MANAGEMENT: THEORY AND PRACTICE FOR INFORMATION PROFESSIONALS
REVIEW NOTES
What is management?
The word has several meanings depending on context and purpose
1. As a discipline – it is a field learning much like education, medicine, law, etc.
2. As a profession – it is a career pursued through a long-period of study
3. As a group of people – in a collective sense the people (or group) directing the operations
of an organization
4. As a process – in this sense, it is considered as the fundamental integrating activity aimed
at achieving predetermined goals
A. Definition: The activity of directing the work of people in the fulfillment of organizational goals, or
simply getting things done through others.
B. Why manage?
1. It facilitates and directs the work of a group of people to achieve goals
2. It is essential in utilizing scarce resources to accomplish maximum output
C. Art or science?
Management in both an art and a science. As an art, it brings ends and means together. These can
be found in the task of communicating, leadership and goal-setting. As a science, it is subject to
observation, analysis and theoretical formulation in much the same way as sociology, psychology and
economics. The scientific approach lies in decision-making, planning and in the adoption of technology.
The Development of Management Thought
One of the most important factors is successful fulfillment of enterprise objectives is an awareness
of the continuing development of an accurate theory of management and its proper application to the real
world of library and information center management practice.
Four major phases can be identified in tracing how management theories have evolved:
1. Scientific Management Movement (also known as the “machine model”
Workers are economically motivated.
Focused on shop operations.
Keywords: Frederick W. Taylor, efficiency, scientific method, time study,
Father of scientific management
Frank and Lilian Gilbreth, motion study, therbligs
Henry L. Gantt, task-and-bonus system. Gantt Chart
Max Weber, bureaucratic model, rules and procedures for a theory of structure in
organizations
2. Classical Movement (also called traditional and universalist school)
Focused on holistic view of the organization resulting in a body of knowledge called the
administrative management theory
Keywords: Henri Fayol – father of the classical movement
Like Taylor, Fayol believed workers are naturally lazy, can be motivated by higher wages.
Taylor and Fayol are considered as founders of the theory of management.
Organization and System Movement
Distinguished between administration, representing the ownership viewpoint and scientific
management, applicable at the operational level.
Keywords: Lyndall Urwick, Luther Gulick – POSDCORBE
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3. Human Relations School includes 1.) Human behavior Movement and 2.) Self-actualizing
Movement. It maxim is “a happy workforce is a productive workforce.” Because managing
is getting things done through people, management study should center on interpersonal
relations. “Personal administration” became prominent
Human Behavior Movement
Focused on behavior of the individual, his/her quality of life in the organization
and his/her needs, aspirations and motivations, as well as those of the group and the
organization.
Assumes that if management makes employees happy, maximum performance
swill result.
Keywords: Elton Mayo at the Western Electric Hawthorne Plant, “Hawthorne effect”
Mayo’s conclusions were opposite Taylor’s who said that a worker is an
economic person. Mayo maintained that workers are primarily motivated by togetherness
and want individual recognition within the group.
Self-Actualizing Movement
Closely related to the human relations movement. Encourages management to
let employees develop social groups on the job, move toward employee participation in
management, and allow democracy in the organization.
Keywords: Chester Barnard – spiritual father who dwells on the contribution – satisfaction
equilibrium. Barnard emphasized communication as the first function of managers.
Maslow and Hierarchy of needs
Management by Objectives (MOB) by Peter Drucker
Theory X and Theory Y by Douglas McGregor which advocates substituting a more
participative approach for authoritarianism.
4. Systems Approach includes 1.) Decision Theory Movement, 2.) General Systems Theory
Management, 3.) Psychology Theory Movement. The term system as used here is
different from that of the organization and system movement.
systems approach regards the organization as a total system. This approach
encompasses the terms management science and operations research.
a. Decision Theory Movement – primarily concerned with the study of rational
decision-making procedures and the way managers actually make decisions.
Mathematical models and quantitative methods can serve as the basis for all
management decisions.
Keywords: Management Information System (MIS)
Decision Support System (DSS)
b. General Systems Theory Movement – integrates knowledge from the biological
physical and behavioral sciences
Keywords: Ludwig von Bertlanffy – founder of GST because he was the first to
talk about the “system theory of organism”
System-set if elements standing in interrelation among themselves and
with the environment
c. Psychological Movement – based upon personality theory, it views the human
being as a complex organism metamorphosing through physiological and
psychological stages to maturity.
d. Contingency Approach / Management-situational approach – it all depends on
the situation.
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Managerial Skills
1. Technical – knowledge and skill include understanding and being efficient in a specific activity such
as a process, procedure or technique.
2. Interpersonal – ability to work with others and to win cooperation of people in the work group to
achieve goals
3. Conceptual – the ability to see the “big picture” to envision all the functions involved in a given
situation or circumstance
Managerial Skills
1. Top managers. They are concerned with long-range planning involving subjective judgments of the
decision-maker.
2. Middle managers. They implement the goals of the organization. Tactical means that of the five
management tasks, middle managers deal principally with organizing and staffing.
3. Supervisory-level managers’ job is to make operational decisions which are predictable decision
that can be made by following a well-defined set of routines.
The Management functions
1. Planning – this involves setting objectives both long and short-term and developing strategies for
achieving them.
a. Reasons for planning
1.) To offset uncertainty and the unexpected
2.) To have flexibility in face of change
3.) To bring organizations forward
4.) To focus on the organization’s future
5.) To keep a tight rein on financial resources
6.) For better control and management
b. Factors in planning
1.) Time 3.) Level of planning
2.) Collecting and 4.) Flexibility
analyzing data 5.) Accountability
c. Types of plans
1.) Purpose or mission – identifies the business the organization is in.
2.) Objectives or goals – ends towards which activities are aimed. Objectives and
goals are refinements and serve to concretize abstract mission statement.
3.) Strategies – these are long-term objectives, state course/courses of action
adopted; and allocation of resources needed. It is a framework to guide thinking
and action.
4.) Policies – general statement to guide thinking in making decisions; ensures
consistency in decisions in relation to objectives.
a.) Originated policy – this type of policy is developed to guide the general
operations of the library, flow mainly from the objectives and are the
main source of policy making within an organization.
b.) Appealed policy – this forces a decision or policy and are made by snap
decisions.
c.) Implied policy – this type of policy in unwritten and is developed from
actions that people see about them and believe to constitute policy.
d.) External imposed policy – these policies, which come through several
channels, dictate the working of an institution.
5.) Procedures – a set of required methods of handling activities, i.e., a
chronological sequence of steps to guide action.
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6.) Rules – are not flexible and specific leaving any room for doubt. They are meant
to regulate personal and professional behavior for the common good.
7.) Programs are mini plans in themselves as they include practically all the other
plans mentioned above with the necessary resources to carry out a course of
action.
8.) Budget – plans rendered in numerical or financial terms
d. Planning techniques
1.) Standards mean being able to designate any measure by which one judges a
thing as authentic, good or adequate.
2.) Forecasting designates a process of projection or predictions. Predictions are
opinions about facts. Projections are based on some type of analysis or
qualitative judgment. Forecasts are predictions based on assumptions about the
future.
e. Decision making – is a choice between alternatives. Decision-making procedures can be
divided into four phases: 1.) intelligence gathering, 2.) design, 3.) choice, 4.) review
1.) Intelligence gathering – the search for conditions requiring a decision
2.) Design – available courses of action are determined and analyzed to determine
their relative values as solutions to the decision.
3.) Choice – available courses of action are determined to convert present less
desirable situation into a favorable one.
4.) Review – past choices are assessed and new directions are adjusted.
Group decision making – involving group dynamics, delegation or responsibility,
channels of communication for decision-making and the need for specialization for
decision-making purposes.
a.) Advantages:
i. Group judgment – group deliberation is important in identifying
alternative to solutions to a problem.
ii. Group authority – group decisions prevent the fear of allowing
one person to have too much authority. The role of leadership
in the organization is not diminished but altered.
iii. Communication – permits a wide participation in decision-
making and has influence on employee motivation.
b.) Disadvantages
i. Cost – group decision-making requires much time, energy and
money
ii. Compromise – uniformity and majority rule force compliance.
iii. Indecision – there are delays in reaching a final decision
because of lengthy deliberations.
iv. Power – one individual usually emerges as a leader can
influence group decisions.
v. Authority – groups are frequently used to make decisions
beyond their can cause delay if the decision is rejected by
management.
2. Organizing – determining the specific activities necessary to accomplish the planned goals,
grouping the activities into a logical framework of structure, assigning authority and responsibilities
to people for their accomplishment.
a. Principles of Organizing
1.) Departmentation – the basis on which work or individuals are grouped into
manageable units.
2.) Scalar principle of hierarchy – the chain of supervisors ranging from the ultimate
authority to the lowest ranks.
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3.) Delegation – the downward transfer of formal authority from one person to
another within prescribed limits.
4.) Centralization – authority is concentrated at the highest echelon of hierarchy and
almost all decisions are made by those at the top.
5.) Decentralization – the authority to make decisions is pushed down in the
organizational structure.
6.) Line and staff – line positions are responsible and accountable for the
organization’s primary objectives. Staff positions provide advice, support, and
advice to line the positions.
7.) Span of control – refers to the number of people or activities a manager can
effectively manage.
8.) Unity of command – each person within an organization should take orders from
and report to only one person.
3. Staffing – the function involving the recruitment, selection, hiring, placement and development of
human resources required by an organization.
a. Recruitment – the process of attracting the appropriate number of qualified individuals to
apply for vacant positions in an organization.
1.) Job analysis 3.) Source of applicants
2.) Job description
b. Selection – the process of gathering information about the applicants with the objective of
arriving at a decision to hire personnel.
1.) Application forms 3.) Interviews
2.) Test 4.) Hiring / Placement
c. Training and Staff development – a broad range of activities that provides staff with the
knowledge and skills that are directly related to their responsibilities in the organization.
1.) Orientation
2.) On the job training
3.) Counseling
4.) Seminars
5.) Workshops on topics as diverse as techniques of supervision, performance,
evaluation, communication, etc.
4. Directing – the managerial function that enables managers to communicate with and influence
subordinates toward the achievement of organizational goals.
Motivation – the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organizational goals, conditioned
by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need.
a. Approaches to Motivation
1.) Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs – Abraham Maslow proposed that people have a
complex set of needs arranged in a hierarchy of importance. That is, they don’t
all operate at once but are organized in successive levels, and one need has to
satisfy sufficiently before the next need becomes operative.
2.) Herzberg’s Two-factor theory – Frederick Herzberg and his associates examined
the relationships between job satisfaction and productivity among a group
accountants and engineers.
Findings showed that dissatisfaction was caused by extrinsic factors
such as pay, supervision, working conditions and company policies so-called
hygiene factors.
Satisfaction and motivation on the other hand came from a different set
of factors called satisfiers or motivators which include recognition, achievement,
responsibility and personal growth.
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3.) McGregor’s Theory X and Y
Theory X assumes that employees dislike work, are lazy, dislike
responsibility, and must be coerced to perform.
Theory Y assumes that employees like work are creative, like
responsibility and can exercise self-direction.
4.) ERG Theory – a rework of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory by Clayton
Adlerfer who argues there are three groups of core needs: existence,
relatedness and growth.
In contrast to Maslow, ERG theory assumes:
a.) More than one need may be operative at the same time, and
b.) If the gratification of
a high-level need is stifled, the desire to satisfy a lower level need
increases.
5.) Achievement-Power-Affiliation Theory – developed by David McClelland
focused / on 3 needs.
a.) Need to achieve – to do something better or more efficiently than
before.
b.) Need for power – a concern for influencing people
c.) Need for affiliation – need to be liked; to be friendly with others
The use of the term needs in McClelland differs from Maslow’s who saw
needs as inherent while McClelland saw these needs could be learned or
acquired.
b. Leadership – an effective leader has the ability to influence others in a desired direction
and thus is able to determine the extent to which both individual employees and
organizations as a whole reach their goals.
1.) The Leadership Grid – involves two primary concerns of the organization:
concern for production and concern for people.
2.) Transformational Leader – James McGregor Burns identifies two types of
leadership styles: transactional and transformational
a.) Transactional – leaders see job performance as a series of transactions
with subordinates. The transactions consist of exchanging rewards for
services rendered or punishments for inadequate performance.
b.) Transformational – leaders are skilled at getting subordinates to
transform their own self-interest into the interest of the larger group.
They bring out the best in their subordinates.
3.) Fiedler’s leadership Contingency Model – according to Fred Fiedler, three
situational variables determines how favorable any particular situation is for the
leader. These three situational variables are:
a.) Leader-member situations: the degree to which members like and trust
a leader and are willing to follow him or her.
b.) Task structure: the clarity and structure of the elements of the tasks to
be accomplished.
c.) Power position: the power and authority that are associated with the
leader’s position.
c. Communication – provides cohesiveness and direction in an organization. The typical
elements of the process include:
1.) Source – this is the sender of the message. The source has some thought, need,
or information to communicate.
2.) Message – the source has to encode the message in some form that can be
understood by both sender and receiver.
3.) Channel – the link between the source and the channel.
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4.) Receiver – the recipient of the message.
5.) Feedback – the receiver’s response and the nature of action carried out by the
receiver.
Types of Communication
a.) Written communication – provides a lasting record and ensures uniformity in
matters like policy.
b.) Oral communication –there is opportunity for feedback, through which
clarification can be accomplished.
c.) Non-verbal communication – unwritten or unspoken, this can provide many clues
to an observer. Body language is a specific type of non-verbal communication.
Communication Flows
1.) Downward communication – the most common type of communication within an
organization. It flows from superiors to subordinates.
2.) Upward communication – consists of messages that flow from subordinates to
superiors. Most of these messages ask questions, provide feedback, or make
suggestions.
3.) Horizontal communication – the lateral exchange of information within an
organization. Information is not always shared in competitive organizations
because the employee who possesses the information wants to retain a
competitive advantage over others.
5. Controlling – the function of monitoring performance and undertaking corrective action(s) to ensure
the attainment of predetermined goals and objectives of the organization.
a. Techniques of Control
1.) Evaluation – identifies areas needing improvement with an aim toward corrective
action.
2.) Cost-benefit analysis – a systematic approach which seeks (1) determine
whether or not a particular program or proposal is justified, (2) rank various
alternatives appropriate to a given set of alternatives, and (3) ascertain the
optimal course of action attain these objectives.
3.) Management Information System (MIS) – a technical tool to gather data
summarize it, and present it as information to be used in the second process and
for decision making.
4.) Decision Support System (DSS) – as an extension of MIS, it takes advantage of
the continuous development in the database management and modeling arena
to offer software that support computerized decision-making.
5.) Operations Research – an experimental and applied science devoted to
observing, understanding and predicting the behavior of purposeful systems, and
operations researchers are actively engaged in applying this knowledge to
practical problems.
6.) PERT (Program Evaluation and Research Technique) – a method of planning
and scheduling work, it involves identifying all of the key activities in a particular
project; devising the sequence of activities and arranging duration of time for the
performance of each phase of the work to be done.
b. Budgetary Control – method of rationalization whereby estimates covering different
periods of time are, by the study of statistical records and analytical research of all kinds,
established for all and everything that affects the life of a business concern can be
expressed in figures.
1.) Budgeting techniques
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a.) Line-Item Budget – divides the objects of expenditure into broad input
classes or categories, such as salaries or wages, materials and
supplies, equipment, capital expenditures, and miscellaneous, with
further subdivisions within these categories.
b.) Formula Budgeting – uses predetermined standards for allocation of
monetary resources.
c.) Program Budgeting – maintains that it is possible to relate to the
programs to accomplishments of time/action objectives or activities that
are stated in output terms in the strategic planning process.
d.) Planning Programming Budgeting Systems (PPBS) – combines the best
of both program budgeting and performance budgeting. The emphasis
is on planning and begins with the establishment of goals and
objectives, but the controlling aspect of measurement, which is
paramount in performance budgeting, is also part of PPBS.
e.) Zero-based Budgeting – focuses on two basic questions: 1) are the
current activities efficient and effective? And 2) should current activities
be eliminated or reduced to fund higher priority new programs or to
reduce current budget? It requires organizations to review and evaluate
each of their service programs and activities on the basis of both output
measures as well as costs.
6. Marketing – analysis, planning, implementation and control of carefully formulated programs
designed to bring about voluntary exchange of values with target markets for the purposes of
achieving the organization’s aims. The “marketing mix” consists of the following:
a. Product – refers to the tangible commodity or the intangible service than an organization
offers to its customers (clients)
b. Price – this refers to the amount of money customers are willing to part with to avail or use
a product / service being offered.
c. Promotion – refers to the provision of relevant information to prospective clients to
persuade them to buy a product.
d. Place – making an organization’s product / service available in the right direction quantity,
i.e., channels of distribution are accessible.
Not all library managers probably appreciate the significance of marketing but that does not
invalidate the premise that the marketing function is central to the library as an organization. If the library is
to be a responsive organization, one whose primary goals relates to satisfying the information needs and
wants of its real and potential clients then librarians would do well to consider the contribution which a
marketing program to the achievements of that goal.