find k, substitute into Hooke’s law: 2, 000 = k · (1/2) ⇒ k = 4000.
To find the work W , we have

inch-pounds = 6, 000 foot-

pounds.

4D’-2 Let W (h) = weight of pail and paint at height h.

, since the pulling and leakage
both occur at a constant rate.

work ft-lbs.

4D’-3 Think of the hose as divided into many equal little infinitesimal pieces,
of length dh, each of which must be hauled up to the top of the building.
The piece at distance h from the top end has weight 2 dh; to haul it up to the
top requires 2hdh ft-lbs. Adding these up,

total work 2500ft-lbs.

4D’-4 If they are x units apart, the gravitational force between them is
.

work .
The limit as .

4E. Parametric equations

4E-1 y − x = t2 , y − 2x = −t. Therefore, y − x = (y − 2x)2 =⇒ y 2 −

4xy + 4x2 − y + x = 0 (parabola)

4E-2 x2 = t2 + 2 + 1/t2 and y2 = t2 − 2 + 1/t2 . Subtract, getting the hyperbola x2

− y2 = 4
4E-3 (x − 1)2 + (y − 4)2 = sin2 θ + cos2 t = 1 (circle)

4E-4 1 + tan2 t = sec2 t =⇒ 1 + x2 = y2 (hyperbola)

. This gives x2 = 4y2 − 4y4 .

4E-6 y = 2x, so t = 2x and
x = t/2, y = t2/4
4E-7 Implicit differentiation gives 2x + 2yy = 0, so that y = −x/y. So the
parameter is t = −x/y. Substitute x = −ty in x2 + y2 = a2 to get

Thus
For −∞ < t < ∞, this parametrization traverses the upper semicircle y > 0
(going clockwise). One can also get the lower semicircle (also clockwise)
by taking the negative square root when solving for y,

4E-8 The tip Q of the hour hand is given in terms of the angle θ by Q = (cos
θ, sin θ) (units are meters).

Next we express θ in terms of the time parameter t (hours). We have

decreases linearly with t

. Thus we get .
Q

P
θ

Finally, for the snail’s position P , we have

P = (t cos θ,t sin θ) , where t increases from 0 to 1. So,

,
83. Arclength

√ 1√ √
2
4F-1 a) ds = 1 + (y) dx = 26dx. Arclength = 26dx = 26.
0
13

b) ds = 1 + (y)2dx = 1 + (9/4)xdx.

Arclength

c) y = −x−1/3(1 − x2 /3)1/2 = − x−2/3 − 1. Therefore, ds = x−1/3dx, and

Arclength

d) y = x(2 + x2 )1/2 . Therefore, ds = 1 + 2x2 + x4dx = (1 + x2 )dx and

Arclength

4F-2 y = (ex − e−x)/2, so the hint says 1 + (y)2 = y2 and ds = 1 + (y)2dx = ydx.
Thus,

Arclength
b

4F-3 y = 2x, 1 + (y)2 = √1 + 4x2 . Hence, arclength = 1 + 4x2dx.

0

√
4F-4 ds = (dx/dt)2 + (dy/dt)2dt = 4t2 + 9t4dt. Therefore,
 Arclength

4F-5 dx/dt = 1 − 1/t2 , dy/dt = 1 + 1/t2 . Thus

ds = (dx/dt)2 + (dy/dt)2dt = 2 + 2/t4dt and

Arclength

4F-6 a) dx/dt = 1 − cos t, dy/dt = sin t.

√
ds/dt = (dx/dt)2 + (dy/dt)2 = 2 − 2cos t (speed of the point)
Forward motion (dx/dt) is largest for t an odd multiple of π (cos t = −1).
Forward motion is smallest for t an even multiple of π (cos t = 1). (continued
→)

Remark: The largest forward motion is when the point is at the top of the
wheel and the smallest is when the point is at the bottom (since y = 1 − cos t.)

b)

Therefore, the arclength is

84. Surface Area

√
4G-1 The curve y = R2 − x2 for a ≤ x ≤ b is revolved around the x-axis.

√
Since we have y = −x/ R2 − x2, we get

y= R22
-x

a b

ds = 1 + (y)2dx = 1 + x2/(R2 − x2)dx = R2/(R2 − x2)dx = (R/y)dx Therefore, the

area element is
dA = 2πyds = 2πRdx
and the area is b

2πRdx = 2πR(b − a)
a
√
4G-2 Limits are 0 ≤ x ≤ 1/2. ds = 5dx, so

4G-3 Limits are 0 ≤ y ≤ 1. x = (1 − y)/2, dx/dy = −1/2. Thus

ds = 1 + (dx/dy)2dy = 5/4dy;
 4G−3

1
y = 1 − 2x
x = (1 − y)/2

1/2 4G−2

√ −1/2√y, and ds = 1 + 1/4ydy

4G-5 x = y, dx/dy =

4G-6 y = (a2 /3 − x 2/3)3/2 =⇒ y = −x−1/3(a2 /3 − x 2/3)1/2 . Hence

ds = 1 + x−2/3(a2/3 − x2/3)dx = a1 /3 x−1/3dx

Therefore, (using symmetry on the interval −a ≤ x ≤ a)

-a a

y = (a - x )2/3 2/3 3/2

A= 2πyds = 2 2π(a2 /3 − x 2/3)3/2 a 1/3 x−1/3dx

0
1/3 2/3
− x 2/3 5/2
) a =
(4π)(2/5)(−3/2)a (a
0
2
= (12π/5)a

22
4G-7 a) Top half: y = a2 − (x − b)2 , y = (b − x)/y. Hence,

ds = 1 + (b − x)2/y2dx = (y2 + (b − x)2)/y2dx = (a/y)dx

Since we are only covering the top half we double the integral for area:

b) We need to rotate two curves x2 = b + a2 − y2

2
y = a 2- (x-b)

a a
b

2
y = - a 2- (x-b)
upper and lower surfaces are
symmetrical and equal

and x1 = b − a2 − y2 around the y-axis. The value

dx2/dy = −(dx1/dy) = −y/ a2 − y2

So in both cases,

ds = 1 + y2/(a2 − y2)dy = (a/ a2 − y2)dy

The integral is

x = b + a 22
-y

x = b - a -2y 2

inner and outer surfaces are

not symmetrical and not equal

But x1 + x2 = 2b, so
 c) Substitute y = a sin θ, dy = a cos θdθ to get

85. Polar coordinate graphs

4H-1 We give the polar coordinates in the form (r,θ):

√
a) (3√,π/2) b) (2,π) c) (2,π/3) d) (2 2, 3π/4)

e) (2, −π/4 or 7π/f)4) (2,√ −π/2 or 3π/2)

g) (2, −π/6 or 11π/6h)) (2 2, −3π/4 or 5π/4)

4H-2 a) (i) (x − a)2 + y2 = a2 ⇒ x2 − 2ax + y2 = 0 ⇒ r2 − 2ar cos θ = 0 ⇒ r =

2a cos θ.

(ii) ∠OPQ = 90o, since it is an angle inscribed in a semicircle.

In the right triangle OPQ, |OP | = |OQ| cos θ, i.e., r = 2a cos
θ.

b) (i) Analogous to 4H-2a(i); ans: r = 2a sin θ.

(ii) analogous to 4H-2a(ii); note that ∠OQP = θ, since both angles are
complements of ∠POQ.

c) (i) OQP is a right triangle, |OP | = r, and ∠POQ = α − θ. The polar

equation is r cos(α − θ) = a, or in expanded form,

, or finally

24
 since from the right triangles OAQ and OBQ, we have
.

Since |OQ| = sin θ, we have:

d)
if P is above the x-axis, sin θ > 0, OP | = |OQ| − |QR|, or r = a − a sin θ; if
P is below the x-axis, sin θ < 0, OP | = |OQ| + |QR|, or r = a + a| sin θ| = a
− a sin θ. Thus the equation is r = a(1 − sin θ).

Briefly, when P = (0, 0), |PQ||PR| = a · a = a2, the constant.

e)
Using the law of cosines,
|PR|2 = r2 + a2 − 2ar cos θ;
|PQ|2 = r2 + a2 − 2ar cos(π − θ) = r2 + a2 + 2ar cos θ
Therefore
|PQ|2|PR|2 = (r2 + a2)2 − (2ar cos θ)2 = (a2)2
which simplifies to r2 = 2a2 cos2θ.

4H-3 a) r = sec θ =⇒ r cos θ = 1 =⇒ x = 1

b) r = 2a cos θ =⇒ r2 = r · 2a cos θ = 2ax =⇒ x2 + y2 =

2ax

c)r = (a + b cos θ) (This figure is a cardiod for a = b, a limac¸on

with a loop for 0 < a < b, and a lima¸con without a loop for a > b > 0.)

r2 = ar + br · cos θ = ar + bx =⇒ x2 + y2 = ax2 + y2 + bx

y parabola b=|c|hyperbola
r
θ
r r
r r b>|c| ellipse
b<
a 2a θ θ θ
θ x
1

limacon a<b cardioid (a=b) limacon a>b

8a 8b 8c 8d
(d)
r = a/(b + c cos θ)
r(b + c cos θ) = a =⇒ rb + cx = a rb = a
=⇒ =⇒
− cx =⇒ r 2b2 = a2 − 2acx + c 2 x 2 a2 −
=⇒ 2acx + (c 2 − b2)x 2 − b2 y 2 = 0
(e) r = 2a sin θ cos θ = 2axy/r2
r = a sin(2θ) =⇒
=⇒ r 3 = 2axy =⇒ (x2 + y 2)3/2 = 2axy
r = a cos 2 θ r = a sin 2θ r2 = a cos 2θ r2 = a sin 2θ

2 2

f)
a(x2 − y 2)

g)
2axy

h)

i)

26
85. Area and arclength in polar coordinates

4I-1 (dr/dθ)2 + r2dθ

a) sec2 θdθ

b) 2adθ

c) a2 + b2 + 2ab cos θdθ

d)

e) a 4cos2(2θ) + sin2(2θ)dθ

f) a 4sin2(2θ) + cos2(2θ)dθ

g) Use implicit differentiation:

2rr = 2a2 cos(2θ) =⇒ r = a2 cos(2θ)/r =⇒ (r)2 = a2 cos 2(2θ)/ sin(2θ)

Hence, using a common denominator and cos2 +sin2 = 1,

h) This is similar to (g):

i) 1 + a2e aθdθ
4I-2 dA = (r2/2)dθ. The main difficulty is to decide on the endpoints of
integration. Endpoints are successive times when r = 0.
cos(3θ) = 0 =⇒ 3θ = π/2 + kπ =⇒ θ = π/6 + kπ/3, k an integer.

Thus, A = (a2 cos 2(3 ) 2)

= a2 cos 2(3θ)dθ.
−π/6 0
(Stop here in Unit 4. Evaluated in Unit 5.)

θ = π/6

θ =−π/6

three-leaf
rose three
empty
sectors

e3π 1

4I-4 Endpoints are successive time when r = 0.

sin(2θ) = 0 =⇒ 2θ = kπ, k an integer.

Thus, .

4I-5 r = 2a cos θ, ds = 2adθ, −π/2 < θ < π/2. (The range was chosen
carefully so that r > 0.) Total length of the circle is 2πa. Since the upper

28
and lower semicircles are symmetric, it suffices to calculate the average
over the upper semicircle:

2a
r = 2a cos θ

4I-6 a) Since the upper and lower halves of the cardiod are symmetric, it
suffices to calculate the average distance to the x-axis just for a point on the
upper half.

We have r = a(1 − cos θ), and the distance to the x-axis is r sin θ, so

P
r

Q 0

√
= a 2 − 2cos θdθ = 2a sin(θ/2)dθ, using the half angle formula.

arclength
For the average, don’t use the half-angle version of the formula for ds, and
use the interval −π < θ < π, where sin θ is odd:
 Average

4I-7 dx = −a sin θdθ. So the semicircle y > 0 has area

But

So the area is πa2/2 as it should be for a semicircle.

Arclength: ds2 = dx2 + dy2

=⇒ (ds)2 = (−a sin θdθ)2 + (a cos θdθ)2 = a2(sin2 dθ + cos2 dθ)(dθ)2

=⇒ ds = adθ (obvious from picture).

ds
dθ

θ
-a a

30
86. Other applications

4J-1 Divide the water in the hole into n equal circular discs of thickness Δy.

Volume of each disc:

Energy to raise the disc of water at depth yi to surface: .
Adding up the energies for the different discs, and passing to the limit,

4J-2 Divide the hour into n equal small time intervals Δt.
At time ti, i = 1,...,n, there are x0e−kti grams of material, producing
approximately rx0e−kti Δt radiation units over the time interval [ti,ti + Δt].
Adding and passing to the limit,

4J-3 Divide up the pool into n thin concentric cylindrical shells, of radius
ri, i = 1,...,n, and thickness Δr.
The volume of the i-th shell is approximately 2π riD Δr.
k
The amount of chemical in the i-th shell is approximately
.
Adding, and passing to the limit,

gms.

32
4J-4 Divide the time interval into n equal small intervals of length Δt by the
points ti, i = 1,...,n.
The approximate number of heating units required to maintain the
temperature at 75o over the time interval [ti,ti + Δt]: is

Adding over the time intervals and passing to the limit:

total
heat

4J-5 Divide the month into n equal intervals of length Δt by the points ti, i
= 1,...,n.
Over the time interval [[Link] + Δt], the number of units produced is about
(10 + ti)Δt.
The cost of holding these in inventory until the end of the month is c(30
− ti)(10 + ti)Δt.
Adding and passing to the limit, total

4J-6 Divide the water in the tank into thin horizontal slices of width dy.

If the slice is at height y above the center of the tank, its radius is r2 − y2
.
This formula for the radius of the slice is correct even if y < 0 – i.e., the
slice is below the center of the tank – as long as −r < y < r, so that there
really is a slice at that height.
Volume of water in the slice = π(r2 − y2) dy
Weight of water in the slice = πw(r2 − y2) dy
 Work to lift this slice from the ground to the height h+y = πw(r2 −y2) dy
(h+y).

Total
work

In this last line, the even powers of y have the same value at −r and r, so
contribute
0 when it is evaluated; we get therefore

34