Chapter 3 Vectors in
2-Space and 3-Space
Chapter Contents
3.1 Introduction to Vectors (Geometric)
3.2 Norm of a Vector; Vector Arithmetic
3.3 Dot Product; Projections
3.4 Cross Product
3.5 Lines and Planes in 3-Space
3.1 Introduction to
Vectors (Geometric)
Geometric Vectors
Symbolically, we shall denote vectors in lowercase
boldface type. All our scalars will be real numbers and
will be denoted in lowercase italic type
terminal point • The vector of length
zero is called the zero
initial point vector and is denoted
by 0.
• Since there is no
natural direction for
the zero vector
• the negative of v, is
defined to be the
vector having the
same magnitude as v,
but oppositely directed.
Definition
If v and w are any two
vectors, then the sum v+w
is the vector determined as
follows: Position the vector
w so that its initial point
coincides with the terminal
point of v. The vector v+w
is represented by the arrow
from the initial point of v to
the terminal point of w.
Definition
If v and w are any
two vectors, then the
difference of w from
v is defined by
v – w = v + (-w)
Definition
If v is a nonzero vector and
k is nonzero real number
(scalar), then the product kv
is defined to be the vector
whose length is |k| times
the length of v and whose
direction is the same as that
of v if k > 0 and opposite to
that of v if k < 0. We define
kv =0 if k = 0 or v = 0.
A vector of the form kv is
called a scalar multiple.
Vectors in coordinate Systems(1/2)
In Figure 3.1.6, that v has
been positioned so its
initial point is at the origin
of a rectangular
coordinate system. The
coordinates v1 , v2 of
the terminal point of v are
called the components of
v, and we write
v (v1 , v2 )
Vectors in coordinate
Systems(2/2)
If v (v1 , v2 ) and w (w1 , w2 )
two vectors are equivalent if
and only if v1 w1 and v2 w2
and
Vectors in 3-Space (1/4)
coordinate axes
• Each pair of coordinate
axes determines a plane
called a coordinate
origin plane. These are
referred to as the xy-
plane, the xz-plane,
and the yz-plane.
• To each point P in 3-
space we assign a triple
of numbers (x, y, z),
called the coordinates
rectangular coordinate system of P.
Vectors in 3-Space (2/4)
Rectangular coordinate
systems in 3-space fall
into two categories,
left-handed and right-
handed.
In this book we shall use
only right-handed
coordinate systems.
Vectors in 3-Space (3/4)
A vector v in 3-space is positioned
so its initial point is at the origin of a
rectangular coordinate system. The
coordinates of the terminal point of
v are called the components of v,
and we write v (v1 , v2 , v3 )
If v (v1 , v2 , v3 ) and w (w1 , w2 , w3 ) are two vectors
in 3-space, then
v and w are equivalent if and only if v1 w1 , v2 w2 , v3 w3
v w (v1 w1 , v2 w2 , v3 w3 )
kv (kv1 , kv2 , kv3 ), where k is any scalar
Vectors in 3-Space (4/4)
Sometimes a vector is positioned so that
its initial point is not at the origin.
If the vector P1 P2 has initial point P1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 )
and terminal point P2 ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ), then
P1 P2 ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) ( x2 x1 , y2 y1 , z 2 z1 )
In 2 - space the vector with initial point P1 ( x1 y1 ) and terminal point
P1 ( x1 y1 ) is
P1 P2 ( x2 x1 , y2 y1 )
Example 1
Vector Computations with Components
If v=(1,-3,2) and w=(4,2,1),then
v + w=(5,-1,3), 2v=(2,-6,4) -w=(-4,-2,-1),
v – w=v + (-w)=(-3,-5,1)
Example 2
Finding the components of a Vector
The components of the vector v P1 P2 with initial point P1 (2,1,4)
and terminal point P2 (7,5,8) are
v (7 2,5 (1), (8) 4) (5,6,12)
Translation of Axes
In Figure 3.1.14a we have translated
the axes of an xy-coordinate system to
obtain an x’y’-coordinate system whose
O’ is at point (x ,y)=(k ,l ).
A point P in 2-space now has both (x ,y)
coordinates and (x’ ,y’) coordinates.
x’= x – k , y’= y – l , these formulas
are called the translation equations.
In 3-space the translation equations
are x’= x – k , y’= y – l , z’= z – m
where ( k, l, m ) are the xyz-
coordinates of the x’y’z’-origin.
Example 3
Using the Translation Equations (1/2)
Suppose that an xy-coordinate system is translated
to obtain an x’y’-coordante system whose origin has
xy-coordinates (k ,l )=(4,1).
(a) Find the x’y’-coordinate of the point with
the xy-coordinates P(2,0)
(b) Find the xy-coordinate of the point with
the x’y’-coordinates Q(-1,5)
Example 3
Using the Translation Equations (2/2)
Solution (a). The translation equations are
x’=x-4, y’=y-1
so the x’y’-coordinate of P(2,0) are x’=2-4=-2 and
y’=0-1=-1.
Solution (b). The translation equations in (a) can be
written as
x=x’+4, y=y’+1
so the xy-coordinate of Q are x=-1+4=3 and
y=5+1=6.
3.2 Norm of a Vector;
Vector Arithmetic
Theorem 3.2.1
Properties of Vector Arithmetic
If u, v and w are vectors
in 2- or 3-space and k
and l are scalars, then
the following relationship
Norm of a Vector (1/2)
The length of a vector u is often called
the norm of u and is denoted by u .
Figure (a): it follows from the Theorem
of Pythagoras that the norm of a vector
u (u1 , u2 ) in 2-space is u u12 u22
Figure (b): Let u (u1 , u2 , u3 ) be a
vector in 3-space.
u u12 u22 u32
A vector of norm 1 is called a unit vector.
Norm of a Vector (2/2)
If P1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 , z2 )
are two points in 3-space, then
the distance s between them is
the norm of vector P1 P2
P1P2 ( x2 x1 , y2 y1 , z2 z1 )
Similarly in 2-space:
the length of the vector ku : ku k u
Example 1
Finding Norm and Distance
The norm of the vector u (-3,2,1 ) is
u (3) 2 (2) 2 (1) 2 14
The distance d betwwen the points P1 (2,-1,5) and P2 (4,3,1) is
d (4 2) 2 (3 1) 2 (1 5) 2 44 2 11
3.3 Dot Product; Projections
The Angle Between Vectors
Let u and v be two nonzero vectors in 2-space or
3-space, and assume these vectors have been
positioned so their initial points coincided. By the
angle between u and v, we shall mean the
angleθ determined by u and v that satisfies 0 ≤
θ ≤ π.
Component Form of the Dot
Product (1/2)
Let u (u1 , u2 , u3 ) and v (v1 , v2 , v3 ) be two nonzero vectors.
If as shown in figure 3.3.3, is the angle between u and v,
then the law of cosines yields
2
PQ u v - 2 u v cos
2 2
(2)
Since PQ v u, we can rewrite (2) as
u v cos ( u v v u )
1 2 2 2
2
u v ( u v v u )
1 2 2 2
or 2
Component Form of the Dot
Product (2/2)
Substituting
u u1 u2 u3 , v v1 v2 v3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2
and v u (v1 u1 ) 2 (v2 u2 ) 2 (v3 u3 ) 2
we obtain after Simplfying
u v u1v1 u2 v2 u3v3
Similarly in 2 - space : u v u1v1 u2 v2
The formula is also valid if u=0 or v=0.
Finding the Angle Between
Vectors
If u and v are nonzero vectors then
u v u v cos (1)
it also can be written as
u v
cos
u v
Example 2
Dot Product Using [3]
Example 4
Finding Dot products from Components
Orthogonal Vectors
Perpendicular vectors are also called
orthogonal vectors.
In light of Theorem 3.l.1b, two nonzero
vectors are orthogonal if and only if
their dot product is zero.
To indicate that u and v are orthogonal
vectors we write u ⊥v.
Example 5
A Vector Perpendicular to a Line
Show that in 2-space the nonzero vector n=(a,b) is
perpendicular to the line ax+by+cz=0.
Solution
Let P1 ( x1 , y1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 ) be distinct points on the line, so that
ax1 by1 c 0
ax2 by2 c 0 (6)
Since the vector P1 P2 ( x2 x1 , y2 y1 ) runs along the line (Figure 3.3.5),
we need only show that n and P1 P2 are perpendicular. But on subtracting
the equations in (6) we obtain
a ( x2 x1 ) b( y2 y1 ) 0
which can be expressed in the form
(a, b) ( x2 x1 , y2 y1 ) 0 or n P1 P2 0
Thus, n and P1 P2 are perpendicular.
Theorem 3.3.2
Properties of the Dot Product
If u, v and w are vectors in 2- or 3-space
and k is a scalar, then:
An Orthogonal Projection (1/2)
To "decompose" a vector u into a sum of two
terms, one parallel to a specified nonzero vector
a and the other perpendicular to a.
Figure 3.3.6: Drop a perpendicular from the tip of
u to the line through a, and construct the vector
w1 from Q.
Next form the difference: w2 u w1 then w1 w2 w1 (u w1 ) u
An Orthogonal Projection (2/2)
The vector w1 is called the orthogonal projection
of u on a or sometimes the vector component of
u along a. It is denoted by proj u (7)
a
The vector w1 is called the vector component of
u orthogonal to a. Since we have w2 u w1 ,
this vector can be written in notation (7) as
w2 u proja u
Example 6
Vector Component of u Along a
Let u (2,1,3) and a (4,1,2). Find the vector component of u along a
and the vector component of u orthogonal to a.
Solution :
u a (2)(4) (1)(1) (3)(2) 15
a 4 2 (1) 2 2 2 21
2
Thus, the vector component of u along a is
ua
proja u 2
a 15
21 ( 4,1,2) ( 7 , 7 , 7 )
20 5 10
a
and the vector component of u orthogonal to a is
u proja u (2,1,3) ( 20
7 , 7 , 7 ) ( 7 , 7 , 7 )
5 10 6 2 11
Verify that the vector u proja u and a are perpendicular by showing that
their dot product is zero.
Example 7
Distance Between a Point and a
Line (1/2)
Find a formula for the distance D between point P0 ( x0 , y0 ) and the line ax by c 0.
Solution :
Let Q( x1 , y1 ) be any point on the line and position the vector n (a, b) so that its initial
point is at Q.
By virtueof Example5, the vector n is perpendicular to the line (Fig 3.3.8).
As indicated in the figure, the distance D is equal to the length of the orthogonal
projection of QP0 on n; thus,
QP0 n
D projn QP0
n
But QP0 ( x0 x1 , y0 y1 ), QP0 n a( x0 x1 ) b( y0 y1 ), n a2 b2
Example 7
Distance Between a Point and a
Line (2/2)
Solution (count)
so that
a( x0 x1 ) b( y0 y1 )
D (12)
a b
2 2
Since the point Q( x1 , y1 ) lies on the line, its coordinates satisfy
the equation of the line, so
ax1 by1 c 0 or c ax1 by1
Substituting this expression in (12) yields the formula
ax0 by0 c
D (13)
a b
2 2
Example 8
Using the Distance Formula
It follows from Formula (13) that the distance D from the point (1,-2)
to the line 3x 4y - 6 0 is
(3)(1) 4(2) 6 11 11
D
32 4 2 25 5
3.4 Cross Product
Cross Product of Vectors
Recall from Section 3.3 that the dot
product of two vectors in 2-space or 3-
space produces a scalar.
We will now define a type of vector
multiplication that produces a vector as
the product, but which is applicable only
in 3-space.
Example 1
Calculating a Cross Product
Example 2
u×v Is Perpendicular to u and to v
Determinant Form of Cross
Product (1/2)
A cross product can be represented
symbolically in the form of 3 × 3 determinant:
For example : if u (1,2,-2) and v (3,0,1), then
i j k
u v 1 2 2 2i 7 j 6k
3 0 1
Example 5
Calculating a Scalar Triple
Product (1/2)
Independence of Cross
Product and Coordinates (2/2)
Question: two fixed vectors u and v might have different cross
products in different coordinate systems.
Recall :
the direction
the length
Since these properties of u x v depend only on the lengths and
relative positions of u and v and not on the particular right-
hand coordinate system being used.
Thus, we say that the definition of u x v is coordinate free.
This result is of importance to physicists and engineers who
often work with many coordinate systems in the same problem.
3.5 Lines and Planes
in 3-Space
Planes in 3-Space
One can specify a plane in 3-space by giving its inclination
and specifying one of its points.
A convenient method for a plane is to specify a nonzero
vector, called a normal, that is perpendicular to the plane.
We want to find the equation of a plane passing through
the point P0 ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) ; and have a nonzero vector n =
(a. b. c) as a normal. From Figure 3.5.1:
the vector P0 P is orthogonal to n, that is,
n P0 P 0
a( x x0 ) b( y y0 ) c( z z0 ) 0
We call this the point-normal form of the equation
of a plane.
Example 1
Finding the Point-Normal
Equation of a Plane
The Solution of a System in 3-
Space
the solution of a system
ax by cz k1
dx ey fz k 2
gx hy iz k3
correspond to the
points of intersection
of three planes.
Example 2
Equation of a Plane Through
Three Points (1/2)
Example 2
Equation of a Plane Through
Three Points (2/2)
Vector Form of Equation of a
Plane
Referring to Figure 3.5.3, let r=( x, y, z) be the vector
from the origin to the point P (x , y, z),
let r0 ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) be the vector from the origin
to the point P0 (x 0 , y 0 , z 0 ) and let n (a, b, c) be
a vector normal to the plane. Then P0 P r - r0 , so
n (r r0 ) 0
This is called the vector form of the equation of a plane.
Example 3
Vector Equation of a Plane
Using(5)
Lines in 3-space
We shall now show how to obtain equations for lines
in 3 - space. Suppose that l is the line 3 - space through
the point P0 ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) and parallel to the nonzero
vector v (a, b, c). It is clear (Figure 3.5.4) that l
consists precisely of those points P( x, y, z )
for which the vector P0 P is parallel to v,
that is, for which there is a dalar t such that
P0 P tv (6)
Example 4
Parametric Equations of a Line
Example 5
Intersection of a Line and the xy-
Plane
Example 6
Line of Intersection of Two
Planes
Vector form of Equation of a
Line
Example 7
A Line Parallel to a Given Vector
Example 8
Distance Between a Pont and a
Plane
Example 9
Distance Between Parallel Planes