Mobile Computing

Dr. Monoj Kumar Muchahari

Kaziranga University
iNutrure

February 16, 2018

Dr. Monoj Kumar Muchahari (Kaziranga UniversityiNutrure)

Mobile Computing February 16, 2018 1 / 82
 Introduction

Presentation Outline

1 Introduction
Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications
Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications
Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications
Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks
GPRS
Wireless Local Area Network
Bluetooth
Personal Area Network (PAN)

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 Introduction

Introduction

Mobile computing as a generic term describing ability to use the technol-

ogy to wirelessly connect to and use centrally located information and/or
application software through the application of small, portable, and wireless
computing and communication devices.
Communication is one of the integral parts of science that has always
been a focus point for exchanging information among parties at loca-
tions physically apart.
After its discovery, telephones have replaced the telegrams and letters.
Similarly, the term ‘mobile’ has completely revolutionized the commu-
nication by opening up innovative applications that are limited to one’s
imagination.
Today, mobile communication has become the backbone of the society.
All the mobile system technologies have improved the way of living.

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 Introduction Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications

Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications

The first wireline telephone system was introduced in the year 1877.
Mobile communication systems as early as 1934 were based on Ampli-
tude Modulation (AM) schemes and only certain public organizations
maintained such systems.
With the demand for newer and better mobile radio communication
systems during the World War II and the development of Frequency
Modulation (FM) technique by Edwin Armstrong, the mobile radio
communication systems began to witness many new changes.
Mobile telephone was introduced in the year 1946.
However, during its initial three and a half decades it found very less
market penetration owing to high costs and numerous technological
drawbacks.

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 Introduction Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications

Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications (contd.)

But with the development of the cellular concept in the 1960s at the
Bell Laboratories, mobile communications began to be a promising
field of expanse which could serve wider populations.
Initially, mobile communication was restricted to certain official users
and the cellular concept was never even dreamt of being made com-
mercially available.
Moreover, even the growth in the cellular networks was very slow.
However, with the development of newer and better technologies start-
ing from the 1970s and with the mobile users now connected to the
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), there has been an astro-
nomical growth in the cellular radio and the personal communication
systems.
Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) was the first U.S. cellular
telephone system and it was deployed in 1983.

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 Introduction Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications

Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications (contd.)

Wireless services have since then been experiencing a 50per year growth
rate.
The number of cellular telephone users grew from 25000 in 1984 to
around 3 billion in the year 2007 and the demand rate is increasing day
by day.
For 2017 the number of mobile phone users is forecast to reach 4.77
billion.
The number of mobile phone users in the world is expected to pass the
five billion mark by 2019.
In 2016, an estimated 62.9 percent of the population worldwide already
owned a mobile phone.

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 Introduction Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications

Present Day Mobile Communication

Initially the mobile communication was limited between one pair of

users on single channel pair.
The range of mobility was defined by the transmitter power, type of
antenna used and the frequency of operation.
With the increase in the number of users, accommodating them within
the limited available frequency spectrum became a major problem.
To resolve this problem, the concept of cellular communication was
evolved.
The present day cellular communication uses a basic unit called cell.
Each cell consists of small hexagonal area with a base station located
at the center of the cell which communicates with the user.

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 Introduction Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications

Present Day Mobile Communication (contd.)

To accommodate multiple users Time Division multiple Access (TDMA),

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), Frequency Division Multiple
Access (FDMA) and their hybrids are used.
Numerous mobile radio standards have been deployed at various places
such as AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System), PACS (Personal Ac-
cess Communications System), GSM (Global System for Mobile com-
munication), NTT, PHS (Personal Handy-phone System) and IS-95,
each utilizing different set of frequencies and allocating different num-
ber of users and channels.

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 Introduction Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications

Present Day Mobile Communication

By definition, mobile radio terminal means any radio terminal that

could be moved during its operation.
Depending on the radio channel, there can be three different types of
mobile communication.
In general, however, a Mobile Station (MS) or subscriber unit commu-
nicates to a fixed Base Station (BS) which in turn communicates to
the desired user at the other end.
The MS consists of transceiver, control circuitry, duplexer and an an-
tenna while the BS consists of transceiver and channel multiplexer along
with antennas mounted on the tower.
The BS are also linked to a power source for the transmission of the
radio signals for communication and are connected to a fixed backbone
network.

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 Introduction Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications

Present Day Mobile Communication (contd.)

Mobile Switching Center (MSC) is sometimes also called Mobile Tele-

phone Switching Office (MTSO).
The radio signals emitted by the BS decay as the signals travel away
from it.
A minimum amount of signal strength is needed in order to be detected
by the mobile stations or mobile sets which are the hand-held personal
units (portables) or those installed in the vehicles (mobiles).
The region over which the signal strength lies above such a threshold
value is known as the coverage area of a BS.
The fixed backbone network is a wired network that links all the base
stations and also the landline and other telephone networks through
wires.

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 Introduction Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications

Present Day Mobile Communication (contd.)

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 Introduction Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks

Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks

1G: First Generation Networks

The first mobile phone system in the market was AMPS. Advanced Mobile
Phone System (AMPS) is an analog mobile phone system standard devel-
oped by Bell Labs, and officially introduced in the Americas on October 13,
1983, Israel in 1986, Australia in 1987, Singapore in 1988, and Pakistan in
1990. It was the first U.S. cellular telephone system, deployed in Chicago in
1983. The main technology of this first generation mobile system was FD-
MA/FDD (Frequency-division multiple access/Frequency-division duplex)
and analog FM(Frequency modulation).

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 Introduction Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks

Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks

(contd.)

2G: Second Generation Networks

Digital modulation formats were introduced in this generation with the
main technology as TDMA/FDD (Time-division multiple access) and CD-
MA/FDD (Code-division multiple access). The 2G systems introduced three
popular TDMA standards and one popular CDMA standard in the market.
These are as follows:
TDMA/FDD Standards
1 Global System for Mobile (GSM): The GSM standard, introduced by
Groupe Special Mobile, was aimed at designing a uniform pan-European
mobile system. It was the first fully digital system utilizing the 900 MHz
frequency band. The initial GSM had 200 KHz radio channels, 8 full-
rate or 16 half-rate TDMA channels per carrier, encryption of speech,

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 Introduction Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks

Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks

(contd.)

low speed data services and support for SMS for which it gained quick
popularity.
2 Interim Standard 136 (IS-136): It was popularly known as North Amer-
ican Digital Cellular (NADC) system. In this system, there were 3 full-
rate TDMA users over each 30 KHz channel. The need of this system
was mainly to increase the capacity over the earlier analog (AMPS)
system.
3 Pacific Digital Cellular (PDC): This standard was developed as the
counterpart of NADC in Japan. The main advantage of this stan-
dard was its low transmission bit rate which led to its better spectrum
utilization.

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 Introduction Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks

Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks

(contd.)

CDMA/FDD Standard
Interim Standard 95 (IS-95): The IS-95 standard, also popularly known as
CDMA-One, uses 64 orthogonally coded users and codewords are transmit-
ted simultaneously on each of 1.25 MHz channels. Certain services that
have been standardized as a part of IS-95 standard are: short messaging
service, slotted paging, over-the-air activation (meaning the mobile can be
activated by the service provider without any third party intervention), en-
hanced mobile station identities etc.

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 Introduction Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks

Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks

(contd.)

2.5G Mobile Networks

In an effort to retrofit the 2G standards for compatibility with increased
throughput rates to support modern Internet application, the new data cen-
tric standards were developed to be overlaid on 2G standards and this is
known as 2.5G standard. Here, the main upgradation techniques are:
supporting higher data rate transmission for web browsing
supporting e-mail traffic
enabling location-based mobile service
2.5G networks also brought into the market some popular application, a few
of which are: Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), General Packet Radio
Service (GPRS), High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD), Enhanced
Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) etc.

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 Introduction Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks

Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks

(contd.)

3G: Third Generation Networks

3G is the third generation of mobile phone standards and technology, super-
seding 2.5G. It is based on the International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
family of standards under the International Mobile Telecommunications-
2000 (IMT-2000). ITU launched IMT-2000 program, which, together with
the main industry and standardization bodies worldwide, targets to imple-
ment a global frequency band that would support a single, ubiquitous wire-
less communication standard for all countries, to provide the framework for
the definition of the 3G mobile systems. Several radio access technologies
have been accepted by ITU as part of the IMT-2000 framework.

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 Introduction Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks

Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks

(contd.)
IMT-2000 defines a set of technical requirements for the realization of such
targets, which can be summarized as follows:
high data rates: 144 kbps in all environments and 2 Mbps in low-
mobility and indoor environments
symmetrical and asymmetrical data transmission circuit-switched and
packet-switched-based services
speech quality comparable to wire-line quality
improved spectral efficiency
several simultaneous services to end users for multimedia services
seamless incorporation of second-generation cellular systems
global roaming
open architecture for the rapid introduction of new services and tech-
nology.
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 Introduction Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks

Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks

(contd.)

3G Standards and Access Technologies

ITU finally approved a family of five 3G standards, which are part of the 3G
framework known as IMT-2000:
W-CDMA
CDMA2000
TD-SCDMA
Europe, Japan, and Asia have agreed upon a 3G standard called the Univer-
sal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), which is WCDMA oper-
ating at 2.1 GHz. UMTS and WCDMA are often used as synonyms. In the
USA and other parts of America, WCDMA will have to use another part of
the radio spectrum.

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 Introduction Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks

Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks

(contd.)

3G W-CDMA (UMTS)
WCDMA is based on DS-CDMA (direct sequencecode division multiple ac-
cess) technology in which user-information bits are spread over a wide band-
width (much larger than the information signal bandwidth) by multiplying
the user data with the spreading code. The wide carrier bandwidth of
WCDMA allows supporting high user-data rates and also has certain per-
formance benefits, such as increased multipath diversity. The actual carrier
spacing to be used by the operator may vary on a 200-kHz grid between
approximately 4.4 and 5 MHz, depending on spectrum arrangement and the
interference situation.

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 Introduction Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks

Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks

(contd.)

3G CDMA2000
Code division multiple access 2000 is the natural evolution of IS-95 (cd-
maOne). It includes additional functionality that increases its spectral ef-
ficiency and data rate capability.(code division multiple access) is a mobile
digital radio technology where channels are defined with codes (PN se-
quences). CDMA permits many simultaneous transmitters on the same
frequency channel. Since more phones can be served by fewer cell sites,
CDMA-based standards have a significant economic advantage over TDMA-
or FDMA-based standards. This standard is being developed by Telecom-
munications Industry Association (TIA) of US and is is standardized by
3GPP2.

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 Introduction Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks

Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks

(contd.)

3G TD-SCDMA Time Division-Synchronous Code Division Multiple Ac-

cess, or TD-SCDMA, is a 3G mobile telecommunications standard, be-
ing pursued in the Peoples Republic of China by the Chinese Academy of
Telecommunications Technology (CATT). This proposal was adopted by
ITU as one of the 3G options in late 1999. TD-SCDMA is based on spread
spectrum technology.

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 Introduction Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks

Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks

(contd.)

4G is the fourth generation of broadband cellular network technology, suc-

ceeding 3G. A 4G system must provide capabilities defined by ITU in IMT
Advanced. Potential and current applications include amended mobile web
access, IP telephony, gaming services, high-definition mobile TV, video con-
ferencing, and 3D television.
The first-release Long Term Evolution (LTE) standard (a 4G candidate sys-
tem) has been commercially deployed in Oslo, Norway, and Stockholm,
Sweden since 2009.

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 Introduction Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks

Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks

(contd.)
An IMT-Advanced cellular system must fulfill the following requirements:
Be based on an all-IP packet switched network.
Have peak data rates of up to approximately 100 Mbit/s for high mo-
bility such as mobile access and up to approximately 1 Gbit/s for low
mobility such as nomadic/local wireless access.
Be able to dynamically share and use the network resources to support
more simultaneous users per cell.
Use scalable channel bandwidths of 520 MHz, optionally up to 40 MHz.
Have peak link spectral efficiency of 15-bit/s/Hz in the downlink, and
6.75-bit/s/Hz in the up link (meaning that 1 Gbit/s in the downlink
should be possible over less than 67 MHz bandwidth).
System spectral efficiency is, in indoor cases, 3-bit/s/Hz/cell for down-
link and 2.25-bit/s/Hz/cell for up link.
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 Introduction Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks

Different generations (1G to 4G) of Cellular Networks

(contd.)

Smooth handovers across heterogeneous networks.

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 Introduction GPRS

GPRS

The general packet radio system (GPRS) provides packet radio access
for mobile Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) and time-
division multiple access (TDMA) users.
GPRS combines mobile access with Internet protocol (IP)-based ser-
vices, using packet data transmission that makes highly efficient use of
radio spectrum and enables high data speeds.
It gives users increased bandwidth, making it possible and cost-effective
to remain constantly connected, as well as to send and receive data as
text, graphics and video.
GPRS supports the world’s leading packet-based Internet communica-
tion protocols, Internet protocol (IP) and X.25, a protocol that is used
mainly in Europe.
GPRS enables any existing IP or X.25 application to operate over a
GSM cellular connection.
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 Introduction GPRS

GPRS (contd.)
GPRS gives almost instantaneous connection set-up and continuous
connection to the Internet.
GPRS users are able to log on to an APN (Access Point Name) and
have access to many services or an office network (without the need
to dial-up) and remain continuously connected until they log off, only
paying when data is actually transmitted.
A physical end-to-end connection is not required because network re-
sources and bandwidth are only used when data is actually transferred.
This makes extremely efficient use of available radio bandwidth.
GPRS is based on GSM communication and complement existing ser-
vices such as circuit switched cellular phone connections and the Short
Message Service (SMS).
It also complement Bluetooth, a standard for replacing wired connec-
tions between devices with wireless radio connections.

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 Introduction GPRS

GPRS (contd.)

GPRS Applications
GPRS enables a variety of new and unique services to the mobile wireless
subscriber. These mobile services have unique characteristics that provide
enhanced value to customers. These characteristics include the following:
Mobility - The ability to maintain constant voice and data communi-
cations while on the move
Immediacy - Allows subscribers to obtain connectivity when needed,
regardless of location and without a lengthy login session
Localization - Allows subscribers to obtain information relevant to their
current location

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 Introduction GPRS

GPRS (contd.)
The combination of these characteristics provides a wide spectrum of possi-
ble applications that can be offered to mobile subscribers. The core network
components offered by Cisco enable seamless access to these applications,
whether they reside in the service provider’s network or the public Internet.
In general, applications can be separated into two high-level categories: cor-
porate and consumer. These include:
CommunicationsE-mail; fax; unified messaging; intranet/Internet ac-
cess
Value-added servicesInformation services; games
E-commerceRetail; ticket purchasing; banking; financial trading
Location-based applicationsNavigation; traffic conditions; airline/rail
schedules; location finder
Vertical applicationsFreight delivery; fleet management; sales-force au-
tomation
Advertising
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 Introduction GPRS

GPRS (contd.)

GPRS working
In order to offer GPRS services operators must install a new network overlay
to allow migration to packet switching. The key new elements in a GPRS
network are:
Serving GPRS support node (SGSN) - the node within the GSM infras-
tructure that sends and receives packet data to and from the mobile
stations and keeps track of the mobiles within its service area. SGSNs
send queries to Home Location Registers (HLRs) to obtain profile data
of GPRS subscribers and detects new GPRS mobile stations in a given
service area. The SGSN performs the functions include mobility man-
agement (tracking a mobile location), user verification and collection
of billing data

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 Introduction GPRS

GPRS (contd.)
Gateway GPRS support node (GGSN) the node that interfaces to ex-
ternal public data networks (PDNs) such as the Internet and X.25.
GGSNs maintain routing information that is necessary to tunnel the
Protocol Data Units (PDUs) to the SGSNs that service particular mo-
bile stations. Other functions include network and subscriber screening
and address mapping.
Charging Gateway - an interface between the charging gateway func-
tionality and the billing system. The charging gateway makes a log
entry whenever there is network activity such as data being transferred,
the charging terms changing (peak/off-peak), an alteration in the qual-
ity of service or if a GPRS session ends (known as a packet data protocol
(PDP) context). The main functions of the charging gateway are the
collection of GPRS data records from the GPRS nodes, intermediate
data record storage, buffering and transfer of data records to the me-
diation/billing systems.
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 Introduction GPRS

GPRS (contd.)

GPRS Tunnelling Protocol (GTP) a specialized protocol that operates

over the top of standard TCP/IP protocols to encapsulate IP or X.25
packets so that they can be forwarded between the SGSN and GGSN

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 Introduction GPRS

GPRS (contd.)

In addition two network elements must also be enhanced in order to support

GPRS:
Base Station System (BSS): must be enhanced to recognize and send
user data to the SGSN that is serving the area
Home Location Register (HLR): must be enhanced to register GPRS
user profiles and respond to queries originating from SGSNs regarding
these profiles.

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 Introduction GPRS

GPRS (contd.)

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Mobile Computing February 16, 2018 34 / 82
 Introduction GPRS

GPRS (contd.)
an example of a business person with a laptop connected to a GPRS
cellular phone.
The GPRS phone communicates with a GSM base station that sends
the data packets to the SGSN (whereas a circuit-switched data calls is
connected to voice networks by the mobile switching centre.)
The SGSN communicates with the GGSN, a system that maintains
connections with other networks such as the Internet, X.25 networks
or private networks.
A GPRS network can use multiple serving nodes, but requires only
one gateway node for connecting to an external network such as the
Internet.
IP packets from the Internet addressed for the mobile station are re-
ceived by the GGSN, forwarded to the SGSN and then transmitted to
the mobile station.
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Mobile Computing February 16, 2018 35 / 82
 Introduction GPRS

GPRS (contd.)

To forward IP or X.25 packets between each other, the SGSN and

GGSN encapsulate these packets using a specialized protocol called the
GPRS tunnel protocol (GTP) which operates over the top of standard
TCP/IP protocols.

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 Introduction GPRS

GPRS (contd.)

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Mobile Computing February 16, 2018 37 / 82
 Introduction GPRS

GPRS (contd.)

Charging Gateway The charging gateway is a single logical interface

between the charging gateway functionality and the billing system. The
charging gateway functionality can be either a separate centralised network
element or a distributed resident in SGSN and GGSN.

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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

WLAN

Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) links two or more devices using
a wireless communication method.
It usually provides a connection through an Access Point (AP) to the
wider internet.
This gives users the ability to move around within a local coverage area
and still be connected to the network.
Just as the cordless telephone frees people to make a phone call from
anywhere in their home, a WLAN permits people to use their computers
anywhere in the network area, such as an office building or corporate
campus.
Due to their ease of installation and the increasing popularity of laptop
computers, WLANs have been widely deployed in the past two decades.

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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

WLAN (contd.)

Types of WLANs
The basic building block of a WLAN network is the Basic Service Set
(BSS), which is simply a group of stations that communicate with
each other.
Communication takes place within a somewhat fuzzy area, called the
‘basic service area’, defined by the propagation characteristics at a
given rate in the medium.
When a station is in the basic service area, it can communicate with
the other members of the BSS.
Generally, BSSs come in three flavors: independent networks,
infrastructure networks and extended service areas.

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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

Independent BSS (IBSS)

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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

Independent BSS (IBSS) (contd.)

Independent BSS (IBSS) is also called an ad-hoc network.

Stations in an IBSS can communicate directly with each other.
stations A, B and C can transmit packets directly to each other without
requiring relaying.
The smallest possible IEEE 802.11 network is an IBSS with two stations.
Typically, IBSSs are composed of a small number of stations set up for
a specific purpose and for a short period of time.
One common use is to create a short-lived network to support a single
meeting in a conference room.
As the meeting begins, the participants create an IBSS to share data.
When the meeting ends, the IBSS is dissolved.

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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

Infrastructure BSS (IBSS)

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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

Infrastructure BSS (IBSS) (contd.)

Infrastructure BSS is common in practice.
Infrastructure networks are distinguished by the use of an AP.
APs are used for all communications in infrastructure networks, includ-
ing communication between mobile nodes in the same basic service
area.
For instance, if station A needs to communicate with station B, the
communication must take two hops: first, the station A transfers the
packet to the AP; second, the AP relays the packet to station B.
With all communications relayed through an AP, the basic service area
corresponding to an infrastructure BSS is defined by the points in which
transmissions from the AP can be received.
Although multi-hop transmission takes more transmission power and
time than a directed packet transmission from the sender to the re-
ceiver, it has two major advantages.
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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

Infrastructure BSS (IBSS) (contd.)

First, an infrastructure BSS is defined by the distance from the AP.
All mobile stations are required to be within reach of the AP, but no
restriction is placed on the distance between mobile stations themselves.
Thus a large communication range is available for infrastructure BSS.
Second, allowing direct communication between mobile stations would
save transmission power, but requires them to maintain neighbor rela-
tionships with all other mobile stations within the service area.
APs in infrastructure networks are in a position to assist with stations
attempting to save power.
APs can note when a station enters a power-saving mode and buffer
packets for it.
Battery-operated stations can turn the wireless transceiver off and
power it up only to transmit and retrieve buffered packets from the
AP, which can give the battery-operated stations a longer service time.

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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

Infrastructure BSS (IBSS) (contd.)

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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

Infrastructure BSS (IBSS) (contd.)

Extended Service Set (ESS)
BSSs can create coverage in small offices and homes, but they cannot
provide network coverage to larger areas.
However, it is possible to link BSSs into an Extended Service Set (ESS).
An ESS is created by chaining BSSs together with a backbone network.
The ESS is the union of the BSSs 1 and 2. In each BSS, AP connects
to each station wirelessly.
AP 1 and AP 2 are connected by the backbone network, which can be
either a wireless or a wired network.
If station A wants to transmit a packet to station D, the communication
must take three hops:
first, the station A transfers the packet to AP 1; second, AP 1 relays
the packet to AP 2 by the backbone network; third, AP 2 forwards the
packet to station D.
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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

Infrastructure BSS (IBSS) (contd.)

Though the backbone network will take some transmission power, it

increases the service area of the WLAN greatly.

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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

Infrastructure BSS (IBSS) (contd.)

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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

Standards

IEEE 802.11 is a set of media access control (MAC) and physical

layer (PHY) specifications for implementing wireless local area net-
work (WLAN) computer communication in the 900 MHz and 2.4, 3.6,
5, and 60 GHz frequency bands.
They are created and maintained by the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE) LAN/MAN Standards Committee (IEEE
802).
The base version of the standard was released in 1997, and has had
subsequent amendments.

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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

Standards (contd.)
Standards
802.11
In 1997, the IEEE created the first WLAN standard. They called it
802.11 after the name of the group formed to oversee its development.
Unfortunately, 802.11 only supported a maximum network bandwidth
of 2 Mbps too slow for most applications. For this reason, ordinary
802.11 wireless products are no longer manufactured.
802.11b
IEEE expanded on the original 802.11 standard in July 1999, creating
the 802.11b specification. 802.11b supports bandwidth up to 11 Mbps,
comparable to traditional Ethernet.

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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

Standards (contd.)
802.11a
While 802.11b was in development, IEEE created a second extension to
the original 802.11 standard called 802.11a. 802.11a supports
bandwidth up to 54 Mbps and signals in a regulated frequency
spectrum around 5 GHz. This higher frequency compared to 802.11b
shortens the range of 802.11a networks.
802.11g
In 2002 and 2003, WLAN products supporting a newer standard called
802.11g emerged on the market. 802.11g attempts to combine the
best of both 802.11a and 802.11b. 802.11g supports bandwidth up to
54 Mbps, and it uses the 2.4 GHz frequency for greater range. 802.11g
is backward compatible with 802.11b, meaning that 802.11g access
points will work with 802.11b wireless network adapters and vice versa.

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Standards (contd.)

802.11n
802.11n (also sometimes known as ”Wireless N”) was designed to
improve on 802.11g in the amount of bandwidth supported by utilizing
multiple wireless signals and antennas (called MIMO technology)
instead of one. Industry standards groups ratified 802.11n in 2009 with
specifications providing for up to 300 Mbps of network bandwidth.
802.11n also offers somewhat better range over earlier Wi-Fi standards
due to its increased signal intensity, and it is backward-compatible with
802.11b/g gear.
802.11ac
The newest generation of Wi-Fi signaling in popular use, 802.11ac
utilizes dual-band wireless technology, supporting simultaneous
connections on both the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz Wi-Fi bands. 802.11ac
offers backward compatibility to 802.11b/g/n and bandwidth rated up
to 1300 Mbps on the 5 GHz band plus up to 450 Mbps on 2.4 GHz.

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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

Transmission Media

There are three media that can be used for transmission over wireless LANs.
Infrared, radio frequency and microwave.
Infrared : Infrared systems (IR systems) are simple in design and there-
fore inexpensive. They use the same signal frequencies used on fiber
optic links. These systems are not bandwidth limited and thus can
achieve transmission speeds greater than the other systems. Infrared
transmission operates in the light spectrum and does not require a
license from the FCC to operate.
Microwave : Microwave (MW) systems operate at less than 500 milli-
watts of power in compliance with FCC regulations. MW systems are
by far the fewest on the market. They use narrow-band transmission
with single frequency modulation and are set up mostly in the 5.8 GHz
band.

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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

Transmission Media (contd.)

Radio : Radio frequency systems use spread spectrum technology. This

spread spectrum technology currently comes in two types: direct se-
quence spread spectrum (DSSS) and frequency hopping spread spec-
trum (FHSS). There is a lot of overhead involved with spread spectrum
and so most of the DSSS and FHSS systems have historically had lower
data rates than IR or MW.

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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

Advantages

Some of the advantages of WLAN are mentioned below:

Availability of low-cost portable equipments: Due to the technology
enhancements, the equipment cost that are required for WLAN set-up
have reduced a lot.
Mobility: An increasing number of LAN users are becoming mobile.
These mobile users require that they are connected to the network re-
gardless of where they are because they want simultaneous access to
the network. This makes the use of cables, or wired LANs, impracti-
cal if not impossible. Wireless LAN can provide users mobility, which
is likely to increase productivity, user convenience and various service
opportunities.

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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

Advantages (contd.)
Installation speed and simplicity: Wireless LANs are very easy to in-
stall. There is no requirement for wiring every workstation and every
room. This ease of installation makes wireless LANs inherently flexi-
ble. If a workstation must be moved, it can be done easily and without
additional wiring, cable drops or reconfiguration of the network.
Installation flexibility: If a company moves to a new location, the wire-
less system is much easier to move than ripping up all of the cables that
a wired system would have snaked throughout the building. This also
provides portability. Wireless technology allows network to go anywhere
wire cannot reach.
Reduced cost of ownership: While the initial cost of wireless LAN can
be higher than the cost of wired LAN hardware, it is envisaged that
the overall installation expenses and life cycle costs can be significantly
lower. Long-term cost-benefits are greater in dynamic environment
requiring frequent moves and changes.
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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

Advantages (contd.)

Scalability: Wireless LAN can be configured in a variety of topologies

to meet the users need and can be easily scaled to cover a large area
with thousands of users roaming within it.

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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

Wireless Local Loop (WLL)

Wireless local loop (WLL) is a system that connects subscriber to a

Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) using radio signal as a
substitute for copper for all or part of the connection between the
subscriber and the switch.
The technological developments in the wireless cellular area in re-
cent years have provided opportunities for cost-effective service offering
through deployment of the wireless local loop (WLL).
WLL uses radio signals as a substitute for copper to complete the “last
mile” between the subscriber (premise) and the PSTN.
Sometimes called radio in the local loop (RLL), such systems can be
deployed as large fixed radio access (FRA) networks or as clusters of
microcellular networks for low-mobility users.
WLL phones usually stay in a relatively fixed location.

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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

Wireless Local Loop (WLL) (contd.)

WLL phones often connect to AC current rather than using batteries.

WLL are used to provide voice, fax, and data connections.

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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

Wireless Local Loop (WLL) (contd.)

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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

Wireless Local Loop (WLL) (contd.)

Using WLL for data transfer applications rather than using cable or DSL is
also becoming a viable option because of the low setup costs of WLL.

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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

CATEGORIES OF WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY

WLL technology can be implemented across 4 categories of wireless tech-

nology. They are:
Analog cellular
Digital cellular (CDMA)
Personal Communication Services (PCS)/ Personal Communication
network (PCN) of Japan.
Cordless Telephones 2nd generation(CT-2)/ Digital European
Cordless Telecommunication (DECT)

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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

CATEGORIES OF WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY (contd.)

In India WLL services are implemented through CDMA and CorDECT.

corDECT is an advanced, wireless access system developed by Mi-
das communication technologies and Indian Institute of Technology,
Madras, in association with Analog Devices Inc., USA.
corDECT provides a complete wireless access solution for a new and ex-
panding telecommunication network with seamless integration of both
voice and internet services.
It is the only cost-effective Wireless Local Loop (WLL) system in the
world that provides simultaneously toll-quality voice and 35 kbps or 70
kbps Internet access to wireless subscribers.
corDECT is based on DECT (Digital Enhanced Cordless Communi-
cation) standard specification from the European Telecommunication
Standards Institute (ETSI).

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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

CATEGORIES OF WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY (contd.)

Different technologies will serve some applications better than others. Ul-
timately, the appropriate technology will depend on an array of application
considerations, such as
size and population density of the market (rural versus urban)
service needs of the subscriber base (residential versus business; plain
old telephone services (POTS) versus data access, etc.).

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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

Advantages and disadvantages of WLL

In comparison to the alternative of deploying copper lines, WLL technology

offers a number of key advantages:
Faster deployment: WLL systems can be deployed in weeks or months
as compared to the months or years need for the deployment of above-
ground or underground copper wire. Even with higher costs per sub-
scriber that may be associated with the WLL terminal and base station
equipment, the faster rate of deployment can permit a higher return
on investment.
Lower deployment costs: The deployment of WLL technology involves
considerably less heavy construction than does the laying of copper
lines. The lower construction costs may be more than offset by the
additional equipment costs associated with WLL technology, but, in
urban areas especially, the process of routing cable to individual house-
holds is also much more time consuming than deploying wireless base

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Advantages and disadvantages of WLL (contd.)

stations, which are shared by many subscribers. Wireline networks also

take more time to deploy than WLL networks because they require
government right of way authorization to dig trenches through public
streets.
Lower network maintenance, management, and operating costs: Espe-
cially in areas where the deployment of copper lines has the potential
to be haphazardly performed, wireless equipment can be less failure
prone than copper wire and can be less vulnerable to sabotage, theft,
or damage due to the elements or other parties. In some WLL systems,
network management, including fault-finding and system reconfigura-
tion, can be conducted from a centralized location to fully administer
the WLL network between the telephone network interface and the sub-
scriber terminal. The overall result is reduced lifetime network costs.

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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

Advantages and disadvantages of WLL (contd.)

Lower network extension costs: Wireless local loop technology intrinsi-

cally offers flexibility to meet uncertain levels of penetration and sub-
scriber growth rates. Once the WLL infrastructure is in place, each
incremental subscriber can be installed at very little cost. WLL sys-
tems that are designed to be modular and scalable can furthermore
allow the pace of network deployment to closely match demand, min-
imizing the costs associated with underutilized plant. Such systems
are flexible enough to meet uncertain levels of penetration and rates of
growth.
High bandwidth is available providing: - Video; - High-speed Internet
access; and - Telephony services.

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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

Advantages and disadvantages of WLL (contd.)

Disadvantages
The technology is more costly due to the need for research and devel-
opment Moreover, some network operators fear technological obsoles-
cence , that if a commitment is made to a specific WLL technology
today, then within a few years it may be surpassed by technologies
currently under development.
The technology has not been tested over a long term of time for reliabil-
ity and repair costs The disadvantages of a wireless local loop solution,
lie in the fact that much of the technology particularly on the digital
side, is relatively untried.
Certain technologies are not available in all areas, which leaves peo-
ple with the unsupported technology disconnected The capital cost of
WLL technology, even when it compares favorably to the deployment of
copper lines, remains outside the reach of many government or private
network operators.
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 Introduction Wireless Local Area Network

Advantages and disadvantages of WLL (contd.)

Wireless technology requires that data be sent over open space, which
makes it susceptible to interception and decreases the security of the
transmission

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 Introduction Bluetooth

Bluetooth

Bluetooth is an open standard for wireless connectivity with supporters

mostly from the PC and cell phone industries.
Its primary market is for data and voice transfer between communica-
tion devices and PCs.
Bluetooth, is a radio frequency (RF) technology utilizing the unlicensed
2.5 GHz industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) band.
The industrial, scientific, and medical radio band (ISM band) refers to
a group of radio bands or parts of the radio spectrum that are interna-
tionally reserved for the use of radio frequency (RF) energy intended
for scientific, medical and industrial requirements rather than for com-
munications.
Target applications include PC and peripheral networking, hidden com-
puting, and data synchronization such as for address books and calen-
dars.
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 Introduction Bluetooth

Bluetooth History

Bluetooth was invented in 1994 by L. M. Ericsson of Sweden.

Because of the unlimited potential of Bluetooth wireless technology
(BWT), the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) was formed in
1998 to develop the Bluetooth Specification IEEE 802.15.
The standard is named after Harald Blaatand “Bluetooth” II, king of
Denmark 940981A.D.
The Bluetooth SIG adopted the code name as a tribute to the tenth-
century Viking king Harald Bltand who peacefully united Denmark and
Norway.
Harald liked to eat blueberries, which gave his teeth the coloration that
lead to the nickname “Bluetooth.”

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 Introduction Bluetooth

Why Bluetooth?

Bluetooth attempts to provide significant advantages over other data

transfer technologies, such as IrDA and HomeRF, vying for similar mar-
kets.
The Infrared Data Association (IrDA) is an industry-driven interest
group that was founded in 1993 by around 50 companies (TV remote,
1 m, line-of-sight).
HomeRF (for home radio frequency) is a home networking standard
developed by Proxim Inc. that combines the 802.11b and Digital En-
hanced Cordless Telecommunication (DECT) portable phone standards
into a single system (distances of up to 150 ft).
The standard is named after Harald Blaatand “Bluetooth” II, king of
Denmark 940981A.D.

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 Introduction Bluetooth

Why Bluetooth? (contd.)

The Bluetooth SIG adopted the code name as a tribute to the tenth-
century Viking king Harald Bltand who peacefully united Denmark and
Norway.
Harald liked to eat blueberries, which gave his teeth the coloration that
lead to the nickname “Bluetooth.”
Bluetooth is capable of wireless device connections up to 10 m (up
to 100 m if the transmitter’s power is increased), devices need not
be within line of sight and may even connect through walls or other
nonmetal objects.
Bluetooth supports only 780 kb/s, which may be used for 721 kb/s
unidirectional data transfer (57.6 kb/s return direction) or up to 432.6
kb/s symmetric data transfer.
Bluetooth’s main strength is its ability to simultaneously handle both
data and voice transmissions.
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 Introduction Bluetooth

Why Bluetooth? (contd.)

It is capable of supporting one asynchronous data channel and up to

three synchronous voice channels, or one channel supporting both voice
and data. This capability combined with ad hoc device connection
and automatic service discovery make it a superior solution for mobile
devices and Internet applications.

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 Introduction Bluetooth

Why Bluetooth? (contd.)

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 Introduction Bluetooth

How Bluetooth works

Every device will have to be equipped with a microchip (transceiver)

that transmits and receives in the frequency of 2.4 GHz that is available
in the whole world.
Bluetooth link control hardware, integrated as either one chip or a
radio module and a baseband module, implements the RF, baseband,
and link manager portions of the Bluetooth specification.
This hardware handles radio transmission and reception as well as re-
quired digital signal processing for the baseband protocol.
Its functions include establishing connections, support for asynchronous
(data) and synchronous (voice) links, error correction, and authentica-
tion.
The link manager firmware provided with the baseband CPU performs
low-level device discovery, link setup, authentication, and link configu-
ration.
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 Introduction Bluetooth

How Bluetooth works (contd.)

Link managers on separate devices communicate using the Link Man-

agement Protocol, which utilizes the services of the underlying link
controller (baseband).

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 Introduction Bluetooth

How Bluetooth works (contd.)

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 Introduction Personal Area Network (PAN)

Personal Area Network (PAN)

A personal area network (PAN) or wireless personal network (WPAN)

refers to the interconnection of information technology devices or gad-
gets within the environment of an individual user (typically within 10
meters or 33 feed).
These interconnected devices might include laptop computers, PDAs,
cellphones, printers, PCs or other wearable computer devices.
PANs can be wireless or constructed with cables.
USB and FireWire often link together a wired PAN, while WPANs typ-
ically use Bluetooth (and are called piconets) or sometimes infrared
connections and ZigBee (Is a short-range, low-power computer net-
working protocol that complies with the IEEE 802.15.4 standard).
A master-slave device relationship can take place in a PAN where a
number of devices connect to the “main” device called the master.

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 Introduction Personal Area Network (PAN)

Personal Area Network (PAN) (contd.)

The slaves relay data through the master device. With Bluetooth, such
a setup could be as large as 100 meters (330 feet).
Although PANs are, by definition, personal, they can still access the
internet under certain conditions. For example, a device within a PAN
can be connected to a LAN which has access to the internet, which is
a WAN.
For instance, a surgery room in a hospital might have its own PAN set
up so that the surgeon can communicate with the other team members
in the room.
It’s unnecessary to have all their communication fed through a larger
network only to be received by people a few feet away.
Another example is with a wireless keyboard or even a mouse. They
don’t need to operate computers in other buildings or cities, so they’re
instead built to just communicate with a nearby, usually line-of-sight
device like a computer or tablet.
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 Introduction Personal Area Network (PAN)

Personal Area Network (PAN) (contd.)

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