RI4 C-147

AMC PAMPHLET AMCP 706-179

ENGINEERING DESIGN
HANDBOOK

EXPLOSIVES SERIES

EXPLOSIVE TRAINS

3C
" SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION.

5 0510 00227930 2

HEADQUARTERS, US ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND JANUARY 1974

 *AMCP 706-179

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

HEADQUARTERSUNITED STATES ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND
5001 Eisenhower Ave .Alexandria, VA 22304

AMC PAMPHLET 15 January 1974

No. 706-179

ENGINEERING DESIGN HANDBOOK

EXPLOSIVE TRAINS

Paragraph Page

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xfn

LIST OF TABLES xvi
LIST OF SYMBOLS xix
PREFACE xxiii

PART ONE - FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES

CHAPTER 1. EXPLOSIVE CHARGES AS COMPONENTS
OF WEAPON SYSTEMS

1—1 Introduction 1-1

1 — 1.1 Purpose 1-1
1 — 1.2 The Explosive Train 1-1
1 — 1.2.1 Functions and Types 1-1
1 — 1.2.2 Low Explosive Train 1-2
1—1.2.3 High Explosive Train 1-2
1—1.2.4 Typical High Explosive Train 1-3
1 — 1.3 Explosives 1-4
1 — 1.3.1 Low Explosives 1-4
1 — 1.3.2 High Explosives \-A
1 -1.4 Bases for Selecting Explosive Charges 1-4
1—2 Systems Approach to Ammunition 1-7
1—2.1 Vehicular Aspects 1-7
1-2.1.1 General 1-7
1—2.1.2 Aerodynamic Heating 1-7
1—2.1.3 Acceleration 1-9
1—2.2 Structural Aspects -10
1 -2.2.1 Neglecting the Strength of the
Explosive -10
1—2.2.2 Consequences of Structural Failure
of Explosive Charges -10
1—2.2.3 Structural Components as Sources
of Fragments -11
1 —2.2.4 Interaction of Structure With
Explosive Materials -11

*This pamphlet supersedes AMCP 706-179, March 1965.

AMCP 706-179

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Con't.)

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1 -2.3 Mechanical Aspects 1-11

1 —2.3.1 Functioning 1 — 11
1 -2.3.2 Location With Respect to Target .... 1-12
1—2.3.3 Safingand Arming Devices 1—12
1 -2.4 Electrical Aspects 1-13
1—2.4.1 Environments 1—13
1 —2.4.2 Possible Initiation of the Main
Bursting Charge 1—13
1 —2.4.3 Electric Initiators Exposed to
Spurious Signals 1—13
1—3 General Design Considerations 1—13
1-3.1 Reliability 1-14
1-3.2 Safety 1-14
1—3.3 Economics 1—15
1 -3.4 Standardization 1-15
1—3.5 Human Factors Engineering 1—16
References 1—16

CHAPTER 2. EXPLOSIVE REACTIONS AND INITIATION

2—1 Thermal Decomposition and Burning .... 2—1

2—1.1 Thermal Decomposition 2—1
2-1.2 Reaction Kinetics 2-2
2-1.3 The "Hot Spot" Theory of Initiation .. 2-3
2-1.4 Deflagration 2-5
2-2 Detonation 2-6
2—2.1 Transition from Deflagration to
Detonation 2—6
2—2.1.1 Transition Process 2—6
2—2.1.2 Growth of Detonation in Primary
High Explosives 2—7
2-[Link] Lead Styphnate 2-7
2-[Link] Lead Azide 2-7
2—2.1.3 Growth of Detonation in Secondary
High Explosives 2—7
2-2.2 Shock Waves ' 2-9
2-2.3 Detonation Waves 2-11
2-2.3.1 Equations of State 2-11
2—2.3.2 Chapman-Jouguet Conditions for
Ideal Detonation 2-12
2-2.3.3 Actual Detonation 2-13
2-3 Initiation 2-15
2—3.1 Establishing a Self-propagating
Reaction 2—15
2-3.2 Initiation by Heat 2-17
2-3.2.1 Hot Wire Electric Initiators 2-17
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Con't.)

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2—3.2.2 Conductive Film Electric Initiators .. 2—18

2—3.2.3 Conductive Explosive Mix Electric
initiators 2—19
2—3.2.4 Transmission of Hot Gas 2—19
2—3.2.5 Transmission of Hot Particles 2—20
2—3.2.6 Adiabatic Compression 2—20
2—3.3 Initiation by Impact 2—21
2—3.3.1 Impact Sensitivity Measured With
Laboratory Machines 2—21
2-3.3.2 Stab Initiation 2-21
2—3.3.3 Percussion Initiation 2—22
2-3.4 Initiation by Other Means 2-23
2-3.4.1 Friction 2-23
2-3.4.2 Electric Sparks 2-24
2-3.4.3 Exploding Wires 2-24
2-3.4.4 Laser and Light 2-26
2—3.4.5 Spontaneous Detonation 2—26
2-3.4.6 Shock Through a Bulkhead 2-26
References 2-27

CHAPTER 3. DETONATION TRANSFER AND OUTPUT

3— 1 Effectiveness of One Charge in Initiating

Another 3-1
3—1.1 Detonation Propagation 3—1
3—1.2 Dimensional Interactions 3—1
3—2 Sensitivity to Initiation 3—3
3—2.1 Sensitivity Tests 3—3
3-2.1.1 Standard Tests 3-3
3-2.1.2 Gap Tests 3-4
3—2.2 Variables Affecting Sensitivity 3—6
3—2.2.1 Loading Density 3—6
3 J2.2.2 Lot-to-lot Variations 3-7
3-2.2.3 Additives 3-7
3-2.2.4 Confinement 3-8
3—2.2.5 Gaps and Barriers 3—9
3-2.3 Misaligned Charges 3-10
3-3 output 3-10
3—3.1 Nature of Explosive Output 3 — 10
3—3.2 Effect of Charge Configuration 3—11
3-3.2.1 The Detonation Front 3-11
3-3.2.2 Wave Shaping 3-12
3-3.3 Blast 3-13
3—3.4 Fragmentation 3 — 14
3—3.4.1 Fragmentation Characteristics 3—14
3—3.4.2 Controlled Fragmentation 3 — 16

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3-3.5 Other Output Effects 3-16

3-3.5.1 Underwater 3-16
3-3.5.2 Underground 3-17
3-3.5.3 Shaped Charge 3-17
References 3—18

CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSE

4—1 Military Requirements 4—1

4—2 Temperature 4—2
4—2.1 High Temperature Storage 4—2
4—2.1.1 Chemical Decomposition 4—2
4—2.1.2 Dimensional Change 4—4
4—2.1.3 Explosive Property Change 4—5
4-2.1.4 Exudation 4-5
4-2.1.5 Effects in Initiators 4-5
4-2.2 Cook-off 4-6
4-2.2.1 Threshold Conditions 4-6
4—2.2.2 Cook-off Experiments 4—7
4—2.2.3 Simulation of Aerodynamic Heating. . 4—8
4-2.3 Other Effects of High Temperature Use . 4—8
4-2.3.1 Melting of Explosives 4-8
4-2.3.2 Sensitization 4-9
4—2.4 Low Temperature Storage and Use .... 4—10
4—3 Environment 4—11
4—3.1 Chemical Interactions 4—11
4-3.2 Simulation of Impact 4-12
4—3.2.1 Laboratory Impact Tests 4—12
4-3.2.2 Bullet Impact 4-12
4-3.2.3 Mass Impact 4-13
4-3.3 Setback Acceleration 4-14
4-3.3.1 The Occurrence of Setback 4-14
4-3.3.2 The Setback Mechanism 4-14
4-3.4 Other Effects 4-16
4-3.4.1 Vibration 4-16
4-3.4.2 Friction 4-16
4-3.4.3 Electricity 4-16
4-3.4.4 Irradiation 4-17
References 4—17

PART TWO JDESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

CHAPTER 5. PRIMERS AND DETONATORS

5— 1 Description and Selection 5—1

5—1.1 Introduction 5—1
5—1.2 Function and Construction 5—1

IV
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5 — 1.3 Initiator Types 5—2

5-1.3.1 Stab Initiators 5-2
5—1.3.2 Percussion Primers 5—2
5-1.3.3 Flash Detonators 5-2
5-1.3.4 Relays 5-2
5—1.3.5 Electric Initiators 5—2
5-1.3.6 Squibs 5-3
5—1.3.7 Groupingof Initiator Types 5—3
5—1.4 Bases for Selecting an Initiator Type . . . 5—4
5—2 Input Characteristics 5—6
5-2.1 Stab Initiators 5-6
5-2.1.1 Initiation 5-6
5—2.1.2 Effects of Disk and Cup Thickness .. 5—6
5-2.1.3 Effects of Test Apparatus 5-6
5—2.2 Percussion Primers 5—7
5-2.2.1 Initiation 5-7
5-2.2.2 Sealing Disks and Cups 5-7
5-2.2.3 Other Variables 5 _7
5-2.3 Flash Detonators 5-8
5-2.3.1 Initiation 5-8
5-2.3.2 Effect of Explosive at Input End 5-8
5—2.3.3 Effect of Construction at Input End . 5—8
5-2.4 Electric Initiators 5-9
5-2.4.1 Input Sensitivity 5-9
5 — 2.4.2 Hot Bridgewire Initiators 5—9
5-[Link] Flash Charge Explosives 5-9
5-[Link] Bridgewire Resistance 5—10
5—[Link] Firing Energy and Power 5—10
5-[Link] Response Times 5-11
5-[Link] Typical Design Problem 5-12
5—2.4.3 Exploding Bridgewire Initiators 5—13
5—[Link] Bridgewire Dimensionsand
Materials 5-14
5-[Link] Explosive Materials 5-14
5-2.4.4 Film Bridge Initiators 5-14
5-[Link] Initiation Mechanism 5-14
5-[Link] Graphite Bridge Films 5-15
5-2.4.5 Conductive Mix Initiators 5-15
5—2.4.6 Spark Gap Initiators 5—15
5-2.4.7 Squibs 5-15
5—2.5 Through-bulkhead Initiators 5—16
5-3 output 5-16
5—3.1 Output of Primers 5—16
5 — 3.2 Output of Detonators 5—18
5—3.2.1 Parameters of Detonator Output .... 5—18
5 — 3.2.2 Measurement of Detonator Output .. 5—19
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Con't.)

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5 — 3.2.3 Explosives Used in Detonators 5—19

5—[Link] Intermediate Charges 5—19
5-[Link] Base Charges 5-20
5 — [Link] Explosive Quantities and
Dimensions 5—21
5—[Link] Loading Density of Explosives .... 5—21
5—[Link] Confinement of Explosives 5—21
5—4 Construction and Fabrication 5—22
5—4.1 Initiator Cups 5 — 22
5—4.2 Explosive Loading 5 — 23
5—4.3 Mechanical Initiators 5 — 24
5-4.3.1 Stab and Flash Initiators 5-24
5—4.3.2 Percussion Primers 5 — 24
5-4.4 Electric Initiators 5-25
5-4.4.1 Initiator Plugs 5-25
5—4.4.2 Bridging Techniques 5—25
5—[Link] Soldered Bridges on Raised
Terminals 5—25
5-[Link] Flush Soldered Bridges 5-25
5-[Link] Welded Bridges 5-25
5-[Link] Graphite Film Bridges 5-26
5-4.4.3 Bridgewire Materials 5-26
5-4.4.4 Spark Gap Plugs 5-26
5-4.4.5 Flash and Spotting Charges 5-26
References 5—27

CHAPTER 6. DELAY ELEMENTS

6— 1 Description 6—1
6—1.1 Function and Construction 6—1
6—1.2 Delay Types 6—1
6-1.2.1 Obturated (Sealed) Delays 6-1
6-1.2.2 Vented Delays 6-2
6-1.2.3 Ring-type Delay 6-2
6-1.2.4 Delays Achieved by Methods Other
Than Controlled Rate Burning .... 6—3
6—2 Delay Compositions 6—3
6—2.1 Gas-producing Delay Charges 6—3
6-2.1.1 Loading Pressure 6—3
6-2.1.2 Pellet Support 6-4
6—2.1.3 Effects of Moisture and Temperature . 6—4
6-2.1.4 Obturated Delays 6-4
6-2.1.5 Vented Delays 6-5
6—2.2 Gasless Delay Charges 6—5
6—2.2.1 Delay Compositions 6—5
6—2.2.2 Ignition Powders 6—6

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6—2.2.3 Properties of Delay and Ignition

Powders 6-6
6--[Link] Properties of Interest 6-6
6--[Link] Burning Rates 6—7
6--2-.2.3.3 Effects of Temperature and
Storage 6—8
6- -[Link] Effects of Reduced Pressure 6-9
6- -[Link] Effects of Acceleration 6—9
6- -[Link] Particle Size 6-9
6--2.2.4 Design. Fabrication, and Loading. ... 6-9
6--[Link] Loading Pressure 6-9
6--[Link] Column Diameter 6—9
6--[Link] Wall Thickness 6-10
6--3 Design Principles 6-10
6--3.1 Obturated vs Vented Design 6—10
6--3.2 Design Rules of Thumb 6—11
References 6-11

CHAPTER 7. LEADS AND BOOSTERS

7—1 Description 7—1

7-1.1 General 7-1
7-1.2 Functions 7-1
7-1.2.1 Leads 7-1
7-1.2.2 Boosters 7-2
7—1.3 Explosives 7-2
7-2 Design Considerations 7-4
7—2.1 Relation to Fuze Design 7—4
7-2.2 Leads 7-5
7-2.2.1 Length 7-5
7—2.2.2 Diameterand Confinement 7—5
7-2.3 Boosters 7—6
7-2.4 Charge Density Effects 7-7
7-2.5 Output Wave Profile 7-8
7-3 Construction and Fabrication 7—9
7—3.1 Loading Techniques 7—9
7-3.2 Short Leads 7-10
7-3.3 Long Leads 7-11
7-3.4 Boosters 7-11
References 7-13

CHAPTER 8. MAIN BURSTING CHARGES

8— 1 Description 8—1
8-1.1 Function 8-1
8—1.2 Typical Main Bursting Charges 8—1

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8—1.2.1 High Explosive (HE) Ammunition .. . 8—1

8-1.2.2 High Explosive Antitank (HEAT) and
High Explosive Plastic (HEP)
Ammunition 8—2
8—1.2.3 Chemical Ammunition 8—2
8—1.2.4 High Explosive Incendiary (HEI)
Ammunition 8—2
8-1.2.5 Cluster Ammunition 8-2
8-1.3 Size and Weight 8-2
8—2 Explosives 8—4
8-2.1 Selection 8-4
8—2.2 Explosive Loading 8—5
8—2.3 Inert Simulants 8—6
8—3 Initiation 8—6
8-3.1 Sensitivity 8-6
8-3.2 Booster Position 8-7
8—3.3 Auxiliary Boosters and Boosted
Surrounds 8—7
8-3.4 Confinement 8-7
References 8—8

CHAPTER 9. OTHER EXPLOSIVE CHARGES

9-1 Actuators 9-1

9—1.1 Description 9—1
9-1.2 Output Characteristics 9-2
9-1.3 Explosive Bolts 9-2
9-1.3.1 High-explosive Bolts 9-3
9—1.3.2 Low-explosive Bolts 9—3
9—1.3.3 Explosive Nuts 9—4
9—2 Demolition Devices and Accessories 9—4
9-2.1 Destructors 9-4
9—2.2 Explosive Cords. Caps, and Sheets 9—5
9-2.2.1 Explosive Cord 9-5
9—2.2.2 Flexible Linear Shaped Charge 9—6
9-2.2.3 Blasting Caps 9-6
9-2.2.4 Sheet Explosive 9-6
9-2.3 Demolition Blocks 9-6
References 9—7

CHAPTER 10. LOADING AND FABRICATION

10— 1 Process Selection 10—1

10-2 Casting 10-1
10—2.1 Projectile Preparation 10—1

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10-2.2 Effect of Casting Procedure on Charge

Characteristics 10—2
10-2.2.1 Porosity and Cavitation 10-2
10-2.2.2 Crystal Size 10-2
10—2.2.3 Uniformity of Composition 10-2
10-2.3 Standard Casting Procedure 10-2
10-2.4 Some Special Casting Techniques 10—3
10-2.4.1 Pellet Casting 10-3
10-2.4.2 Vacuum Melting and Casting 10-3
10-2.4.3 Vibration. Jolting, and Centrifugal
Casting 10-4
10-2.4.4 Controlled Cooling 10-4
10-2.4.5 Extrusion 10-4
10—2.4.6 Liquid Explosives 10 — 4
10-3 Pressing 10-4
10—3.1 Standard Procedures 10—4
10-3.1.1 Measurement of Explosive Charges .. 10—4
10—3.1.2 Direct Pressing in Case 10—5
10-3.1.3 Stopvs Pressure Loading 10-6
10-3.1.4 Pelletizing 10-9
10-3.1.5 Reconsolidation 10-10
10-3.2 • Special Procedures 10—10
10-3.2.1 Vacuum Pressing 10—10
10-3.2.2 Hot Pressing 10-10
10 — 3.2.3 Hydrostatic and Isostatic Pressing . . . 10—11
10 — 3.2.4 Pulsating Pressures 10—11
10 — 4 Finishing Operations 10-12
10-4.1 Machining 10-12
10—4.2 Cementing of Compound Charges 10-13
10-5 Suitability 10-13
10-5.1 Availability 10-13
10-5.2 Output Characteristics 10—14
10-5.3 Sensitivity 10-14
10-5.4 Chemical and Physical Properties 10—15
10—6 Quality Assurance 10—16
10-6.1 Bases for Tolerances 10—16
10—6.2 Factors Affecting Quality of Explosive
Charges 10-17
10-6.2.1 Density 10-17
10-6.2.2 Cracks and Cavities 10-18
10—6.2.3 Composition Variation 10—18
References 10—18

CHAPTER 11. PACKING. STORING. AND SHIPPING

11 _ 1 Packing 11-1
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (CorVt.]

Paragraph Page
1—1.1 General 11-1
1 — 1.2 Packing of Explosive Train
Components 11—2
1 — 1.2.1 Hazard Classification 11—2
1 — 1.2.2 Packing Considerations 1-2
1 —1.2.3 Packing of Small Explosive
Components 11—2
1 — 1.3 Packing of Related Material .1-3
1 — 1.3.1 Bulk Explosives 1-3
1-1.3.2 Assembled Ammunition [1-3
1—2 Storing .1-3
1—2.1 Hazard Classification .1-3
1—2.2 Storage Considerations 11-4
1—3 Shipping 11 — 5
1—3.1 Hazard Classification 11—5
1—3.2 Shipping Considerations 11-5
1—3.3 Considerations for Specific Modes of
Shipping 11-6
1—3.3.1 Rail Transport 11-6
1 —3.3.2 Truck Transport 11-6
1-3.3.3 Ship Transport 11-6
1—3.3.4 Air Transport 11-6
References 11-6

CHAPTER 12. EVALUATION PROCEDURES

12—1 Considerations in Evaluations 12-1

12—1.1 Safety and Reliability Procedures 12-1
12- 1.1.1 Statistical Inferences 12-1
12—1.1.2 Frequency Distributions 12-2
12-1.1.3 Confidence Levels 12-4
12—1.1.4 Reliability Determination from
Mean and Deviation 12-4
12—1.1.5 Optimization 12-6
12-1.2 Statistical Test Methods 12-6
12 — 1.2.1 General Considerations 12-6
12—1.2.2 Staircase Method. The Bruceton Test. 12-7
12-1.2.3 Frankford Run-down Method 12-8
12—1.2.4 Probit. Normit. and Logit Procedures. 12-8
12—2 Testing Techniques 12-8
12—2.1 Explosive Materials 12-8
12-2.1.1 General 12-8
12-2.1.2 Sensitivity 12-9
12-[Link] Impact Test 12-9
12-[Link] Friction Pendulum Test 12-10
12-[Link] Rifle Bullet Impact Test 12-10
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12—[Link] Explosion Temperature Test 12-■10

12-[Link] Gap Tests 12-■10
12—[Link] Setback Pressure Test 12-■10
12—[Link] Impact Vulnerability Test 12-■10
12-[Link] Bomb Drop Test 12- 11
12-[Link] Cook-off Temperature Tests 12-■ 11
12-[Link] Electrostatic Sensitivity Test 12-■11
12-[Link] 1 Differential Thermal Analysis .... 12-■ 11
12—[Link] Thermogravimetric Analysis 12-■12
12-[Link] Hot Wire Ignition Test 12--13
12-[Link] Thermal Detonability Test 12--13
12-2.1.3 output 12--13
12—[Link] Detonation Velocity 12--13
12—[Link] Detonation Pressure 12--14
12-[Link] Brisance 12--15
12-[Link] Blast 12--15
12-[Link] Ballistic Mortar 12--15
12—[Link] Trauzl Test 12--15
12-[Link] Underwater Shock 12--15
12-2.1.4 Stability 12--16
12-2.2 Input 12--16
12—2.2.1 Mechanical Initiators 12--16
12-2.2.2 Electric Initiators 12--16
12—[Link] Condenser Discharge Test 12--16
12—[Link] Voltage Sensitivity 12--17
12-[Link] Steady Current Functioning 12--17
12—2.2.3 Gaps and Barriers 12--17
12-2.3 output 12--18
12—2.3.1 Detonation 12--18
12-[Link] Sand Test 12--18
12-[Link] Lead Disk Test 12--18
12-[Link] Steel Dent Test 12--19
12-[Link] Aluminum Dent Test 12--19
12-[Link] Hopkinson Bar Test 12--19
12-[Link] Velocity of the Air Shock 12--19
12—2.3.1 H Detonation Pressure Measured by
Means of Shock Transducers . . . 12--20
12-2.3.2 Nondetonating Items 12--20
12-[Link] Primer Output 12--20
12-[Link] Special Primer Output
Parameters 12--21
12-[Link] Mechanical Output 12--21
12 — 2.4 Environment 12--21
References 12--22

GLOSSARY G-l

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GENERAL REFERENCES R- 1
R— 1 Introduction R-1
R—2 General References R-1
R-3 Journal Articles of the JANAF Fuze
Committee Pertaining to
Explosive Trains R-2
R-4 Military Specifications on Explosives
and Explosive Compositions R-3

INDEX 1-1

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Fig. No. Title Page

1_ i Typical Low Explosive Train 1—2

1 —2 Typical High Explosive Train 1—3

2— 1 Computed Explosive Reaction Rates 2—3

2—2 Arrangement Used in Observations of
Detonation Growth 2—7
2—3 Formation and Incipient Decay of Shock Wave
from Wave of Finite Amplitude 2—11
2—4 Energy-power Relationship for Various
Initiators 2—16
2—5 Typical Effect of Bridgewire Volume on Input
Characteristics 2—17
2—6 Threshold Conditions for Initiation of Various
Explosives in a Shock Tube 2 — 20
2—7 Initiation by Adiabatic Compression 2—21
2—8 Input Sensitivity vs Explosion Temperature 2—22
2—9 Standard Firing Pin for Stab Initiators . . . .? 2—22
2—10 Energy-velocity Relationship for Percussion
Primers 2—23
2-1 1 Schematic of Typical TBI 2-27

3—1 Streak Camera Record of Detonation 3—2

3—2 Critical Gap as a Function of Column Diameter .. 3—2
3—3 Critical Axial Air Gaps Across Which
Detonation Is Transmitted Between
Lead Azide and Tetryl 3—3
3-4 Small Scale Air Gap Test 3-5
3—5 Minimum Priming Charge and Gap for Critical
Propagation 3—5
3—6 Small Scale Lucite Gap Test 3—6
3—7 Effect of Voids on Booster Sensitivity (Wax
GapTest) 3—7
3—8 Effect of Voids on Booster Sensitivity (Lucite
Gap Test) 3-8
3—9 Effect of Acceptor Confining Material upon
Sensitivity in an Air Gap Test 3—9
3—10 Gap Sensitivity Related to Density and Hardness
of Acceptor Confining Medium 3 — 10
3—11 Arrangement for Propagation of Misaligned
Charges 3 — 11
3 — 12 Line Wave Generator of the Manifold Type 3 — 12
3 — 13 Line Wave Generator of Sheet Explosive 3—13
3—14 Line Wave Generator of Warped Sheet of
Explosive 3 — 13
3 — 15 Pressure-time Relationship of Explosive
Blast 3-14
AMCP 706-179

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Con't.)

Fig. No. Title Page

4— 1 Postulated Condition for Initiator Failure

Caused by Wire-explosive Separation 4—6
4—2 Test of a Booster in Simulated Missile Flight 4—7
4—3 Cook-off Characteristics of Three Explosives 4—8
4—4 Simulated Aerodynamic Heat Test 4—10
4—5 Typical Time-acceleration Curve for Projectile
While in Gun 4-14

5—1 Typical Primers and Detonators (Mechanical) .... 5—3

5—2 Typical Explosive Relays 5—3
5—3 Typical Primers and Detonators (Electrical) 5—4
5-4 Electric "Mini" Detonator J-J
5-5 Electric Squib. M2 5-6
5—6 Stab-electric Detonator. T29 5—6
5-7 Functioning Times of Hot Wire Bridge Initiators . . 5—13
5—8 Initial TBI Configuration for Saturn V Launch
Vehicle 5-17
5—9 Comparison of TBI Parameters 5—18
5-10 Coined Bottom Cup 5-23
5 — 11 Punch Trimming of Initiator Cups 5 — 23
5— 12 Initiator Cup Crimping 5 — 24

6— 1 Obturated Delay Element of Bomb Fuze.

ANM100A2 6-2
6-2 Electric Delay Detonator. MARK 35 MOD 1 6-3
6—3 Electric Delay Detonator. T65 6—3
6—4 Sealing Methods for Vented Delays 6-3
6-5 FuzeM54 6-4
6—6 Pressure Type Delay 6—4
6-7 Support of Delay Pellet 6-5
6—8 Characteristics of an Obturated Black Powder
Delay Element 6—6

7-1 Booster. M21A4 7-2

7-2 2.75-in . HEAT Rocket With Spit-back
Explosive System 7—3
7-3 20 mm Fuze. M505 7-4
7—4 Critical Conditions for Detonation of Lead 7-7
7—5 Lead Pellets Held in Place by Staked-in
Closure Disk 7-11
7—6 Lead Retained by a Feature of Fuze Design 7—11
7-7 Lead Retained by a Cup 7—12
7-8 Explosive Loaded by Breaking Off Excess 7—12
7-9 Lead End Coated With Sealant 7-12
7—10 Lead Cup Crimped in Place 7—12
7-11 Chamfered Booster Pellet 7-13

xix
 AMCP 706-179

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (CoiVt.)

Fig. No. Title Page

7-12 Improper Charging of Cup 7—13

8-1 High Explosive Projectile 8—2

8-2 Armor-piercing Projectile 8—3
8-3 General Purpose Bomb 8-3
8-4 Antitank Mine. M15 8-4
8-5 High Explosive Antitank Projectile 8—4
8-6 Burster Type Chemical Projectile 8—5

9-1 Motor. Dimple. T3E1 9-2

9-2 Motor. Bellows. T5E1 9-2
9-3 Driver. Explosive. MARK 12MOD 0 9-3
9-4 Switch. Squib Actuated. Non Delay. XM60 9-4
9-5 Pyroswitch 9—4
9-6 Explosive Bolt in Which Reflected Tension Waves
Are Utilized 9-5
9-7 Destructor. Universal. M 10 9-5

10-1 Vacuum Casting Kettle 10—4

10-2 Scoop Loading 10—5
10-3 Charging Plate Loading 10—5
10-4 Detonator Loading Tool 10 — 6
10-5 Tool for Direct Loading of Component 10—7
10-6 Nomograph of Loading Pressure and Density .... 10—8
10-7 Pelleting Presses 10—9
10-8 Vacuum Pressing Apparatus 10-11
10-9 Hydrostatic Press Principle 10—12
10-10 Isostatic Press Principle 10—12

11 J Packing Box for Small Explosive Components .... 11 — 3

11-2 Illustration of Data in Ref .4 11-5

12-1 Cumulative Frequency Distribution for a

Normally Distributed Population 12—3
12-2 Skewed Frequency Distribution Typical of
Impact Sensitivity Data 12—3
12-3 Picatinny Arsenal Impact Test Apparatus 12—9
12-4 Gap Test Set-up 12-11
12-5 Apparatus Which Simulates Setback Pressure .... 12—12
12-6 Thermogram of Ammonium Nitrate 12—13
12-7 Method of d'Autriche for the Measurement of
Detonation Velocity 12—14
12-8 Typical Condenser Discharge Firing Circuit for
Testing Electric Initiators 12—18
12-9 Principle of Hopkinson Bar Measurement of
Detonator Output 12-20
12-10 Arrangement for Detonator Safety Test 12—22
xv
AMCP 706-179

LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Title Page

1— 1 Common High Explosive Materials 1—5

1-2 Values of Acceleration in Ammunition 1—10

2— 1 Ignition and Explosion Temperatures 2-4

2—2 Values of the Constant G in Eq. 2-3 2-6
2- 3 Optimum Loading Densities and Particle Sizes
for Growth of Detonation in RDX, HMX,
andPETN 2-8
2—4 Detonation Velocity Constants forEq. 2-17 2-13
2-5 Detonation Conditions, Calculated and Measured . 2-14
2-6 Sensitivity of Various Explosives in Wire Bridge
Initiators 2-19
2—7 Effect of Loading Pressure on Initiator
Sensitivity 2-23
2—8 Initiation of Explosion by Friction of PETN in
the Presence of Grit 2-24
2-9 Threshold Ignition Energies 2-25

3- 1 Densities and Shock Velocities in Various

Metals 3-4
3—2 Typical Results of Booster Sensitivity Test 3—4
3-3 Initiation Sensitivity Measured by Several Tests .. 3—5
3—4 Relation of Decibangs to Gap Thickness 3—6
3-5 Sensitivities of Some Explosives According to the
Small Scale Lucite Gap Test 3—7
3—6 Effect of 5 Percent D-2 Wax on the Booster
Sensitivity of Various Cast Explosives
(Wax Gap Test) 3-8
3-7 Air Gap Sensitivity Related to Acoustic Impedance
of Acceptor Confining Medium 3—9
3—8 Sensitivity for Various Spacer Materials (Wax
GapTest) 3-11
3-9 Gurney Constants for Common Explosives 3 — 15

4- 1 Environmental Requirements for Military

Materiel 4-2
4—2 Relative Sensitivities of Explosives According
to Standard Laboratory Tests of Ground
Samples 4-3
4—3 Sensitivity of Explosives to Hazards of Use 4-4
4-4 Cook-off Tests of Standard and Modified M47
Detonators 4_ 9
4—5 TNT Impact Sensitivity Variation With
Temperature 4-9
4—6 Compatibility of Common Explosives and
Metals 4-12

xvi
 AMCP 706-179

LIST OF TABLES (CorTt.)

Table No. Title Page

4-7 Bullet Sensitivity of 50/50 Pentolite 4-13

4—8 Temperatures Reached by Air When Compressed
Adiabatically 4-15
4—9 Critical Setback Pressures of Explosives of
Various Base Separations 4—15
4—10 Data Obtained From Explosives After Exposure
to Gamma Radiation 4—18

5—1 Common Priming Compositions 5—7

5—2 Effects of Cup or Sealing Disk on Sensitivity .... 5—8
5_3 Resistivities of Bridgewire Materials 5—10
5_4 Firing Times of Hot Bridgewire Initiators 5—12
5—5 Heats of Explosion and Detonation Pressures .... 5—21

6— 1 Gasless Delay Compositions in Current Use 6—7

6—2 Ignition Powders for Gasless Delay Elements .... 6—8
6—3 Burning Rates of Gasless Delay Compositions .... 6—8
6—4 Effect of Loading Pressure on BaCr04-B
Compositions 6—10
6—5 Failure Diameter Variation of Manganese
Compositions at — 65°F 6—10

7- 1 Failure Diameters of Lead and Booster

Explosives 7—6

8—1 Preferred Use of Main Explosives 8—6

10—1 Loading Density of Various Explosives 10—7

10—2 Fundamental Characteristics of Explosive
Compounds 10—15
10—3 Fundamental Characteristics of High Explosive
Mixtures 10-16

12—1 Safety and Reliability Related to Deviations

From the Mean 12—5

xvii/xviii
 AMCP 706-179

LIST OF SYMBOLS

A constant, Hz or dimensionless

A' inverse function of the resistance to motion of an atom, sec/ K

a acceleration, g

B Brinell hardness

B constant

C capacitance, /JF

C heat capacity. W-sec/°C orcal/g-°C

cQ velocity of sound, ft/sec

D detonation velocity, ft/sec

d diameter, in.

E activation energy, cal/mole

E modulus of elasticity, lb/in.2

E voltage, V

yj2E Gurney constant, ft/sec

F constant

G empirical constant

G gap, in.

g acceleration due to gravity, ft/sec2

/; thickness, in. or cm

/ current, A

Is current to fire lead styphnate, A

K constant

k thermal conductivity, cal/sec-cm-°C

AMCP 708-179

LIST OF SYMBOLS (CorTt.)

K reaction rate, Hz

L length, in.

M Mach number

m mass

n number

n polytropic exponent

P pressure, psi

R burning rate, ft/sec

R resistance, ohm

R roentgen

R universal gas constant, cal/°K-mole

T radius, in.

r bridgewire resistivity, microhm-cm

T temperature, °K,°C, or"F

t time, sec

u velocity of material relative to undisturbed medium, ft/sec

V voltage, V

V volume, in.3

v velocity, ft/sec

v velocity of material relative to the wave front, ft/sec

W weight, lb or mg

w energy, erg

X sensitivity stimulus, gap decibang

a covolume of gas, in.3

7 cooling rate coefficient, W/°C

 _AMCP 70G-179

LIST OF SYMBOLS (Con't.)

Y failure rate

7 ratio of specific heats

H (7_l)/(7+D

p density, g/cm3

SUBSCRIPTS

a acceptor charge

c case, charge, cord

d delay composition, detonation

/ firing temperature

i ideal, insulation

£ long

M confining medium

m measured, metal

o reference condition, initial

p priming composition

r recovery, reference

s short, stagnation

t threshold, test specimen, transmitted, total

w wire

xxi/xxii
 AMCP 70G-179

PREFACE

The Engineering Design Handbooks of the US Army Materiel Command

have evolved over a number of years for the purpose of making readily
available basic information, technical data, and practical guides for the
development of military equipment. The present handbook is one of a series
on explosives.

This publication is the first revision of the Handbook, Explosive Trains.

Extensive changes were made to update the volume. Illustrations of sample
devices, references, and test data were brought up to date. Outdated material
was replaced with current information and the organization was changed to
conform to present practice. A new chapter was added on packing, shipping,
and storing and the treatment of main charges, safety, setback and testing
techniques was enlarged.

This handbook presents theoretical and practical data pertaining to

explosive trains. It includes consideration of the various elements which, in
considerable variation, may constitute the explosive train of an item. The
main charge of an explosive item, such as projectile or warhead filler, is also
covered. Data are given on the physical and explosive characteristics of
typical explosives and references are cited in which additional data are
found.

Coverage includes development of the complete explosive train, from

elements suitable for initiation of the explosive reaction to the promotion of
effective functioning of the final, output element. The nature of the
explosive reaction, method of transfer of detonation and measurement of
output are discussed. Design principles and data pertaining to primers,
detonators, delay elements, leads, boosters, main charges and specialized
explosive elements are covered. The effects of environmental conditions and
steps to be taken to avoid difficulties are discussed.

Prepared as an aid to ammunition designers, this handbook should also be

of benefit to scientists and engineers engaged in other basically related
research and development programs or who have reponsibility for the
planning and interpretation of experiments and tests concerning the
performance of ammunition or ammunition components.

The handbook was prepared by The Franklin Institute Research Labora-

tories, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It was written for the Engineering
Handbook Office of Duke University, prime contractor to the Army
Research Office-Durham. Its preparation was under the technical guidance
and coordination of a special committee with representation from Picatinny
Arsenal and Frankford Arsenal of the Munitions Command, and the Ballistic
Research Laboratories. Chairman of this committee was Mr. Donald Seeger
of Picatinny Arsenal.

xxm
AMCP 706-179

The Engineering Design Handbooks fall into two basic categories, those
approved for release and sale, and those classified for security reasons. The
Army Materiel Command policy is to release these Engineering Design
Handbooks to other DOD activities and their contractors and other
Government agencies in accoidance with current Army Regulation 70-31,
dated 9 September 1966. It will be noted that the majority of these
Handbooks can be obtained from the National Technical Information
Service (NTIS). Procedures for acquiring these Handbooks follow:

a. Activities within AMC, DOD agencies, and Government agencies other

than DOD having need for the Handbooks should direct their request on an
official form to:

Commander
Letterkenny Army Depot
ATTN: AMXLE-ATD
Chambersburg, PA 17201

b. Contractors and universities must forward their requests to:

National Technical Information Service

Department of Commerce
Springfield, VA 22151

(Requests for classified documents must be sent, with appropriate "Need to

Know" justification, to Letterkenny Army Depot.)

Comments and suggestions on this Handbook are welcome and should be

addressed to:

Commander
US Army Materiel Command
ATTN: AMCRD-TV
Alexandria, VA 22304

(DA Forms 202S, Recommended Changes to Publications, which are

available through normal publications supply channels, may be used for
comments'suggest ions.)

XXIV
 AMCP 706-179

EXPLOSIVE TRAINS*

PART ONE - FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES

CHAPTER 1

EXPLOSIVE CHARGES AS COMPONENTS OF WEAPON SYSTEMS

1-1 INTRODUCTION 1-1.2 THE EXPLOSIVE TRAIN

1-1.1 PURPOSE 11.2.1 FUNCTIONSAND TYPES

This handbook is one in the series of An explosive train is an assembly of com-

Engineering Design Handbooks dealing with bustible and explosive elements arranged in
explosives. It covers the principles and factors the order of decreasing sensitivity, inside a
applicable to the design of the various individ- fuze, projectile, bomb, gun chamber, or the
ual elements that are parts of an explosive likef. The function of the explosive train is to
train. These elements include primers, deto- accomplish the controlled augmentation of a
nators, relays, delays, leads, boosters and small impulse into one of suitable energy to
main bursting charges. In addition, principles cause the main charge of the ammunition to
and factors involved in the design of explosive function.
items such as actuators, explosive switches
and destructors, that are usually not elements Explosive trains may be divided into two
of the main explosive train of a military item, general classes, high explosive trains and low
are mentioned, particularly where the princi- explosive trains, according to the type of
ples differ from those applicable to the main explosive used in the main charge. An explo-
train.
sive train may also be designated according to
The phenomena of initiation, deflagration, the item in which it is assembled or to which
and detonation and their interaction with it pertains. One of the most common ex-
effects produced in surrounding materials are amples of the high explosive trains is the fuze
discussed with particular emphasis on those explosive train. If the bursting charge is
aspects that are important to designers of added, it is commonly called a bursting charge
explosive charges. Also discussed are evalua- explosive train. A common example of'the
tion procedures, loading methods, and the low explosive train is the propelling charge
effects of design upon the probability of explosive train.
accidental initiation, upon reliability, and
upon the useful life of an item.

'Revised by Günther Cohn, The Franklin Institute Research fFor more detailed definitions of explosive material, seethe
Laboratories, Philadelphia, Penna. Glossary at the end of this handbook.

1-1
AMCP 708-179

1-1.2.3 HIGH EXPLOSIVE TRAIN

Essential elements of a high explosive train

are:

1. A primary or low explosive charge,

contained in a suitable housing, that is capa-
| M42 PRIMER CASE
"0"RING PROPELLANT8 IGNITER
ble of (1) being activated by a relatively small
DELAY ELEMENT stimulus (mechanical or electrical) and (2)
producing a self-propagating reaction. The
Figure 1-1. Typical Low Explosive Train output of this initial charge consists principal-
ly of relatively low velocity hot gases and
The explosive or combustible elements of particles.
an explosive train are so arranged that:
2. An intermediate charge of primary high
1. They can be activated in the desired explosive (most commonly lead azide) in
manner, which the transition from burning to detona-
tion takes place.
2. On functioning, they will produce the
desired effect reliably, and 3. A secondary high explosive charge (for
example, RDX) that intensifies the shock
3. The probability of premature function- output from the intermediate charge, and
ing is minimized for all foreseeable conditions
of handling, storage, transport, and use. 4. A main charge consisting of a secondary
high explosive (for example, TNT) that pro-
1-1.2.2 LOW EXPLOSIVE TRAIN duces the desired effect.

A low explosive train in its simplest has Auxiliary elements that are almost always
only two essential elements: included in an explosive train for convenience
of design and for special purposes are:
1. A primary explosive charge in the form
of primer, igniter, or ignition charge, and 1. Leads and relays to transmit explosive
reactions between spatially separated ele-
2. A main propelling or other gas generat- ments,
ing charge.
2. Delay or time element to increase the
In addition, the train may have a delay interval between activation of the first explo-
composition to provide a time delay. The sive element and functioning of the main
initiator cartridge, shown in Fig. l-l1 *, is a charge, and
typical low explosive train. It consists of a
primer, delay element, and main charge. 3. A booster that is sensitive enough to be
Propelling charge explosive trains and other initiated by relatively small output of a
low explosive trains are covered in detail in secondary high explosive charge and powerful
Ref. 1. Unless otherwise indicated, the term enough to initiate the insensitive secondary
explosive train in this handbook signifies a high explosive usually used for the main
high explosive ffuiM charge.

At times it is possible to combine several

functions of these elements into a single unit.
'Numerical references are listed at the end of each chapter. When arranging the elements in the train, the

1-2
 AMCP 706-179

FIRING PIN

M47 PRIMER CHARGE

DETONATOR
INTERMEDIATE CHARGE

RDX BASE CHARGE

FUZE RDX BOOSTER CHARGE

PROJECTILE

RDX/WAX (97/3)
TOP OFF CHARGE

MAIN EXPLOSIVE CHARGE

(A) ARMED (B) UNARMED

Figure 1-2. Typical High Explosive Train

more sensitive components are always sepa- of this handbook (for an assembly drawing of
rated from the more powerful by a safing and this fuze, see Fig. 7-3).
arming device (see par. 1-2.3.3).
In the armed condition, the fuze is ready to
A number of auxiliary elements are used in function. When it strikes the target, the
some military devices, viz., actuators, explo- following sequence of actions take place:
sive bolts, and destructors. Complete explo-
1. The stab firing pin strikes the input end
sive trains in themselves, they are designed to
of the M47 Detonator, piercing the thin metal
perform a specific task.
disk and pushing into the primer charge. This
stabbing causes a reaction to be initiated in
1-1.2.4 TYPICAL HIGH EXPLOSIVE
the primer charge.
TRAIN
2. The primer charge initiates the inter-
Fig. 1-2 shows a simple high explosive mediate charge of lead azide that is also
train. Pictured in schematic form is the M505 contained in the detonator. Here the action is
Nose Fuze that is used with 20 mm ammuni- accelerated and converted to a detonation.
tion. The fuze is shown in both armed and
unarmed conditions but details of mechanical 3. The detonation of the lead azide is
construction have been omitted. While im- transmitted to the RDX base charge of the
portant, these features are beyond the scope detonator and is amplified.

1-3
AMCP 706-179

4. The RDX booster and top off charges reaction zone into the unreacted explosive is
(if any) serve to amplify the detonation wave less than the velocity of sound through the
to insure proper initiation of the main charge undisturbed material. When used in its normal
in the projectile. manner, low explosive burns or deflagrates
rather than detonates. Low explosives are
In a superquick fuze, such as this one, this divided into two groups: (1) gas-producing
entire sequence takes place in only a few low explosive including propellants, certain
microseconds, whereas in a fuze having de- primer mixtures, igniter mixtures, black pow-
layed action, the interval between activation der, photoflash powders, and certain delay
of the primer charge and explosion of the compositions, and (2) nongas-producing low-
main charge may be as much as several explosives including the gasless type delay
hundred milliseconds. Such a delay may be compositions.
introduced by a special pyrotechnic charge,
which burns at a definite rate, between primer The reaction of low explosives is covered in
and intermediate charges. par. 2-1. In fuze explosive trains, low explo-
sives are limited to priming compositions (see
The rotor in which the detonator is assem- Table 5-1) and delay compositions (see Table
bled is aligned with the remainder of the 6-1).
explosive train through the action of linear
and rotational forces encountered during 1-1.3.2 HIGH EXPLOSIVES
propelling the projectile from the gun. In the
unarmed view (Fig. l-2(B)) the fuze is in the An explosive is classified as a high explosive
safe or out-of-line position. The purpose of when the rate of advance of the chemical
this safety feature of fuzes is to isolate reaction zone into the unreacted explosive
physically the more sensitive explosives of the exceeds the velocity of sound through this
explosive train from the main charge. Since explosive. This rate of advance is termed the
the more sensitive explosives are more suscep- detonation rate for the explosive under con-
tible to accidental initiation, they will not sideration. High explosives are divided into
propagate to the main charge, if initiated, the groups: (1) primary high explosives that
when they are in the out-of-line position (see are characterized by their extreme sensitivity
par. 1-2.3.3). to initiation by both heat and shock, and (2)
secondary high explosives that are initiated
1-1.3 EXPLOSIVES only by relatively high intensity shock.

A detailed discussion of explosive materials The reaction of high explosives is covered

is not within the scope of this handbook. For in par. 2-2. Common high explosive materials
information on explosive chemistry, see Ref. are summarized in Table 1-1. Fundamental
2 and for information on explosives used by properties are listed in Tables 10-2 and 10-3
the military, see Refs.* b, c, and d. On the and the Military Specification numbers for
other hand, the explosive train designer re- these materials are listed in par. R-4.
quires an intimate knowledge of what explo-
sives to use and how these explosives react. 1-1.4 BASES FOR SELECTING EXPLO-
Explosives are divided into two groups, low SIVE CHARGES
and high.
When the designer is ready to build an
1-1.3.1 LOW EXPLOSIVES explosive train, he must make a number of
decisions. Before he can select the explosive
An explosive is classified as a low explosive charges, he must have a clear idea of the input
when the rate of advance of the chemical stimulus that will be used to start his system
"Lettered references are listed in the General References at
and of the final output the system is to have.
the end of this handbook. Between these two extremes, he must assem-

1-4
 AMCP 706-179

TABLE 1-1

COMMON HIGH EXPLOSIVE MATERIALS

Acceptable Use Only for

Use Normally Used for Mixtures Special Applications

Primer Lead azide Antimony sulfide Diazodinitrophenol (DDNP)

Lead styphnate Barium nitrate Mannitol hexanitrate
basic or Lead sulfocyanate Nitrostarch
normal Nitrocellulose
Tetracene

Detonator* Lead Azide Same'as above

HMX
PETN
RDX
Tetryl

Lead or Comp. A-5

Booster DIPAM Cyclotol
HNS Pentolite
PBXN-5 Pressed TNT
RDX PETN
Tetryl

Main Charge Comp. A-3 Comp. A-4

Comp. B Comp. B-3, B-4, B-5
H6 Comp. C-4
HBX3 Cyclotol
Minol-2 DBA-22M
Octol PBXN-101, 103
TNT
Tritonal

*lf the detonator includesthe function of a primer, itwill contain one or more of the primary explosives.

ble a variety of explosive components. This mm HEAT round to be fired from a recoilless
complete system will then make up the rifle, a nonmetallic mine to be triggered by
explosive train. foot pressure, or a marker projectile delivering
a red smoke puff lasting for 20 sec. At this
Since the objective of the explosive train is point, the explosive charge designer takes
to function the main bursting charge, it is over. He will specify the weight and con-
logical to consider it first. This charge is figuration of the main high explosive charge
designed so as to deliver the output that is in the HEAT projectile, the amount of charge
required of the ammunition. While the output in the mine and, together with the ammuni-
is invariably specified for all design require- tion designer, will fix the size of the mine to
ments, it is usually given in terms that the result in the desired effects, or he will specify
explosive charge designer cannot use directly. the weight and configuration of the HE
burster charge and the composition of the
Specifications start with the user who has a chemicals to produce the smoke puff.
requirement. For example the user may want
to defeat a tank, to cause personnel casualties, Where the design calls for high explosives in
or to produce a signal. Next, the ammunition a projectile, bomb, or the like for which
designer translates these needs into terms of caliber is either specified or the shape of
specific ammunition. He may call for a 90 which [Link] by ballistic considerations, the

1-5
AMCP 706-179

task of designing the output charge is fairly train is designed in the same manner as the
straightforward. The given container is filled main train.
with as much explosive as will fit. Seventy
percent of the total weight of a light-case So far, we have considered main charges
bomb, for example, is high explosive filler. and boosters at the output end and initiators
Design principles for blast (par. 3-3.3) and for at the input end. These three form the basic
fragmentation (par. 3-3.4) are weU estab- elements required in every train. If the explo-
lished. Explosives for chemical charges must sive train is for a small device, no additional
burst the case and efficiently disseminate the charges are necessary. Additional charges are
contents. The design of main charges is added only to fill a particular need. Note also
discussed in pars. 8-2 and 8-3. that blasting caps, which contain a large
output charge, obviate [Link] in demoli-
At the other end of the train is the tion charges.
initiator. Selection and design of the proper
first element in the explosive train is probably If there is to be a time interval between
the most difficult step. For this reason., this initiation and functioning of the train, a delay
subject is treated in depth by itself (par. element is inserted. Often a relay is required
5-1.4). The design of initiators is covered in at the end of the delay to transform the
pars. 5-1 to 5-4. deflagration of the burning delay into a
detonation wave. Delay elements are de-
It is a basic safety requirement in ammuni- scribed in pars. 6-1 to 6-3.
tion that the initiator be kept out of line so
that the train will not propagate in the event A common explosive train charge is the
of accidental functioning of the sensitive lead. Because of the geometry required to
initiator. While the explosive charge designer achieve bore safety, detonator (or relay) and
is definitely concerned with such safety de- booster are separated too far for the detona-
vices, they are not included in this handbook. tion wave to travel. This gap is filled with a
The design, construction, layout, and evalua- lead. Leads contain the same explosives as
tion of the various safety and arming devices boosters. Leads are covered in pars. 7-1 to 7-3.
are covered in texts on fuze designs.
Sometimes functions other than initiation
The next element to be considered is the of the main charge are required. Actuators
booster charge. Most high explosive ammuni- exert a force through a small distance to
tion has boosters. The booster is that charge activate controls or to close switches. Small
which is sensitive enough to be actuated by and reliable, they are ideally suited for remote
the small explosive elements on the one hand control. Explosive bolts and destructors are
and powerful enough to cause detonation of other examples of devices serving auxiliary
the main explosive on the other hand. Tetryl, functions. These designs are covered in pars.
RDX, and HMX are common explosives 9-1 and 9-2.
which have these properties. The booster
charge is best placed into a cavity of the main Good design practice must be applied to all
charge (the fuze well). The design of boosters explosive charges and to their assembly into a
is covered in pars. 7-1 to 7-3. train. Charges must be of the proper geometry
and sensitivity and must have the correct
From the standpoint of train propagation, density and confinement as discussed in par.
a booster pellet is all that is required. How- 3-2.2. They must be compatible with other
ever, for reasons of safety and versatility, explosives and with metal parts. They must be
some military ammunition calls for a com- safe to handle and must stand the extremes of
plete booster containing its own detonator temperature in storage and use as discussed in
and out-of-line arming device. This secondary pars. 4-1 to 4-3. The design of explosive

1-6
 AMCP 708-179

charges that make up safe and reliable trains and launchers are sometimes quite appreciable
has not yet been reduced to a formula. and have been known to produce undesirable
Rather, it requires considerable experience. results when they were not taken into con-
The design of unusual trains, in particular, sideration during design. Chambers of rapid-
should never be attempted by a novice. fire weapons are heated in the course of long
bursts to temperatures that can cause func-
After the design is completed, the train is tioning of rounds that remain in them when
ready for thorough test and evaluation as firing stops.
discussed in par. 12-2.
The limitations on explosive charge design
1-2 SYSTEMS APPROACH TO AMMUNI- imposed by the first two listed aspects are
TION those of dimensions and spatial configuration.
They are usually clearly stated in design
1-2.1 VEHICULAR ASPECTS specifications or military requirements for
explosive charges. Effects of aerodynamic
1-2.1.1 GENERAL heating and acceleration forces, however,
usually are not obvious from a glance at the
Most ammunition is projected to its target drawings. Frequently, they can influence the
over appreciable distances. Both maximum functioning of ammunition.
velocities and ranges continue to increase with
improvements in propellants and design. Four 1-2.1.2 AERODYNAMIC HEATING
aspects of this motion must be considered by
the designer of explosive charges: Not only must an explosive system with-
stand high temperatures without premature
1. Range and accuracy of a projectile functioning, it must also function effectively
depend upon its aerodynamic characteristics. and reliably during or after such exposure.
The external contours dictated by aero- Insulation of explosive charges can be quite
dynamic considerations are a limitation upon effective because the exposure time is usually
size and shape of the explosive system. so short that, with reduced heat transfer
rates, the heat capacity of the explosive is
2. It is sometimes necessary to adapt the sufficient to keep the temperature within
design of explosive charges in order to dis- bounds. However, as velocities and ranges
tribute the weight properly for flight stability. continue to increase, the necessary amount of
insulation may increase to a point where it
3. Velocities and flight times of many seriously reduces the effectiveness of a war-
modern missiles are such that aerodynamic head, both by displacing explosive and by
heating has introduced a whole new set of wrapping it in a highly effective shock atten-
explosive-charge-design problems. uator. The effects of high temperatures upon
explosives are discussed in more detail in par.
4. Acceleration forces during launching, 4-2. Some of the newer explosives that are
flight, and impact are the principal sources of more heat resistant are not castable. The use
the structural loading of ammunition. of these materials will necessitate design
changes in the carrier to facilitate either (1)
In addition to these more or less general consolidation of the explosive charge or (2)
consequences of the functioning of military assembly of preformed explosive charges.
items as vehicles, it is necessary for the The determination of temperature profiles
designer of explosive charges to consider within ammunition items affected by aero-
special circumstances that may arise as a dynamic heating is difficult, complex, and
result of transport systems. Accelerations due quite beyond the scope of the present discus-
to the mechanical action of rapid-fire guns sion. It is, however, frequently possible for a

1-7
AMCP 706-179

designer, by means of a few quick calculations stagnation temperature. The boundary layer
using a simplified model of his system, to of air in contact with the surface at points
obtain a gross answer regarding the need for where there is an appreciable tangential flow
more detailed calculations, the substitution of component approaches a recovery tempera-
explosives, or the insulation of explosive ture that is well below the stagnation temper-
charges. The discussion that follows is in- ature. Typical relationships of recovery
tended as an aid in making such approximate temperatures T to stagnation temperatures
calculations. arc

The flow conditions about an object mov-

ing through the atmosphere are most simple if = 0.8 to 0.9 (1-2)
they are considered in terms of a coordinate Ts —
To
system moving with the object. In such a
system, the undisturbed air is an infinite where Tr = recovery temperature, "K.
stream moving at a velocity of magnitude
equal to that of the object in a system of The value of this ratio varies with velocity,
fixed coordinates. Quite clearly, the object position, and shape of the object.
impedes this flow of air. By Bernoulli's
principle (conservation of momentum) any Most ammunition that flies at speeds at
reduction of the velocity of part of the stream which the stagnation temperature of atmo-
must be accompanied by an increase in spheric air is sufficient to have undesirable
pressure. Rapid compression of a gas causes effects upon explosives does so for a limited
its temperature to rise. The highest tempera- time. The question as to whetherthe explosive
ture that may be anticipated in any point in materials will reach undesirably high tempera-
such a system, called the stagnation tempera- tures during such an interval can be answered
ture Ts, is that of air which has been brought only by considering the heat flow into and
to rest with respect to the object within each component in detail.

= T0 (1 + 0.2AP),"K (1-1) As the stagnation temperatures rise relative

to those at which explosives are stable and as
where designs become more intricate, the means of
resolving doubts regarding whether explosive
stagnation temperature, "K charges will survive aerodyamic heating be-
come more laborious and less positive. The
T0 = temperature of the undisturbed at- introduction of a heat barrier may turn out to
mosphere, "K be the only way in which these doubts may
be removed. In some cases a simple barrier
M Machnumber will be effective not only in protecting the
explosive but it also will reduce the heat
If the stagnation temperature is below that
transfer analysis to simple arithmetic. For
at which the explosive charge will suffer any example, if a thin layer of insulation is
ill effects, as discussed in pars. 4-2.2 and
applied to the outside of the metal case of an
4-2.3, there is no problem of aerodynamic explosive charge, it may be assumed as a first
heating.
approximation that the metal loses no heat to
A stagnation temperature high enough to the explosive, that the surface coefficient of
have deleterious effects upon the explosive is heat transfer is infinite, and that the heat
not necessarily reason to take special mea- capacity of the insulation is negligible. If
sures. Only a small fraction of the surface of a these assumptions are made, then the heating
moving object is exposed to air at the rate of the case is
 AMCP 708-179

dTc _ (Tr - TJk, D 2. If possible without compromising other

C/sec (1-3)
dt features of this design, choose an explosive
KhiCcPc
that will survive this temperature,
where
3. If doubt remains regarding survival of
Tc = case temperature, "C aerodynamic heating, make a conservative
estimate of the heating rate based either on a
Tr = reference temperature, "C simplified model or experimental data for an
analogous system, and
t = time, sec
4. If doubt remains at this point, give
^ = thermal conductivity of insulation, serious consideration to the use of insulation
' cal/sec-cm-°C or heat sinks.

hC thickness of case, cm 5. Testing of the system may be required.

thickness of insulation, cm

C heat capacity of case, cal/g-°C

density of case material, g/cm3 1-2.1.3 ACCELERATION

Note that all of the assumptions are con- As vehicles, ammunition items must, of
servative in the sense that they tend to make course, be accelerated. In some instances the
the calculated temperature rise more rapid magnitudes of the accelerations are great. To
than the real one. Thus, if these calculations the designer of explosive charges, accelera-
lead to the conclusion that the protection tions are a source of structural loading which
against aerodynamic heating is adequate, it applies inherently to all masses including that
may be accepted with a miniumum of doubt. of the explosive material. Accelerations asso-
ciated with changes in the momentum along
Where the combination of temperature, the line of flight are always variable, usually
time, space, and weight limitations results in impulsive, while centrifugal accelerations of
inadequate protection of explosive materials, spin-stabilized projectiles remain nearly
the use of heats of evaporation and fusion to steady during the time of flight.
increase the effective capacity of heat sinks
has been suggested. Both the fusion of low-
melting alloys and the dehydration of When considering the effects of accelera-
hydrated salts have been suggested as thermal tion of ammunition, its variability must also
buffers. Some salts have the added virtue of be considered. On the one hand, it is often
expanding with dehydration to form porous possible to reduce peaks by use of shock
insulation media. absorber principles. On the other hand, the
rapid changes can result in impact forces of
A reasonable course for an explosive charge much greater magnitude than those due to the
designer, confronted with a possible aero- direct effects of gross acceleration. In con-
dynamic heating problem, might be as sidering these effects, the designer should
follows: obtain the best estimate available of the
time-acceleration function to which his device
1. Compute the maximum stagnation will be subjected. Table 1-2 lists the magni-
temperature to which a round might be tudes of some typical accelerations of am-
exposed, munition.

1-9
AMCP 706-179

TABLE 1-2 distribution on the container that is very

different from that computed by assuming
VALUES OF ACCELERATION IN
AMMUNITION
the explosive to behave as a liquid.

Ammunition and 3. In many applications, explosive per-

Condition of Typical Peak formance could be improved by a smaller
Exposure Acceleration, g Direction metal-to-explosive ratio from that dictated by
design in which the strength of the explosive
Projectile setback
when fired in gun 50,000 Axial is neglected. Improvement may also result
Projectile piercing Axial or from a different spatial configuration in
armor -150,000 Oblique which the strength of the explosive is utilized.
Projectile loaded into
automatic gun -1,000 Axial 4. Some applications require metal so thin
Projectile loaded into
and soft as to have little value as a structural
artillery 10,000 Transverse
Rocket or missile, member.
normal launch 100 Axial
Rocketor missile, 5. The resistance to deformation and
gun launched 30,000 Axial eventual failure of an explosive material under
Missile steering 40 Transverse
Missile flight vibration 10 Random
stress could result in impact forces much
Mine water entry -2,500 Axial higher than those calculated using the hydro-
static approximation.
Note: Forward acceleration is conventionally assigned
a positive value. For these reasons it is always best, and
sometimes necessary, to design an explosive
1-2.2 STRUCTURAL ASPECTS item as a composite structure or, at least, to
consider the effects of its behavior as such.
1-2.2.1 NEGLECTING THE STRENGTH OF
THE EXPLOSIVE 1-2.2.2 CONSEQUENCES OF STRUCTUR-
AL FAILURE OF EXPLOSIVE
To sustain accelerations and still retain CHARGES
their functional capability as explosive Obviously, those charges whose output
charges and mechanisms, ammunition must be characteristics are closely associated with
designed with full recognition of its functions their geometrical configurations, such as
as a structure. The time-honored practice of shaped charges, will not function properly if
neglecting the strength of the explosive the geometry is altered by structural failure.
material, i.e., of designing the container to Other consequences of structural failure may
hold a liquid of the density of the explosive, be more serious when they occur. Although
can greatly simplify structural design and is available evidence indicates that high me-
generally quite conservative. It may not chanical stresses are, in themselves, incapable
always result in the best design and, in some of initiating explosive reactions, movement
cases, it is inapplicable because: under high stress—particularly the rather
sudden movement resulting from a structural
1. The strengths of explosives are far from failure-provides a mechanism for the de-
negligible and those of some materials are velopment of hot spots that may become
quite appreciable. The strengths of cast explo- reaction nuclei (see par. 2-1.3). Where the
sives are on the order of 2000 psi (compres- failure results in the relative movement of two
sive) and 200 psi (tensile). Those of plastic adjacent metal members with explosive in
bonded explosives are somewhat higher. between, action similar to an impact or fric-
tion sensitivity test (where the explosives are
2. The resistance of the explosive material pinched, ground, or impacted) may result in
to plastic deformation can result in a load premature initiation.
1-10
 AMCP 706-179

The initiating trains of ammunition are percussion initiators. The phenomena in-
generally composed of a series of rather small volved in such initiation processes are
charges that communicate detonation only discussed in par. 2-3.
when properly spaced and accurately aligned.
Hence, a structural failure can result in either The importance of confinement in every
premature functioning or complete failure. phase of the initiation, growth, and propaga-
tion of explosive reactions cannot be over-
1-2.2.3 STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS AS stressed. A change in the confining medium
SOURCES OF FRAGMENTS can change the critical value of a dimension
by a factor of ten or more. Various aspects of
In many types of ammunition, notably the effects of confinement upon explosive
artillery fragmentation projectiles, the case reactions art? discussed in practically all para-
serves two somewhat contradictory functions: graphs of this handbook.
that of the principal structural member and
that of the source of fragments. In the one Consideration of the role of an explosive
role it has to hold together under high gun material as a component of the structure and
acceleration and centrifugal stresses; in the of its interaction with,inert structural compo-
other it must fly apart in a prescribed manner. nents from the conceptual stage onward
The high strength that holds it together in the probably will avoid some problems in the
gun also absorbs a significant amount of the testing and evaluation stages.
energy liberated when the explosive deto-
nates. The choice of a structure and con- 1-2.3 MECHANICAL ASPECTS
figuration conducive to optimum fragmenta-
tion may unduly weaken it. The charge-to- 1-2.3.1 FUNCTIONING
case weight ratio that is best for fragmenta-
tion may afford too little metal for structural In the sense that their useful output is
stability. In addition, the aerodynamic con- generally in the form of mechanical work,
siderations of stability and range are involved. explosive charges are mechanical devices.
The design of such a projectile is a com- However, the explosive charge designer must
promise of interior, exterior, and terminal also consider those aspects of the mechanical
ballistic considerations (discussed in par. 3-3). functioning of ammunition which are in-
In other types of fragment-producing ammu- volved in placing it in the desired location
nition, where structural or aerodynamic con- with respect to its target, safeguarding against
siderations are less stringent, the designer has operation until it gets there, and initiating the
more freedom to adapt shape, construction, reaction at the desired place and time. Both
and material to obtain optimum fragmenta- the effects of these preliminary mechanical
tion. functions on the explosives and the effects of
the presence of the explosives on the func-
1-2.2.4 INTERACTION OF STRUCTURE tioning must be considered. Because mechani-
WITH EXPLOSIVE MATERIALS cal functioning generally occurs after the
ammunition has been launched, the necessary
In addition to the interaction of explosives energy must be either stored in or derived
and inert parts to form a composite structure from the after-launch environment of the
and their interaction to produce output ef- ammunition.
fects, important interactions between explo-
sives and inerts are involved in initiation, Forms of stored energy which have been
growth, and propagation of detonation. The used include elastic (cocked springs, com-
pinching, grinding, and impact resulting from pressed gases), chemical (batteries, propel-
the relative movement of inert components in lants, explosives), magnetic (permanent
contact with explosives are, of course, es-, magnets), and electrical (charged condensers,
sential phases of the operation of stab and piezoelectrjc elements). Environmental

1-11
AMCP 706-179

sources include aerodynamic or hydro- 1-2.3.3 SAFING AND ARMING DEVICES

dynamic forces incidental to the motion of
the ammunition through the ambient fluid; It is a basic requirement that fuzes have
acceleration forces related to launching, spin, two independent safing features, whenever
water entry, and target impact; hydrostatic possible, either of which is capable of prevent-
forces due to changes in ambient pressure; ing an unintended detonation before the
magnetic forces related to movement with ammunition is projected3. The philosophy is
respect to the earth's field; electrical forces based on the low probability that two fea-
related to environmental potential differences tures will fail simultaneously. If possible, both
(electrostatic in air and electrolytic in sea safing features should be "fail safe" and each
water); and thermal and radiation effects. should be actuated by a separate force. Where
Quite clearly, the range of forces represented launching forces are used, arming must be
is so great that exceptional precautions are delayed until a safe distance is attained
necessary at the one extreme to retain nearly between the ammunition and the point of
frictionless movement and, at the other, to launching. These principles—combined with
protect the dormant mechanism, structure, the wide variety of launching, propulsion, and
and explosive charges from damage. For stabilization means used, the range of after-
details on both stored and after-launch forces, launch environments, and the inventive
see Ref. g. ingenuity of fuze designers—have resulted in a
proliferation of arming devices and schemes
(see Ref. g).

1-2.3.2 LOCATION WITH RESPECT TO The arming requirements have made neces-
TARGET sary in some instances the use of forces that
are so weak as to place very high standards on
The mechanical functions involved in plac- tolerances, finishes and balance of moving
ing the ammunition in the desired location parts, some of which carry explosive compo-
with respect to its target might be considered nents. The designer of explosive components
as part of its functioning as a vehicle. How- for use in safing and arming mechanisms must
ever, those functions under consideration here be particularly careful to safeguard against
are not so clearly vehicular functions as dimensional instability of the explosive
propulsion and flight of the item. They material. Any design change that results in a
include such varied activities as separation of change in mass or in mass distribution should
stages in multistaged weapons, jump-up be considered carefully in the light of its
action of certain antipersonnel weapons, and effect upon the functioning of inertial arming
opening of parachutes. Some of these func- systems, including rotors of fuzes for spin-
tions are accomplished by means of explosive stabilized devices. The effect of changes in
actuators (par. 9-1). Where such devices are mass distribution caused by arming operations
used, it is a concern of the designers of other may sometimes require examination by an
components to safeguard against their pre- exterior ballistician.
mature initiation or other damage. In other
instances, where the source (such as move- The design of a safing and arming mecha-
ment of a small bellows under the action of nism is a three way compromise among
hydrostatic pressure) makes only a small reliability, quality control, and compactness.
quantity of energy available, precautions are If the components are large enough, they can
necessary to prevent an increase in the fric- be reliable even if they vary greatly from item
tional loading of the system resulting from to item, and quite safe if far enough apart in
the distortion of the weapon case, due either the unarmed state. To meet the increasing
to dimensional instability of the explosive demand for miniaturization, it will be neces-
material or to differential thermal expansion. sary to improve continually (1) the standards

1-12
 AMCP 708-179

of reproducibility of output, (2) the sensi- 1-2.4.3 ELECTRIC INITIATORS EXPOSED

tivity of explosive components, and (3) the TO SPURIOUS SIGNALS
techniques for their evaluation. The designer
of the mechanism must lean heavily on the The very nature of the design and firing
explosive component designer because the mechanism of electric initiators makes them
basic dimensions of the mechanism depend vulnerable to spurious electrical signals such
upon the characteristics of the explosive as RF energy, lightning, and electrostatic
components. charges. Pick-up of such signals can cause
premature initiation or possibly dudding and
thereby reduce performance reliability.
1-2.4 ELECTRICALASPECTS Because of the extensive use of electrical
initiators in modern weapon systems, great
1-2.4.1 ENVIRONMENTS
care must be taken to design them so as to
reduce this vulnerability.
The complexity of our electrical environ-
ment is staggering. Practically every insulator Several solutions have been proposed to
has a static charge. Any two dissimilar pieces alleviate this problem in the design stage4.
The designer of ammunition can minimize the
of metal, wet with slightly impure water,
make a battery of sorts. Weld them together hazard of initiation caused by the electrical
and change their temperature and we have a environment by following these general design
thermal generator. Every spark plug, every practices:
switch, every thunderstorm, and all the stars
keep broadcasting transients. Hence, all 1. Use of complete electrical shielding on
ammunition has, as does everything else, all all electric circuits subject to hazard.
sorts of small currents running through it at
random at all times. In general, these currents 2. Design of components that are specifi-
remain so small as to have negligible heating cally resistant to the spurious signals includ-
effect. Under certain conditions, fairly high ing, where applicable, the special schemes
currents are possible. Electrostatic discharges discussed in par. 5-4.4.1.
and surges due to nearby strokes of lightning
can also develop appreciable currents. 3. Proper analysis and testing under a
Methods of hardening weapon systems against correct simulation of service electrical
RF energy are discussed in detail in Ref 4. environments to determine the susceptibility
of a system to electrical hazards.

1-2.4.2 POSSIBLE INITIATION OF THE 1-3 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

MAIN BURSTING CHARGE
While the design of the explosive compo-
If, at some point in a circuit, spurious nent that makes up an explosive train is not a
currents are concentrated in a relatively small simple task, it should not be considered
path in intimate contact with explosive overwhelming. The various chapters in this
material, it is conceivable that a hot spot handbook discuss the principles of explosive
might develop and form a reaction nucleus. components and treat the design of specific
Analysis of such systems is too complex to devices. In addition to the special information
undertake. This is particularly true in view of given, a number of general design factors must
the lack of evidence that such accidentally be kept in mind. These factors—applicable to
formed electric initiators have been the cause engineering design in general—are important
of accidents. It is well, however, to check a in the design of each system component.
design for conditions that are obviously con- Knowledge of the general factors, the design
ducive to such effects. requirements, and the relation of the explo-

1-13
AMCP 706-179

sive component to the system permits effi- 1. Whenever possible, use stanaam compo-
ciency in design and the possibility of trade- nents with established quality level and other
offs that may improve performance. The reliability criteria at least as high as that
general factors include reliability, safety, required by the application.
economics, standardization, and human
factors engineering. 2. Wherever possible, particularly in more
complex and expensive materiel, use redun-
dant systems.
1-3.1 RELIABILITY
3. Specify materials for which the prop-
Reliability is a measure of the extent to erties of importance to your application are
which a device behaves as it was designed to well known and reproducible. Keep in mind
behave during the usually short period be- that the average value for a parameter may be
tween launching, firing, or being emplaced, less important for design purposes than the
and completion of its mission. Obviously, extreme values.
reliability of ammunition and of its compo-
nents is of key importance. Weapons are 4. As far as possible, design items in such a
useless if they don't function as intended. manner that defects which affect reliability
can be detected by means of nondestructive
Reliability is defined in statistical terms. It tests or inspection.
is the probability that material will perform
its intended function for a specified period 1-3.2 SAFETY
under stated conditions. The problem with
explosive components is more severe than Safety is a basic consideration throughout
that of other items for two reasons. First, item life. We are concerned with the extent to
they are a small part of a complex system. which a device can possibly be made to
Since the probability that all of the compo- operate prematurely by any accidental
nents in a system will function is the product sequence of events that might occur at any
of the probabilities of the individual compo- time between the start of its fabrication and
nents, the functioning probability of explo- its approach to the target.
sives must be high, higher than that of the
total system. This requirement calls for high While safety also is defined statistically, the
reliability of explosives. Secondly explosives approach to safety is somewhat different
are one-shot devices that cannot be tested from that applied to reliability. The keystone
repeatedly. Special work-or-fail methods of of this approach is the fail-safe principle.
analysis have been developed; they are de- Essentially, this principle states that any
scribed in par. 12-1.2. sequence of events other than that to which a
round is subjected in normal operation shall
The evaluation of materiel, including result in failure rather than detonation of the
estimation of its reliability, is usually carried round. Compliance with the fail-safe principle
out by an organization, or at least a group, usually is accomplished mechanically, and is
other than the design group. Difficulties the reason most military devices must be
between these groups can be resolved more considered as mechanisms.
readily if the designer of explosive devices is
familiar with the techniques used by evalu- In terms of added bulk, weight, and com-
ators, uses similar techniques to assure himself plexity—which can be translated into terms of
that his designs are reliable, and designs reliability, effectiveness, and logistics—safety
devices and systems in which reliability is as is expensive. Hence, the problem of safety is a
nearly inherent as possible. A few general double one. The designer must be certain that
suggestions can be made for the designer: his device is safe and yet impose the least

1-14
 AMCP 706-179

impairment of functioning — all at minimum 1-3.3 ECONOMICS

cost.
The assessment of a weapon system in-
The preceding remarks on safety emphasize volves the comparison of its value with its
the protection against premature functioning cost. The value per round may be considered
of the initiation package. However, this is to be the product of the military value of the
only one aspect of system safety. Another damage of which a round of ammunition is
example of safety is that of protecting against capable and the probability that a given round
direct initiation of main charge or booster by will inflict this damage. The cost of a round
impulses incidental to handling, shipping, of ammunition includes the cost of delivering
storage or launching, and accidents that may it to its target as well as that of producing it.
occur during these operations. The vulner- Each of these quantities is, in itself, a
ability of ammunition to initiation by acci- complex combination of diverse factors that
dent or enemy fire can seriously restrict its may include aspects of statistics, military
tactical usefulness or greatly complicate prob- strategy and tactics, and all branches of
lems of storage, handling, and transportation. engineering.
System design can reduce this vulnerability by
affording mechanical protection, support, and The process of comparing alternative solu-
confinement. Hence, safety is not a separate tions to stated requirements in the terms of
problem but an integral part of explosive the value received (effectiveness) for the
charge design. resources expended (costs) is called the Cost/
Effectiveness analysis. Basically, a choice
A number of policies, rules, and safety must be made between maximizing accom-
codes that apply to various types of material plishment of the objective for a given cost or
have been promulgated. In view of the variety minimizing the cost for achieving a given
of these codes, it is well for a designer to objective'.
examine in advance the safety criteria that
will be applicable to his design. The designer 1-3.4 STANDARDIZATION
should be familiar with the following general
safety information: The decision as to whether to adapt a
system design to the use of a standardized
1. The basic reference for safety is the component or to design a new component
Safety MuniHiP \ especially adapted to a system is often one of
the most difficult a designer has to make. On
2. It is a basic requirement that fuzes have the one hand, a new item often has been
two independent safing features, whenever developed because, in the layout stage of
possible, either of which is capable of prevent- design, it took less effort to sketch in some-
ing an unintended detonation before the thing that fit the dimensions than to find out
ammunition is projected3. what was available. On the other hand, the
hard and fast resolution to use only shelf
3. For safety considerations during pack- items has resulted in systems that are ap-
ing, storing, and shipping, see pars. 11-1, 1 1-2, preciably inferior to the best attainable with
and 11-3,respectively. regard to safety, reliability, effectiveness, or
compactness, and in the perpetuation of
4. The standard tests devised to examine obsolete items.
the safety of explosive components are dis-
cussed in par. 12-2.4. As a general rule, the standard item must
always be given first preference and must be
5. Requirements for the system safety considered carefully. An important reason in
program are covered in MIL-STD-8826. explosive charge design is the cost and time

1-15
AMCP 706-179

required to qualify new items (see pars. 12-1 tem. Many explosive components are small,
and 12-2). intricate devices. Care must be taken to avoid
features that tend to introduce human error.
MIL-STD-320 lists a standardized series of Faulty assemblies caused by such errors as
dimensions for newly developed detonators, missing parts or parts placed upside-down can
primers, and leads and for their components. affect severely ultimate performance. Remem-
ber also that explosive components often are
1-3.5 HUMAN FACTORS ENGINEERING handled behind barriers for reasons of safety
so that close scrutiny is difficult to accom-
The science that analyzes man's role in plish.
man-machine systems is called human factors
engineering. Man's capabilities and, more Erratic performance in a particular delay
important, his limitations must be given care- train was once traced to a problem of human
ful consideration. This topic, as it relates to factors engineering. A manual assembly opera-
fuzes, is covered in AMCP 706-2 10g . tion called for inserting 5 delay pellets into a
deep cup, each pellet being separated by
The design of explosive components is also white tissue paper. Operators tended to lose
concerned with human factors engineering count so that cups contained from 4 to 6
lest any shortcomings of the components pellets. The problem was solved by using
affect the fuze, ammunition, or weapon sys- tissue paper of different colors for each layer.

REFERENCES

a-g Lettered references are listed in the 4. AMCP 706-235, Engineering Design Hand-
General References at the end of this book, Hardening Weapon Systems Against
handbook. RF Energy.

1. AMCP 706-270, Engineering Design Hand- 5. AMCR 385-100 Safety Manual, Army
book, Propellant Actuated Devices. Materiel Command, April 1970.
6. MIL-STD-882, System Safety Program
2. Tadeus Urbanski, Chemistry and Tech- for Systems and Associated Subsystems
nology of Explosives, Pergamon Press,
and Equipment, Dept. of Defense, 15 July
London, Vol. 1, 1964; Vol. 2, 1965; Vol. 1969.
3, 1967.
7. Robert N. Grosse, An Introduction to
3. MIL-STD-1316, Fuze, Design Safety, Cost-Effectiveness Analysis, Research
Criteria For, Dept. of Defense, 17 Septem- Analysis Corp., McLean, Va., July 1965
ber 1970. (AD-622 112).

1-16
 AMCP 706-179

CHAPTER 2

EXPLOSIVE REACTIONS AND INITIATION

2-1 THERMAL DECOMPOSITION AND The reaction of a typical charge of solid

BURNING explosive, rigorously considered in its ulti-
mate detail, is so complex as to defy quanti-
2-1.1 THERMAL DECOMPOSITION tative description. Fortunately; .however, the
typical situation is such that one or another
Explosives are substances or mixtures of aspect of the behavior of the material is so
substances which may be made to undergo a dominant that other aspects may be dismissed
rapid chemical change, without an outside as second order effects. Hence, although
supply of oxygen, with the liberation of large gradual thermal decomposition, deflagration,
quantities of energy generally accompanied and detonation are usually chemically similar
by the evolution of hot gases. As metastable processes, their physical causes and manifesta-
materials, they decompose at all temperatures tions are so different that they may be
above absolute zero. The rates of decomposi- understood best by considering them as
tion are direct functions of temperature. For distinct phenomena. Heats of combustion and
explosives of practical interest, the decom- detonation are different initial phases of
position rates, at normal temperatures of deflagration, which can be considered as
storage, handling, and transportation, are burning or oxidation. Some explosives, how-
negligibly small. As the temperature is in- ever, are not readily combustible.
creased a few hundred degrees, the rates of
thermal decomposition attain significant The rates of thermal decomposition and
levels. The self-heating of the explosive by the deflagration are related directly to tempera-
heat evolved in this (exothermic) reactior ture and pressure while detonation is related
tends to further raise the temperature and to pressure. All three reactions result in the
increase the reaction rate. Where such circum- increase of both temperature and pressure. It
stances result in a runaway reaction, a thermal follows that any charge of explosive, if
explosion may result'. Ref. 1 also presents a contained so as to prevent expansion or losses
thorough study of the behavior of explosives. of matter or energy, will eventually explode.
If the temperature is uniform throughout the
Most explosive reactions, whether inten- charge, the reaction will be a pure thermal
tional or accidental, result from highly local- explosion where each element of volume
ized heating that initiates a self-propagating experiences the same self-accelerating temper-
reaction'. In such a reaction the heat lib- ature rise. More usually, any variations in
erated by the reaction of the explosive at one temperature will tend to exaggerate them-
point in a charge raises the temperature in selves so that the self-heating reaction will run
adjacent material sufficiently to cause it to away at the hottest point from which a
react at a similar rate. The modes and rates of deflagration, in turn self-accelerating, will
such self-propagating reactions so profoundly propagate. The self-accelerating deflagration is
affect the usable phenomena associated with characterized by a similarly accelerating rise
the functioning of explosives that these in pressure, which is propagated through the
phenomena can hardly be considered except unreacted explosive as a compression wave. If
in terms of these modes and rates. the charge is large enough, the wave may

2-1
AMCP 706-179

develop into, a shack of sufficient amplitude E = activation energy, cal/mole

to propagate as a detonation.
R = universal gas constant, cal/°K-mole
2-1.2 REACTION KINETICS
The classic Arrhenius equation sets^4 'T = A
Perhaps the reaction of an explosive mate- for small temperature ranges
rial can be understood best by trying to
visualize an explosive molecule. Such a mole- k'{T) = Ae-E«RT) (2-2)
cule is a structure containing atoms that have
very strong affinities for one another, and where/! = Arrhenius constant, Hz
that are prevented from responding to these
affinities by their places in the structure. The Eq. 2-2 is used more commonly to repre-
positions of atoms within the structure of a sent the temperature dependence of chemical
molecule and that of molecules within the reactions. For the temperature range of most
crystal are fixed, not by rigid links, but by experiments, the difference between Eqs. 2-1
equilibrium of electrostatic and quantum- and 2-2 is not distinguishable (see Fig. 2-1).
mechanical exchange forces. Unless the tem-
perature is absolute zero, each atom vibrates The qualitative implications of the
about its equilibrium position with a random Arrhenius equation deserve the consideration
motion under the influence of the similar of all who deal with explosives. Since E for
random motions of its neighbors. These military explosives has a value between
random motions, which are characteristic of 10,000 and 100,000,while R is approximate-
thermal phenomena, apply to the partition of ly two, a small percentage change in tempera-
energy between molecules and between atoms ture results in an order of magnitude change
of each molecule. in reaction rate. The sharply defined tempera-
tures that many experimenters have asso-
The average energy of molecular agitation ciated with decomposition, ignition, or explo-
is proportional to temperature. If, at any sion (see Table 2-1d) are quite readily
given absolute temperature, the agitational explained in terms of these equations and the
energy exceeds the activation energy, the relatively limited range of rates that may be
atom may escape from its position in the measured by most experimental techniques.
molecule and be free to assume more con- (The ignition temperatures shown in the table
genial relationships. This uproar increases the are computed; the explosion temperatures are
agitation of neighboring molecules, that is to experimental.)
say, the reaction proceeds with the evolution
of heat. The reaction rate then is the fre- The Arrhenius equation expresses a charac-
quency with which the agitational energy of teristic (temperature) of explosives which has,
individual molecules exceeds the activation perhaps, a greater influence upon the initia-
energy tion process than any other attribute. For
example, the reaction rate of a typical explo-
k'(T) = A'Te~E^RT> (2-1) sive with an activation energy of 50,000
calories per gram mole, at 800°C is more than
where ten times its reaction rate at 700°C.
=
& reaction rate, Hz The experimental determination of the
constants of Eqs. 2-1 and 2-2 for various
T = absolute temperature, °K explosives is complicated by the effects of
reaction products, phase changes and multiple
A' = inverse function of the restraint to reactions, as well as by the heat transfer
motion of an atom, sec/°K considerations. The reactions of most of the

2-2
 AMCP 706-179

IO' fits most experimental data so well that many

investigators have ignored the complicating
influences and derived more or less empirical
IO' Arrhenius constants from plots of the loga-
rithm of the rate, or of a rate-dependent
quantity, as a function of the reciprocal
temperature.

For the explosive charge designer, the most

IO! useful consequences of theoretical studies of
thermal decomposition problems are the de-
velopment of (1) a more valid basis for
qualitative thinking, and (2) coordinate sys-
tems within which most experimental data
form recognizable patterns. When confronted
C io7 with an explosive charge design problem, a
a
suggested approach to a realistic solution
o consists of the following two steps:
IO'

1. Obtain, either from available literature

Z
o or specifically designed tests, experimental
I- IO" data for situations that simulate as closely as
o
< *'(D= »V« "f ^r) (f = 50,000)- possible those to be encountered in service.
UJ
a: EQUATI0N 2-1
IO 2. Interpolate between data points using
e
*'(T) - Ae~ ^*\E-- 50,000)-
coordinates of inverse temperature, and loga-
ARRHENIUS EQUATION 2-2 rithms of times, rates, or dimensions. These
IO' coordinates may also be used for extrapola-
tion. However, extreme care should be exer-
cised when extrapolating because abrupt
IO' changes in the decomposition rate (such as
/I AND a' ARE ADJUSTED TO GIVE those due to melting of a component of an
EQUAL RATES AT 500°K explosive material) may occur outside of the
IO range of experimental data.

2-1.3 THE "HOT SPOT' THEORY OF

o o o o o o o o o INITIATION
O O Ö o o o o CO
o o
m o 5 2 — O 0> f-

TEMPERATURE, The view that nonuniformity of heat dis-

tribution is essential to the usual initiation
Figure 2-1. Computed Explosive process has been called the "hot spot" theory
Reaction Rates of initiation. In explosive initiators, the
energy available is concentrated by the use of
commonly used explosives are either accel- small diameter firing pin points and, in
erated (autocatalysis) or retarded (auto- electrical devices by dissipating the energy in
stabilization) by the presence of their reaction short and highly constricted paths. The
products3 . Because of these difficulties, addition of [Link] primer mixes serves a
generally accepted reaction kinetics constants similar function. Not only is nonuniformity
for explosives are not available. However, the of energy distribution essential to most initia-
exponential form of the Arrhenius equation tion processes, but it is an important factor in

2-3
AMCP 706-179

TABLE 2-1

IGNITION AND EXPLOSION TEMPERATURES

* Thermal Ignition t Explos ion Temperature9, °c

Explosive Temperature , c 0.1 sec 1 sec 10sec
5 sec

beta-HMX 380 327 Decomposes 306

Composition B _ 526 368 278 Decomposes 255
Cyclonite(RDX) _ 405 316 260 Decomposes 240
Haleite(EDNA) _ 265 216 189 Decomposes 178
Lead Azide 335 396 356 340 Explodes >335
Lead Styphnate 250 - 282 Explodes 276
Nitroglycerin (Liquid) 200 - 222 Explodes -
Pentolite, 50/50 _ 290 266 220 Decomposes 240
PETN (Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate) 215 272 244 225 Decomposes 211
Silver Azide _ 310 290 Explodes -
Tetracene 160 - 160 - -
Tetryl - 340 314 257 Ignites 238
TNT (Trinitrotoluene) - 570 520 475 Decomposes 465
"Computed
t Experimental

the growth and propagation of practically all with dimensional changes and since the
chemical explosive reactions used in ord- volumetric specific heats of solids vary only
nance. slightly from one to another, the minimum
energy required to initiate an explosive device
Because of the exponential nature of the is nearly proportional to the volume of
Arrhenius equation (Eq. 2-2), the reaction material that is heated by the input energy
rate inevitably reaches a level such that heat is pulse. It must be stressed that this is an
liberated faster than it can be lost. From this approximation that should be applied only to
point on, the reaction is self-accelerating and comparisons of performance within initiators
quite rapidly becomes explosive. of the same type initiated in a specific
manner.
Although a general equation that includes
consideration of all of the complicating Since the energy available for the initiation
factors would be completely intractable, the of military explosives is usually limited, initia-
use of simplified models makes possible solu- tion systems are designed to concentrate this
tions which contribute to the understanding energy, as heat, in a relatively small volume.
of the initiation process. However, simplifica- Obviously it won't stay that way. The smaller
tions must be used cautiously. For example, it the volume in which a quantity of heat is
frequently appears that each explosive has a concentrated, the faster it is dispersed, other
critical initiation temperature that is inde- factors remaining similar. In order to con-
pendent of dimensions. Although more exten- centrate a given amount of heat in a nucleus
sive experiments or more detailed analyses of a given volume, the heating must take place
have usually shown it to be an approximation in a time which is short compared with the
that applies to only a specific class of ini- cooling time of the nucleus. If the rate at
tiator, this relationship can be a useful design which energy is introduced, i.e., the input
tool if its limitations are kept in mind. power, is reduced to a low enough level, the
Perhaps the most important implication of losses will establish equilibrium with the sum
the foregoing is that, since in any type of of the input power and the heat generated by
system, the critical temperature varies so little the reaction. An infinite quantity of energy

2-4
 AMCP 708-179

will not cause initiation under such equilib- reaction) is known as deflagration. Deflagra-
rium conditions. tion is distinguished from detonation by its
subsonic propagation rate, from which it may
Up to this point, the present discussion has be implied that shock waves are not im-
been concerned with the establishment of portant factors in the propagation. Deflagra-
reaction nuclei. Once reaction is established at tion of a gas may be described quantitatively
a nucleus, the useful functioning of an ini- in terms of thermodynamics and hydro-
tiator requires that the reaction be propagated dynamics. That of solid explosives is more
to the remainder of the explosive charge of complex and, for real situations, is subject to
the initiator and thence to the next compo- only qualitative description. Empirical rela-
nent of the explosive system. Similarly, the tionships, which are quite reasonable conse-
consequences of accidental initiation depend quences of the mechanisms indicated in the
upon such propagation. The same heat trans- qualitative description, are sufficiently useful
fer mechanisms whereby heat is dissipated for predicting the course of this type of
from a prospective reaction nucleus are neces- reaction.
sary for the propagation of the reaction from
an established nucleus. However, conditions The reaction products of most solid explo-
that promote sensitivity to one or another sives are largely gaseous. Most of the im-
stimulus will sometimes cause failure of portant aspects Of the behavior of these
propagation if carried to extremes. Heat may materials are related to this phase change at
be transmitted by conduction, convection, the time of reaction. The surface burning rate
radiation, and what might be called thermo- is determined by the rate at which heat is
dynamic heat transfer. All of these mecha- transferred from the hot, gaseous reaction
nisms are involved in the reaction of explo- products to the unreacted solid explosive
sives, but their relative importance varies material. (The local reaction rate is quite
greatly and changes as the reaction progresses. probably related to temperature by the
Arrhenius equation, but the very steep tem-
The process referred to as thermodynamic perature gradient is reflected in a much
heat transfer is one of the most important steeper reaction-rate gradient, so that the
mechanisms involved in explosive reactions. reaction zone is almost vanishingly thin.) The
The cooling of reaction products, due to rate at which heat is transferred between a
abiabatic expansion can, under some circum- gas and a solid is the product of the difference
stances, quench a reaction. Conversely, between their temperatures and a surface
unreacted explosives can be heated by com- coefficient. The surface coefficient is a
pression to reaction-inducing temperatures. function of the flow conditions in the gas and
When the compression is of sufficient magni- its thermodynamic properties, and is directly
tude and suddenness to cause a significant proportional to pressure. When a solid explo-
increase in temperature, it is generally prop- sive burns, temperature increase, flow condi-
agated through the material as a shock wave. tions, and thermodynamic properties of its
Detonation, the ultimate goal of high explo- reaction products are nearly constant. Thus,
sive systems, is a type of reaction propagation the rate at which heat is transferred from the
which depends upon this mechanism to trans- products to the explosive and, consequently,
fer the heat of reaction to the unreacted the surface burning rate should be directly
explosive. proportional to the pressure. For some
materials it is, but for most the situation is
2-1.4 DEFLAGRATION somewhat more complex.

The very rapid burning of which explosives The reaction of many, perhaps most, explo-
are capable (by virtue of containing all of the sive compounds takes place in the gaseous
elements needed for the completion of their phase. The rate of surface burning in such

2-5
AMCP 706-179

TABLE 2-2 in determining the course of the reaction. In a

completely enclosed case, pressure continues
>LUES OF THE CONSTANT G IN EQ. 2-3 to build up and burning rate continues to
Explosive Gx 103
increase until the case bursts or the explosive
is expended. The explosion that results is
Ammonium Picrate 6.25 entirely due to the sudden release of gases
Tetryl 8.7 when the case bursts. If the case has a leak,
TNT 12.5 orifice, or nozzle, conditions of equilibrium
PETN 21
are possible in which the rate at which gases
RDX 36
are evolved equals that at which they flow
from the container.
cases is essentially the rate at which the
surface erodes due to sublimation. This in For rockets, in which stability of this kind
turn is proportional to the rate of heat is extremely important, the effort is made to
transfer divided by the heat of sublimation. develop propellants for which the exponent n
Since the heat of sublimation of the solid of Eq. 2-3 is as low as possible. In explosive
usually increases with increasing ambient pres- components, the instability that results from
sure, the increase of the surface burning rate the high values of n associated with porous
with increasing pressure is somewhat less than explosives is an important factor in the rapid
linear. A relationship between burning rate acceleration of reaction propagation, a part of
and pressure which has been found to apply the function of such elements.
to the surface burning of a number of solid
explosives and propellants is 2-2 DETONATION

R = GPn, ft/sec (2-3) 2-2.1 TRANSITION FROM DEFLAGRA-

TION TO DETONATION
where
2-2.1.1 TRANSITION PROCESS
R - burning rate, ft/sec
The transition from deflagration to detona-
G = empirical constant tion is generally divided into three stages (1)
deflagration, (2) low order detonation, and
P = pressure, lb/in.2 (3) high order detonation. The transition
from one to the other of these stages is
n = polytropic constant, dimensionless usually quite sudden and is influenced greatly
by three factors, particle size of the material,
The exponent n is less than one. Surface porosity, and confinement provided by the
irregularities may increase the burning rate by environment.
increasing the surface area and by introducing
a component of flow parallel to the surface, The process of transition from the first
thus increasing the surface coefficient of heat stage can be described on the basis of the
transfer. Table 2-24 lists constants for Eq. 2-3 following concepts: The deflagration reaction
for various common military explosives. rate accelerates rapidly if the particle size is of
the right magnitude. When confined, this
The pressure dependence of the rate of increased reaction rate results in increased
surface burning, and the fact that gas is pressure that propagates as a shock wave in
evolved at a rate proportional to the surface the unreacted explosive. As the shock wave
burning rate, result in a situation where the becomes of increasing strength, shock heating
confinement afforded by the case of an will cause a fast enough reaction to sustain
explosive charge is the most important factor the shock which then propagates as a low

2-6
 AMCP 706-179

lELECTRIC DETONATOR (-EXPLOSIVE CHARGE rBRASS CONTAINER

compared with the stable rate of over 4000
m/sec for these loading conditions. The
growth is apparently continuous, though slow
and, in a few experiments, approached its
maximum rate in several inches. Because of its
low rate growth to detonation, lead styphnate
is not used as a detonating charge, but to
increase the sensitivity of the initial charge,
where its reproducible ignitibility is an ad-
vantage.
Figure 2-2. Arrangement Used in Observa-
tions of Detonation Growth 2-[Link] LEAD AZIDE

order detonation. This low order detonation It is true that the growth of detonation in
then propagates as a shock wave which, if lead azide is so much more rapid, even when
reinforced by sufficient energy, will accelerate loaded at very high pressures, ,that experi-
to produce a high order detonation (see also ments in which detonation growth and "dead
Ref. k). pressing" can be observed in most other
explosives would lead to this conclusion.
Particle size influences the acceleration rate However, these properties of lead azide, com-
of the reaction as does particle porosity bined with the ever rising pressures for
because of their effect on the surface area ruggedization and miniaturization, have re-
that is exposed to the hot gaseous reaction. sulted in the evolution of designs for which
Experimentation has shown that for each these assertions must be reexamined.
particle size there is a critical pressure at
which the increase in burning rate with Dextrinated lead azide made the transition
increasing pressure is faster than linear5. This from burning to detonation quite suddenly
critical pressure is inversely related to particle for all combinations of loading pressure,
size. confinement, and initiation. However, when
pressed to densities above 95% of maximum
2-2.1.2 GROWTH OF DETONATION IN theoretical (requiring 20,000-25,000 psi
PRIMARY HIGH EXPLOSIVES loading pressure) and mildly initiated, it
would detonate at,rates of 1400-1700 m/sec
In a series of experiments using the arrange- compared with an approximate rate of 3000
ment shown in Fig. 2-26, containers were m/sec obtained at lower densities.
sectioned after firing and the expansion of the
bore was taken as a measure of the vigor of 2-2.1.3 GROWTH OF DETONATION IN
detonation. The arrangement was also used to SECONDARY HIGH EXPLOSIVES
measure propagation velocities. Lead styph-
nate and lead azide were tested. One of the principal features that dis-
tinguishes a secondary explosive from a
2-[Link] LEADSTYPHNATE primary explosive is its much smaller pro-
pensity for completing the transition from
The growth of reaction in lead styphnate burning to detonation. As in primary explo-
was very gradual in all instances. It grew sives, this transition is affected by the inter-
fastest (as indicated by the taper of the bore) action of a number of factors including charge
in material pressed at 4000 to 5000 psi. size, state of aggregation, confinement, and
Under these conditions, the maximum mea- vigor of initiation. However, for any given
sured propagation rate for the second inch of combination, the transition is much slower
column was about 2000 m/sec, which may be and many charges, even main bursting

2-7
AMCP706-179

TABLE 2-3

OPTIMUM LOADING DENSITIES AND PARTICLE

SIZES FOR GROWTH OF DETONATION IN RDX, HMX, AND PETN

Optimum Loading IDensity Optimum Particle Size

Approx.
Micron USS sieve Burning Length,
Explosive Granulation Deiisity, g/cc Range cut cm

RDX Unsieved 1.29 251-124 60-120 1.2

HMX (first sample) 250-135 micron 1.26 251-124 60-120 1.9
HMX (second sample) (Not Determined) 76- 53 200-270 1.4
PETN 420 micron 1.59 124- 76 120-200 0.2

charges, are so small as to be consumed by In other experiments it has been estab-

low order detonation before the transition lished that the growth of detonation in a
can take place. Such main charges are, of column of secondary explosive is accelerated
course, much safer to handle and use than by the insertion of a barrier followed by an
those in which the transition will take place. air gap8 (see also par. 3-2.2.5). It might be
In addition to the assessment of hazards of expected that the explosive material, particle
main charge detonation after accidental igni- size, loading density, dimensions and confine-
tion, the growth of detonation in secondary ment on both sides of the barrier-gap com-
high explosives has been investigated by those bination interact with the material and thick-
who are interested in the development of ness of the barrier and the dimensions of the
safer detonators. The latter have made signifi- gap to determine the burning distance. A
cant contributions in the determination of factorial experiment to determine the
optimum conditions for the most rapid optimum combination would be a formidable
growth of detonation in some of the more program.
sensitive secondary high explosives.
Growth of detonation has been observed in
Experiments similar to that illustrated in a number of cast explosives8. InPentolite and
Fig. 2-2 have been carried out with columns DINA (diethylnitramine dinitrate), high order
of PETN, RDX and HMX. A refinement was detonation was established in 10 to 15 cm. In
the use of coaxial ionization probes that Composition B, the propagation rate grew to
could be fed in through small radial holes at about 3000 m/sec, at which point the con-
fairly frequent intervals along the length tainer apparently shattered, relieving the pres-
without unduly affecting the confinement. sure and allowing the reaction to decay. In
Velocity measurements obtained with these TNT, the reaction grew so little in 12-in.
probes, and oscilloscopes and timers estab- columns that the containers were practically
lished the correlation between bore deforma- undamaged, and the propagation rates so low,
tion and propagation velocity. The lengths of 600 to 1000 m/sec, that it was difficult to
columns required to grow to detonation, obtain satisfactory records. By increasing the
referred to as burning lengths, were deter- length to 34.5 in. and finally to 58.5 in., it
mined for a number of combinations of was possible to observe the growth of the
particle size and loading density. Hardly propagation velocity to about 2000 m/sec.
design data, these lengths may be taken as The increase was quite regular but seemed to
indications of development goals. For each be accelerating toward the end. The question
explosive, optimum values were indicated for as to whether the reaction would continue to
each of these variables at which the burning accelerate, stabilize at a low order detonation,
length reached a minimum value (see Table or burst the tube and die out has not yet been
2-37). answered.

2-8
 AMCP 706-179

2-2.2 SHOCKWAVES and

Detonation is a mode of propagation of P - PO = pO udx/dt = p Du

r (2-6)
reaction in which the energy that initiates the
reaction is transmitted to the unreacted Eqs. 2-4 and 2-6 may be combined and
material in the form of a shock wave. It has rearranged to obtain
been referred to as a reactive shock. The
discussion that follows of nonreactive shocks D = [pAPI(poAp)]l/2 (2-7)
serves as a preface to that of detonation.
where
Shock waves, like acoustic waves, are a
special class of compression-displacement D = detonation velocity
waves. Although the behavior of such waves
varies with their amplitude, their wave form, v = velocity of material relative to the
and the properties of the media in which they wave front
propagate, many relationships that derive
from fundamental physical laws are the same u = velocity of material relative to the
for practically all cases. Although the typical undisturbed medium
wave attenuates as it propagates, this attenua-
tion is so slow compared with the associated m = mass
transitions that the wave may be assumed to be
stable when examining its detailed structure. P = pressure
It is convenient, at the beginning, to assume
an infinite plane wave in which only move- t = time
ments and changes along the axis of propaga-
tion are significant. x = distance traveled by shock wave in
undisturbed medium
Consider, now, a wave propagating through
a stationary medium. In a system moving with
p = density
the wave, the conservation of matter demands
that the mass of material passing through each
subscript o refers to the condition in the
plane perpendicular to the axis be equal to
undisturbed medium
that passing through each other such plane. In
other words, the product of density and
Refer to the paragraph that follows for a
velocity is a constant at all points along the
discussion of units.
axis. In this system of coordinates, the undis-
turbed medium approaches the wave front at
In using Eqs. 2-4 to 2-7 in the estimation of
a velocity equal in magnitude to that at which
shock conditions, two convenient systems of
the wave propagates in the stationary
units may be derived from the CGS system.
medium. The velocity of the material relative
The use of gram as a unit of mass and cm as a
to the wave front is, of course, equal to the
unit of length results in densities in g/cm3.
difference between the propagation velocity
These densities are numerically equal to the
and the velocity of the material at any point
specific gravities of the materials that are
relative to the undisturbed medium. Thus, the
given in most handbooks. The use of the
equation of continuity has the form
second as the unit of time and the dyne as the
poD = pv = p(D-u) (2-4) unit of force results, for the usual shock or
detonation calculations, in velocities (cm/sec)
The impulse applied is and pressures (dyne/cm2) expressed in num-
bers so large as to elude intuitive grasp.
(P-Po)dt = udm = puudx (2-5) Pressures expressed in bars (106 dyne/cm2)

2-9
AMCP 708-179

and times in milliseconds can be combined to result in a significant change in the

with masses in grams and distances in centi- compressibility, i.e., dP/dp changes signifi-
meters in which these equations may be used cantly) may, if the pressure rise is continuous
without numerical coefficients. The system of in time and space, be considered a succession
gram, centimeter, microsecond, and megabar of sound waves each moving in the medium
is also compatible and may be even more compressed by its predecessor. The sound
convenient. velocity may change as the medium is com-
pressed, causing a distortion of the wave as it
Eqs. 2-4 to 2-7 apply quite generally to all progresses. For example, in a gas, the temper-
pressure-displacement waves for which the ature rise with compression causes the higher
assumption of equilibrium is valid. The rela- amplitude portion of the wave to propagate
tionship among pressure, volume, and temper- faster, outrunning the other portions until it
ature is known as the equation of state of a reaches the front (see Fig. 2-3). The discon-
material. tinuity of pressure density, particle velocity,
and temperature which results is known as a
Acoustic waves are those' of such small shock. The equations of state of solids are
amplitude that the volume change is negligible more complex so that the modification of
and AP/Ap is more accurately expressed as wave forms at pressures beyond their elastic
clP/dp. Thus, the sound velocity co is ex- limits varies from one material to another.
pressed as Shock waves of certain amplitudes degenerate
in some solids. When compressed sufficiently,
sJdP~!dp~ (2-8) however, all matter becomes less compressible
so that compression waves, if they are of
By combining Eq. 2-8 with the ideal gas laws, sufficient amplitude, will develop into shock
the familiar equation for the velocity of waves in any medium.
sound in an ideal gas is found
A curve, commonly known as the Hugoniot
y/lRT (2-9) curve, may be used with Eqs. 2-4 to 2-7 to
define the conditions behind the shock
For elastic solids and liquids the expression wave ". The Hugoniot curve is the locus of end
becomes points of shock compressions. The propaga-
tion velocity should never be computed from
s/ETp~ (2-10) the slope of the Hugoniot curve but always
from that of a chord connecting the initial
where point with the final point using Eq. 2-7. For
ideal gases, the equation of the Hugoniot
c0 = sound velocity curve is

7 = ratio of the specific heat at constant P P -M2P0

pressure to that at constant volume, (2-11)
dimensionless • P
o P„ -P-2P

R = universal gas constant where p2 = (7 - ' )/(7 + 1).

E = elastic modulus appropriate to the Since the Hugoniot compression results in a

material and mode of propagation larger temperature rise than does adiabatic
compression, the gas becomes less compres-
Refer to previous discussion for units. sible as the strength of the shock increases. It
is thus apparent from Eq. 2-7 that the
Waves of .finite amplitude (those in which velocity of a shock is a direct function of its
the compression of the medium is sufficient strength. For situations where the density is

2-10
 AMCP 708-179

SYMMETRICAL WAVE OF FINITE AMPLITUDE

PEAK, PROPAGATING AT HISHER VELOCITY,

MOVES TOWARD FRONT DISTORTING WAVE FORM

DISCONTINUITY SHOCK
DEVELOPS

PEAK AND SHOCK

OVERTAKE WAVE
FRONT

RAREFACTION OVERTAKES
DIRECTION OF PR0PA6ATION FRONT CAUSING DECAY

Figure 2-3. Formation and Incipient Decay of Shock Wave

from Wave of Finite Amplitude

so close to the limiting value (po/A) that products of the detonation of military high
variations with pressure may be neglected, Eq. explosives under conditions in the detonation
2-6 may be rearranged to give head.

P = P0D2(\- A) (2-12) The rate of propagation of pressure dis-

placement waves is proportional to the square
Using Eq. 2-11 and the gas laws, the relation- root of the resistance of the medium of
ship may be expressed in terms of the Mach propagation to changes in density. This rela-
number M which is the ratio (Plco) of the tionship, as it applies to various types of wave
shock propagation velocity to sound velocity in various media, is expressed in Eqs. 2-7
in the undisturbed medium through 2-10. Eqs. 2-9 and 2-10 for elastic
waves are essentially ready to use. The con-
P/P„ M2{\ +n2) -ii2 (2-13) stants for various materials are readily avail-
able in general scientific and engineering
All of the conditions behind the shock may handbooks'5:
thus be calculated for an ideal gas combina-
tions of Eqs. 2-4, 2-6, and 2-13. As the amplitudes of the waves increase
and their forms change, the relationship be-
2-2.3 DETONATION WAVES comes more complex. For shock conditions,
the irreversible heating of the Hugoniot com-
2-2.3.1 EQUATIONS OF STATE pression, Eq. 2-1 1, describes relationship
between pressure and density.
Military designers have particular interest in
the behavior of gases under two special sets of With the further increase in amplitude
circumstances: (1) atmospheric air subjected usually associated with the detonation of
to explosive shock, and (2) the reaction solid explosives, other factors add their in-

2-11
AMCP 708-179

fluence to that of the Hugoniot heating to conditions in solid explosives are variants of
modify the pressure-density relationship Eq. 2-15 in which account is taken of the
further. These factors involve inter- and intra- compressibility of molecules and, in some
molecular and atomic forces that derive from cases, of their thermal expansion3. However,
relatively simple electrostatic and quantum none of the equations proposed are adapted
mechanical principles. However, they acquire to simple, direct calculation.
a considerable degree of complexity by the
time they have been combined to obtain the For the early stages of expansion, which
attraction and repulsion functions for a single are of interest in connection with most
species of atom. Hence, calculation of the military applications, the pressure-volume
behavior of strong shocks and the detonation relationship
of solid explosives is carried out using one or
another of several empirical relationships. PV = K (2-16)

Precise calculations of the thermodynamic where n and K are constants, is as accurate an

behavior of atmospheric air under strong approximation as any. The exact value of n
shock conditions have been made and pre- depends upon composition and loading
sented in tabular form 12 ■ 'density of the explosive. For high per-
formance military explosives, the average
For higher densities, the volume occupied value of« is close to three.
by the molecules (or, more accurately, that in
which the electrostatic repulsive forces are 2-2.3.2 CHAPMAN-JOUGUET CONDITIONS
significant) is an appreciable fraction of the FOR IDEAL DETONATION
total volume available. If the molecules are
assumed to be incompressible solids, the ideal The thermohydrodynamic theory of Chap-
gas equation of state man and Jouguet is concerned with the
transition, insofar as it affects the propagation
PV = RT (2-14) of detonation (the Chapman-Jouguet point),
between conditions in the unreacted explosive
becomes and those at the completion of the reaction.

P{V a) = RT (2-15) Of the various conditions associated with

the detonation of an explosive, the rate of
where propagation D is the most easily measured.
Many precise experimental data are available
P = pressure relating detonation velocity to density. In
general, for military explosives, the relation-
V = volume ship is quite accurately represented by the
equation
R = universal gas constant

T = absolute temperature D = F + Gpo, cm/psec (2-17)

a = covolume of the gas, the volume oc- where F and G are constants characteristic of
cupied by the molecules the explosive. Table 2-43 lists the constants of
Eq. 2-17 for a number of common military
The dimensions will depend on the system of explosives.
units employed.
Data of this sort, relating detonation veloc-
The equations of state which have been ity to density, have been used to determine
applied to the computation of detonation equation-of-state constants for the reaction

2-12
 AMCP 706-179

TABLE 2-4 of reaction and equation of state, these laws

completely define the conditions of detona-
DETONATION VELOCITY CONSTANTS
tion in this one-dimensional model, which is
FOR EQ. 2-17
F, G, also described as an infinite plane wave and as
Explosive cm//xsec cm4//usec an ideal detonation. Real charges, of course,
Amatol, 50/50 0.095 0.415 have three finite dimensions. It might be
Cyclonite (RDX) 0.249 - questioned whether consideration of the
Explosive D (Ammonium Picrate) 0.155 0.344 infinite plane wave has practical significance.
Haleite(EDNA) 0.203 0.328 In fact, ideal detonation is closely approxi-
LeadAzide 0.286 0.056
mated when the dimensions of a charge and
Nitroguanidine 0.144 0.402
Pentolite, 50/50 0.238 0.310 the radius of curvature of the detonation
PETN (Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate) 0.160 0.395 front are large when compared with the
Picric Acid 0.221 0.305 reaction zone length (a situation which is not
Tetryl 0.237 0.325 unusual inasmuch as reaction zone lengths of
Tetrytol, 65/35 0.186 0.340 many explosives have been estimated to be of
TNT (Trinitrotoluene) 0.178 0.323
the order of millimeters or even less). Nearly
ideal and definitely nonideal detonation are
products of detonation reactions. These con- both quite common in military performance.
stants, in turn, have been used with appro-
priate equations of state in the computation Detonation may be termed nonideal when
of the Chapman-Jouguet conditions for many the radial flow of energy and material is
explosives. More recently, techniques have sufficient to affect significantly the condi-
been developed whereby the movements of tions at the Chapman-Jouguet point. As a
metal plates in contact with explosive charges result of the interdependence of these pondi-
can be measured precisely and reduced to tions with the velocity of propagation, such
pressure-time data for detonation. In Table effects are manifest in velocity variations.
2-5'3 calculated values of parameters of the Either convergent or divergent flow results in
Chapman-Jouguet condition are given for nonideal detonation. Convergent detonation
various explosives. Experimental data, where is rare except in cases where it is induced by
available, are included for comparison. For specialized designs. Divergence, however,
organic high explosive compounds, the occurs at most interfaces with inert materials.
particle velocity is nearly one-fourth of the The most common shape of charges used for
detonation velocity. Thus Eq. 2-6 becomes experimental observations of detonation is a
approximately long cylinder. In such charges, the effects of
radial losses of energy and material become
P = pD2/4 (2-18) apparent as the diameter is reduced. For this
reason such effects have come to be known as
Note that in Table 2-5 the pressures com- diameter effects. Observable diameter effects
puted empirically using Eq. 2-18 agree with include reduction of the detonation velocity
measured values nearly as well as those using and failure of detonation.
the more rigorous theory, certainly well
enough for most design purposes. A rigorous quantitative theory that takes
into account all of the complicating factors
2-2.3.3 ACTUAL DETONATION would be quite useless. It would be too
cumbersome for a reasonable computer pro-
The previous discussion of detonation has gram even if sufficient experimental data were
been concerned with a one-dimensional available to establish values for the many
model. In such a model, the conservation laws physical constants and properties involved.
assume the simple forms of Eqs. 2-4, 2-6, and
2-7. Combined with data regarding the energy Many theories and models have been based

2-13
AMCP 706-179

TABLE 2-5

DETONATION CONDITIONS, CALCULATED AND MEASURED

Loading Detonation Velocity D, CJ Pressure P, Particle Velocity,

Density p 0' cm//jsec mega bar cm/jusec
Explosive g/cm3 Calculated Measured Calculated Measured Calculated Measured

Composition B 1.712 0.802 0.275" 0.293

Cyclonite(RDX) 1.762 0.862 0.327* 0.325
Cyclonite(RDX) 1.80 0.875 0.349 0.348 0.224 0.216
Cyclotol, 76/25 1.743 0.825 0.297" 0.313
Cyclotol, 78/22 1.755 0.829 0.31 1 0.213 0.213 0.218
TNT 1.64 0.695 0.695 0.2066 0.177 0.178 0.155
TNT 1.58 0.688 0.190" 0.177 0.163
TNT 0.624 0.380 0.026 0.1 1
*From Eq. 2-18.

on a group of assumptions regarding3 15 the 3. If the diameter of a charge is too small,

controlling mechanisms and processes i " . detonation will fail to propagate. Failure
Each of the theories is an attempt to derive a diameters for common explosives are listed in
quantitative description of actual detonation Tables 10-2 and 10-3.
from a consideration of a manageable number
of the aspects of the process. Still, the 4. The properties of surrounding media
solutions remain complex. can substantially alter diameter effects. For
example, failure of detonation in TNT has
Even though a general theory is lacking, it been observed at diameters of the order of 0.5
is possible to make qualitative predictions of in. for bare charges14 while detonation at
the behavior of actual detonations on the nearly ideal velocity has been observed for
basis of the following generalities: charges one-tenth this size when confined in
steel or brass' 5. As might be expected from
1. Other factors remaining constant, Eq. 2-6, the shock impedance PQDu is a good
charges of small cross section detonate at criterion for the effectiveness of the confining
lower velocities than those of larger cross medium. The best confining medium is a
section. mismatch with the explosive so as to reflect
the maximum energy back to the detonation
2. The formula products.

D/Di = 1 -K/r (2-19) 5. Velocities of nonideal detonations are

affected by particle size of the explosive.
where Critical diameters and detonation velocity
losses are reduced for fine particle sizes. For
D = detonation velocity some materials in certain ranges, it appears
that the ratio of charge dimension to average
Di = ideal detonation velocity particle dimension is more significant than
either absolute dimension. In cast explosives,
r = radius of charge techniques conducive to fine crystallization
reduce diameter effects.
may be used to interpolate or extrapolate
detonation velocity data in the range where 6. Particle size distribution is also a factor
DID, = 0.95 or more. in diameter effects. Detonation velocities are

2-14
 AMCP 708-179

higher and failure diameters smaller for uni- of the explosive with quantities associated
form particle sizes than for mixtures of with the system or medium whereby the
particle sizes. stimulus is transmitted to the explosive. For
this reason, even though initiation may be
7. The velocity of propagation of actual thermal in the last analysis, sensitivity must
detonation is determined by Chapman- be considered in terms of the nature of the
Jouguet conditions at the center of the initiating stimulus as well as its magnitude.
charge. Thus, it is possible, under some
circumstances, for a portion of the explosive Two limiting threshold conditions for
charge to detonate at near ideal velocity yet initiating apply to almost every system (1)
for surrounding material in the outer stream- that in which the energy is delivered in a time
lines to react only partially. so short that the losses are negligible during
this time, and (2) that in which the power is
8. Nonideal detonation does not neces- just sufficient to eventually cause initiation.
sarily imply incomplete reaction. Many In the first condition, the energy required is
valuable military items include explosive at its minimum while in the second, the
charges that detonate at very low velocities power is at its minimum. These two condi-
compared with the ideal velocity for the tions are represented by the dashed
explosives used. asymptotes in Fig. 2-4. The relation between
the energy required for initiation and the rate
9. The relationship between density and at which it is applied may be represented by
nonideal detonation is complex. Observable the hyperbolas. In its general terms, the
phenomena can be explained and predicted relationship illustrated applies to almost all
on the basis that, with increasing porosity, the initiators.
decreasing homogeneity of density is reflected
in decreasing homogeneity of temperature Initiation occurs when the rate at which
distribution and consequently increasing heat is evolved in a reactive nucleus exceeds
initial reaction rate, while the decrease in that at which it is dissipated. The impedance
pressure results in slower propagation of the afforded by the surroundings to this dissipa-
grain burning reaction and consequently tion is commonly referred to as confinement.
longer reaction zones. Thus, increasing Both experiment and theory demonstrate the
porosity results in greater diameter effects dominant role played by confinement in the
upon detonation velocity but sometimes in initiation, growth, and propagation of explo-
smaller failure diameters, particularly under sive reactions, particularly when the dimen-
intermediate conditions of confinement. sions are as small as those of explosive train
components.
2-3 INITIATION
The properties of a container which con-
2-3.1 ESTABLISHING A SELF-PROPA- tribute most to confinement depend upon
GATING REACTION which of the several dissipative mechanisms is
most important. This, in turn, depends upon
The rate at which the energy of an ex- which phase of the initiation process is most
ternally applied stimulus is transformed into critical in a system.
heat and the degree of concentration of that
heat in the explosive are as important in In the early, self-heating stage of reaction
determining the magnitude of the stimulus growth, thermal conduction is the dominant
necessary to initiate a reaction as are the heat transfer' mechanism. In general, the
chemical and thermal properties of the explo- containers of explosive charges are much
sive. These latter factors are determined by better conductors than the explosives them-
the interaction of various physical properties selves so that a thin outer layer of explosive is

2-15
AMCP 706-179

-THIS CURVE FITS DATA FOR GRAPHITE

FILM BRIDGE ELECTRIC INITIATORS

A'HOT BRIDGEWIRE ELECTRIC INITIATORS

O CONDUCTIVE MIX [Link] INITIATORS

X STAB INITIATORS

^0_-

2 3 45678910 20 40
POWER (vl/v\ for electric Initiators, <//u0 for stab initiators)

Figure 2-4. Energy-power Relationship for Various Initiators

a better insulation than the container. At this the material which has been reached by the
stage, except in rare instances, the properties shock wave induced by the detonation is
of the container have negligible effect upon affected, the affected mass is proportional to
the initiation process. the density of the material times the shock
velocity in the material. This product, known
The pressure of detonation of solid explo- as the shock acoustic impedance, is a good
sives is sufficient to burst or permanently measure of the effectiveness of a material as a
deform any container that can be made. confining medium for stable detonation' 4.
However, the time involved in detonation
processes is of the same order of magnitude as Initiation is complicated by such a variety
the expansion times of the containers. The of factors that the most carefully designed
rate at which the container expands is deter- experiments yield data that are difficult to
mined by momentum considerations and is interpret in general terms. Practical situations
inversely related to the mass of container are usually even more complicated. The ques-
material which is moved. For a thin-walled tions that arise concerning initiation or explo-
container this mass is essentially that of the sion are best answered in terms of direct
wall; for a thick-walled container, since only experiments with military materiel under

2-16
 AMCP 706-179

possible to generate electrical pulses and

currents of accurately known characteristics,
__ / these can be combined with the bridgewire
characteristics to obtain accurate estimates of
power, energy, and temperature.

A large number of experiments have been

carried out in which the interrelationships of
the variables that affect the operation of
bridgewire initiators have been investi-
gated",e. These investigations have verified
the following principles:

1. The energy required to fire a hot wire

electric initiator is roughly proportional to
/ • the volume of the bridgewire, if the energy is
delivered in a short enough time (see Fig.
2-5").

2. Closer analysis shows that the threshold

temperature increases with reduced wire
diameter. This trend is less marked when the
•/
explosive has a high activation energy (like
lead styphnate).

3. The energy required per unit volume

also increases somewhat with decreasing
bridgewire length. End losses probably ac-
count for this.
0 0.5 1.0 1.1 2.0
VOLUME, CYLINDRICAL MIL
4. For a specific initiator design the energy
Figure 2-5. Typical Effect of Bridgewire requirement approaches a minimum as
Volume on Input Characteristics voltage, current, or power is increased and
increases indefinitely as power is reduced to a
service conditions or experiments with models minimum.
and conditions that simulate service items and
situations as closely as possible. For specific 5. The relationship stated in 4 refers to
applications to initiator design, see par. 5-2; the average power of a firing pulse. Pulse
for testing, par. 12-2.2. shape has a secondary effect that is not easily
measured.
2-3.2 INITIATION BY HEAT
6. The current requirement varies approxi-
2-3.2.1 HOTWIRE ELECTRIC mately as the 3/2 power of the wire diameter
INITIATORS and inversely as the resistivity of the bridge-
Hot bridgewire electric initiators are the wire metal.
simplest and most direct illustrations of initia-
tion by heat. Since a bridgewire can be The behavior of hot wire electric initiators
measured, its volume, heat capacity, and has been described by an equation that agrees
resistance can be calculated. Since it is further well with experimental data

2-17
AMCP 706-179

CdT/dt + yT = I2R, W (2-20) broad range of available bridgewire materials

and sizes makes it possible to vary the energy
where sensitivity by a factor of nearly 100 without
changing either the explosive materials or the
C = heat capacity of the thermal mass (in- external configuration. At the same time, the
cluding bridgewire and surrounding process is affected by a wide variety of other
layer of explosive), W-sec/°C variables including electrical circuit
parameters, state of aggregation of the explo-
T = temperature, °C sive, and mechanical design of the initiator.
For these reasons, a reasonably complete
t = time, sec characterization of the hot wire sensitivity of
an explosive would have to be in terms of a
7 = cooling rate coefficient, W/°C series of performance curves. Such data are
available for only a few materials. Table 2-6
/ = current, A lists hot wire sensitivities of a number of
primary explosives obtained for particular
R = resistance, ohm conditions: Extrapolations of these data to
other conditions is a reasonable basis for an
Although the assumption of a constant experimental development program but
ignition temperature yields remarkably ac- should not be used to make firm design
curate predictions of the behavior of specific decisions.
hot wire initiators, it is an approximation.
The generality mentioned as 2 is evidence of The application of the foregoing to the
the limitations of this approximation. Eq. design of hot bridgewire electric initiators is
2-20 and others are based on the assumption discussed in par. 5-2.4.2.
of a homogeneous solid charge of explosive.
As applied to hot wire initiators, the equa- 2-3.2.2 CONDUCTIVE FILM ELECTRIC
tions also imply essentially perfect thermal INITIATORS
contact between bridgewire and explosive. It
has been shown that the separation between Both metallic and semiconductor films
the bridgewire and explosive, which results have been used as bridges in electric initiators.
from some combinations of mechanical de- The general principles discussed for wire
sign, loading procedure, and aging, can be bridges also apply to metallic film bridges. In
sufficient to cause failure of hot wire one system, the large ratio of surface to cross
initiators. section area of a film is used to greatly
increase the steady state power requirement
Another example of a discrepancy between while retaining a desired resistance and energy
calculations and experiment is worth noting. sensitivity'.
Based on the usual assumptions, the critical
conditions for initiating secondary explosives, In semiconductive films, the negative resis-
such as PETN or RDX,have been computed tance coefficients typical of such materials
but attempts to achieve reliable high order can produce a channeling of the current in a
detonation in these materials with hot wires restricted path between the electrodes and
have been negative'. therefore can result in extremely localized
heating. This effect can be used to produce
The initiation of explosives by means of extremely sensitive initiators when such items
electrically heated wires is at present more are desired.
subject to precise quantitative control and
theoretical prediction than any other initia- Semiconductive bridges used by the
tion mechanism used by the military. The military are made of graphite. These bridges

2-18
 AMCP 706-179

TABLE 2-6 for contact resistance to decrease with current

flow results in a similar concentration in the
SENSITIVITY OF VARIOUS EXPLOSIVES preferred path. Along the path, the heat tends
INWIRE BRIDGE INITIATORS to concentrate at the contact points. The
degree of concentration, and consequently
Energy, erg
the relationship between temperature and
0.0001-in. 0.00029-in.
Explosive diameter diameter
electrical input, is determined by a statistical
interaction of particle size, uniformity of
DDNP/KCIO3, 75/25 260 1050 mixture, particle shape, composition, loading
Lead Azide 340 1340 density, and electrode configuration and spac-
Basic Lead Styphnate 125 700 ing.
LDNR 138 930
Tetracene 115 460 The formulation of a logical process for the
design of a conductive mix system of speci-
Tungsten wire 0.030 in. long fired at 14-20 V fied electrical and firing characteristics is a
task of such formidable proportions that it
normally break down forming a very hot, has not been undertaken. However, remark-
localized arc when their voltage threshold is able results have been attained by enlightened
exceeded. Because of this behavior, it is cut-and-try procedures' '16. A mathematical
difficult to design the bridges for specific model also has been attempted in the U.K.
conditions. However, the sensitivity levels can The design and fabrication of conductive mix
be determined experimentally with compara- initiators is discussed in par. 5-2.4.5.
tive ease.
2-3.2.4 TRANSMISSION OF HOT GAS
Present graphite bridge initiators have
essentially similar firing characteristics. Their The initiation of reactions of solids by
resistance is on the order of 1000 to 10,000 means of hot gases depends upon a highly
ohms. The design and fabrication of film complex heat transfer situation. The heat
bridge initiators are discussed in pars. 5-2.4.2 transfer between a gas and a solid is propor-
and 54.4. tional to pressure and temperature of the gas
but is also affected greatly by the movement
2-3.2.3 CONDUCTIVE EXPLOSIVE MIX of the gas relative to the surface and by
ELECTRIC INITIATORS surface porosity, roughness, and configura-
tion. Since the heat conductivity of the solid
The usual conductive mix consists of an is almost invariably much greater than that of
explosive to which is added a relatively small the gas, the temperature attained by the
percentage of conductive powder. Such mixes surface is much lower than that of the body
are loaded so as to contact a pair of elec- of the gas unless the duration of exposure is
trodes. Current flowing between the elec- sufficient for the solid to reach the gas
trodes flows from one conductive particle to temperature. In most situations encountered
another through a series of contact points. In in military materiel, the total heat capacity of
general, many such paths form a complex the gas is so much less than that of surround-
parallel-series network but one such path ing solids that the equilibrium temperature
usually has a lower resistance than others so approached by the gas-solid system is practi-
that the current tends to concentrate. Where cally the initial temperature of the solids.
the conductor has a negative resistivity coeffi-
cient, like carbon, the resistive heating tends Initiation by hot gases has not been com-
to reduce the resistance of the preferred path puted but has been measured in a number of
and further concentrate the current. Even experimental apparatus'7. A shock tube is an
where the conductor is a metal, the tendency interesting tool for the exposure of explosives

2-19
AMCP 708-179

500 I000 2000

I \ I I
—

^___-—NH4 NOj

GOL-
VS. ^^TNT

^,N2 Ht HN^3

^-NITROGLYCEHIN

— ^n-PROPYL NITRATE
s^ ^LEAD STYPHNATE
—

— «—| NO SO

--

I I I I I I I I io
I I I I I I I I i oo i I i i i m
DRIVER TO DRIVEN CMS PRESSURE RATIO

Figure 2-6. Threshold Conditions for Initiation of Various

Explosives in a Shock Tube

to high temperature gases. It has the ad- the spray of hot, high velocity, solid particles
vantage over other devices in that pressure or of droplets of liquid which they emit.
and temperature of the gas in contact with Quantitative measurements of factors affect-
the explosive change virtually instantaneously ing initiation by such means are difficult to
from initial conditions to those of the re- make. The process, however, is essentially the
flected shock wave. The shock pressures used same as that of initiation of suddenly heated
iri such experiments are too low for the shock bridgewires, discussed in par. 2-3.2.1.
waves transmitted into the explosive to be
significant factors in initiation. Shock pres- 2-3.2.6 ADIABATIC COMPRESSION
sure, of course, is an important factor in the
heat transfer between the gas and the solid If a column of air ahead of an initiator
explosive material. Some of the data for could be compressed rapidly enough, its
threshold conditions of initiation are shown temperature will rise by adiabatic compres-
in Fig. 2-6' 8 . The effects of variations in the sion. The force of target impact could be used
gas composition are apparently quite signifi- to crush the nose of a simple fuze thus
cant but require further interpretation. forming an adiabatic compression mechanism.
Fig. 2-78 illustrates such a concept. Un-
2-3.2.5 TRANSMISSION OF HOT PARTI- doubtedly the crushed hot particles con-
CLES tribute to the initiation process. Adiabatic
compression is used only rarely; however, the
There is reason to believe that the most Australians have a mortar fuze using this
effective part of the output of some primers is principle' 9.

2-20
 AMCP 708-179

ALUMINUM WASHER FUZE BODY

are shown in Fig. 2-820. Here the temperature
calculated for explosion in 250 Msec is
compared with impact sensitivity.

While impact sensitivity data are used as

the basis for establishing safe practices and for
selecting explosives that may be used in one
or another application, there are two prob-
lems. First, it is admitted by most investi-
gators that these tests really do not simulate
any situation likely to occur in manufacture
or use of military materiel. Secondly, dif-
ferent machines rank the same explosives in
different orders. Perhaps part of the problem
HIGH EXPLOSIVE- is that the explosive samples are not prepared
AIR COLUMN DETONATOR CHARGE in the same manner as cast or pressed explo-
sive components. As a result, many have come
Figure 2-7. Initiation by Adiabatic to doubt the validity of impact test results as
Compression a basis for any binding decisions. Doubtlessly,
sound and valid explanations can be found for
2-3.3 INITIATION BY IMPACT the inversions in Table 4-2. However, such
explanations are not particularly helpful in
2-3.3.1 IMPACT SENSITIVITY MEASURED efforts to employ the impact machines in the
WITH LABORATORY MACHINES selection of explosives.

Impact initiation of explosives is of interest Still, impact test sensitivities are in wide-
to designers of military materiel for the spread use. If a newcomer to the field of
assessment and elimination of hazards and for explosives wonders what to make of this, he is
the design of stab and percussion initiators. in the company of experts of long experience.
For the assessment of the relative hazards One basis that has been suggested for the
during handling and use of explosives, several assessment of the relative hazards connected
standard impact machines have been devised. with the use of an explosive is comparison by
Machines and test methods are described in means of a variety of machines. Another is
par. 12-[Link]. Essentially, an impact ma- the design of tests more subject to analysis in
chine consists of an apparatus by means of physical terms. A third approach is the use of
which a weight can be dropped from various tests, such as those described in par. 12-2.1.2,
predetermined heights so as to strike an which are designed to simulate specific condi-
explosive sample. The height from which the tions of service and use.
explosive is initiated is a measure of impact
sensitivity. Impact sensitivity values of 2-3.3.2 STAB INITIATION
common military explosives are shown in
Table 4-2. For detonators initiated by stab action, one
of the most important functions is that of
It long has been agreed that impact initia- converting another form of energy into highly
tion is usually thermal'. The explosive is concentrated heat. As in electrical devices, the
heated locally by compression of interstitial energy necessary is nearly proportional to the
gases, intercrystalline friction, and viscous amount of material that is heated.
flow. On this basis it is possible to compute
the reaction rates that may be expected in'an The standard firing pin for stab initiators is
impact machine. The data of one experiment a truncated cone (Fig. 2-9). A rather interest-

2-21
AMCP 706-179

Figure 2-9. Standard Firing Pin for

Stab Initiators

standard pin (Fig. 2-9) is used for all stab

initiators.

600 eoo looo Both steel and aluminum alloys are in

CRITICAL TEMPERATURE, °C common use. Aluminum results in a signifi-
cant but not serious decrease in sensitivity3.
Figure 2-8. Input Sensitivity vs Alignment is critical because misalignment
Explosion Temperature . will decrease sensitivity.

In general, the higher the density of the

ing relationship has been found to exist explosive, the more sensitive the stab initiator
between the sensitivity of the explosive used (see Table 2-7a). Because the denser explosive
and the optimum size of the flat on the firing offers more resistance to the penetration of
pin. The less sensitive the explosive, the larger the firing pin, the kinetic energy of the
the optimum diameter of the flat required. moving mass is dissipated over a shorter
This can be related to the compactness of the distance, so that a smaller quantity of explo-
affected volume of the explosive. The most sive is heated to a higher temperature.
compact shape for a cylinder (i.e., the shape
having the least surface area for a given Since the resistance of solids to deforma-
volume) is one whose length is equal to its tion does not change very much with moder-
diameter. Thus, as the energy required for ate changes of deformation rate, the power
initiation is increased, it is advantageous to dissipation by the displacement of explosive
distribute it over a large enough area to limit by a firing pin is nearly proportional to its
the effective length to nearly the diameter. velocity, which, in a drop weight system, is
The flat diameter given serves the priming proportional to the square root of the drop
mixes commonly used. height. The energy, on the other hand, is
proportional to the product of the height and
To achieve greater sensitivity, special initia- the weight. This energy-power relationship is
tion systems have been employed occasional- shown in Fig. 2-4.
ly. Thus the flat diameter of the pin for the
M55 family of detonators is 0.0075 in. Since 2-3.3.3PERCUSSI0N INITIATION
the firing pin is a critical component of the
initiation assembly, the correct firing pin As in stab initiation, the function of the
must be tested and used with the particular percussion firing pin is to transform energy
initiator. Unless otherwise specified, the into highly concentrated heat. However, con-

2-22
 AMCP 706-179

TABLE 2-7 28

EFFECT OF LOADING PRESSURE ON

INITIATOR SENSITIVITY 26
\ OS See PRIMING MIXTURE
(STANDARD MK IOI MOD 0 PRIMER)
Loading Pressure, Drop Test Height, \1
1000 psi in.
24

15 1.31
25 0.91
40 0.77 22

60 0.68 0

80 0.57
20
NOL Priming Mix in MARK 102 Cups, 2 oz ball 0
\
trary to initiation by stab, the firing pin does IB \ IS
not puncture the case in percussion initiation.
Rather, the pin dents the case and pinches the \
explosive between anvil and case. Energy 16
must be supplied at a rate sufficient to \ EXPERIMENTAL STYPHNATE
»\ PRIMING MIXTURE NO. 17
fracture the granular structure of the explo- \ (MODIFIED MK IOI PRIMER)
sive. Criteria for percussion firing pins have 14 ' •
not been refined to the same degree as those
for stab pins. It has been established that a
hemispherical tip gives greater sensitivity than 1? •
a truncated cone, and that tip radius has little 2 4 6 8 10 12

effect on sensitivity. Typical radius is 0.050 IMPACT VELOCITY , FT/SEC

in. Figure 2-10. Energy-velocity Relationship

for Percussion Primers
A study on the effect of firing pin align-
ment showed that there is little effect if the to be the determining magnitude for stab
eccentricity is less than 0.02 in. Above 0.04 initiation, momentum for percussion.
in. eccentricity, sensitivity decreases rapidly
because of primer construction. Sensitivity 2-3.4. INITIATION BY OTHER MEANS
also decreases as the rigidity of primer mount-
ing is decreased. In general, a study of the 2-3.4.1 FRICTION
relationship of cup, anvil, explosive charge,
and firing pin has shown that sensitivity The importance of frictional heating in the
variations appear to depend on the nature of initiation of explosives has been demonstrated
primer cup collapse rather than on explosion by several investigators'. The importance of
phenomena themselvesg. this type of initiation with respect to handling
hazards is attested by the experience of press
The effect of firing pin velocity results in loading activities, namely, "press blows" are
the same general hyperbolic energy-velocity much more frequent during pellet ejection
relationship as that of other initiators (see and ram extraction than during the actual
Fig. 2-10a). pressing phase. However, no quantitative
means of measuring this property is in current
From experimental data it can be inferred use. Perhaps the most pertinent data regarding
that stab and percussion initiations occur by friction sensitivity are those shown in Table
different mechanisms. Kinetic energy appears 2-82 which relate impact sensitivity to

2-23
AMCP 706-179

TABLE 2-8

INITIATION OF EXPLOSION BY FRICTION OF PETN IN THE PRESENCE OF GRIT

Friction Impact
Hardness, Melting explosion explosion
Mohs' point, efficiency, efficiency,
Grit added scale °C % %

Nil (pure PETN) 1.8 141 0 2

Ammonium nitrate 2-3 169 0 3
Potassium bisulphate 3 210 0 3
Silver nitrate 2-3 212 0 2
Sodium dichromate 2-3 320 0 0
Potassium nitrate 2-3 334 0 0
Potassium dichromate 2-3 398 0 0
Silver bromide 2-3 434 50 6
Lead chloride 2-3 501 60 27
Silver iodide 2-3 550 100 -
Borax 3-4 560 100 30
Bismuthinite 2-2.5 685 100 42
Glass 7 800 100 100
Rock salt 2-2.5 804 50 6
Chalcocite 3-3.5 1100 100 50
Galena 2.5-2.7 1114 100 60
Calcite 3 1339 100 43

melting point and hardness of the intermixed military explosives to static electricity is
grit. shown in Table 4-2.

2-3.4.2 ELECTRIC SPARKS 2-3.4.3 EXPLODING WIRES

The initiation of explosives by electric Exploding bridgewire (EBW) devices are a

sparks is of interest with respect to hazards of recent development in explosive materiel. Of
use. An individual may carry a charge of a few course, almost any bridgewire may be made
hundredths of a joule on his body, which if to explode if subjected to a sufficiently rapid
discharged could initiate explosives' '. It has and energetic electrical discharge. However,
been found that the energy required for the feature that classifies an item as an EBW
initiation is highly dependent upon physical device is that it will fire only if subjected to
and electrical characteristics of the discharge such an impulse. Lesser energies or lower rates
system and the form of the explosive (see will burn out the bridge without initiating the
Table 2-917). explosive. The key feature of exploding
bridgewires is that they can initiate secondary
The military application consists of "high explosives directly and hence result in insensi-
tension" initiators which are ignited by elec- tive initiators.
tric sparks (see par. 5-2.4.4). A number of
experimental detonators are also being The exploding wire phenomenon as well as
studied' '22. Lead azide can be initiated with that of the initiation of explosives thereby is
as little as 10"3 erg at as low as 4 V under complex. The rate at which the energy can be
specific, critical conditions. The plastic delivered is limited by circuit inductance,
windows in operational shields are quite impedance mismatch between cable and
capable of generating this amount of static bridgewire, and skin effect in the bridge which
electricity' 3 . The sensitivity of common raise the effective resistance to several ohms

2-24
 AMCP 706-179

TABLE 2-9

THRESHOLD IGNITION ENERGIES

Metal/metal electrodes Rubber/metal electrodes

(no added circuit resistance) (10s ohm series resistance)

Contact Gaseous Minimum

sparks, sparks, Minimum capacity,
Material 500 pF 1000 pF energy

Lead azide 20 10,000 2250 500

Lead styphnate 60 20 5
Leaddinitroresor-
cinate 1250 25

Notes: (1) The energy value quoted is the energy (erg) stored on the capacitor; the energy dissipated in the
gap is about one-tenth of this.
(2) The gaseous and contact spark regions of sensitiveness are continuous with lead styphnate.

during the initial stage of the discharge. As satisfactory in the laboratory, platinum and
the discharge continues, the temperature in- gold have been preferred for military items
crease in the wire maintains its resistance in because of their resistance to corrosion.
this range. The discharge time is thus in- Diameters between 1.5-2 mils appear to be
creased to about 2Msec which is long enough, optimum for initiation of such explosives as
even at sonic velocity, for a shock envelope to PETN.
expand to a few hundred times the volume of
the wire. Thus, the energy density may be so 4. The state of aggregation of the explosive
low that it is surprising that explosion is around the bridgeware is quite critical. Load-
initiated. ing densities much higher than 1 g/cm3
greatly increase the energy requirement for
Gleaned from many research studies' 4"26, initiation. This increase is so great as to make
the following practical generalities may serve devices loaded at higher densities inoperable
as a guide to applications of EBW devices: for practical purposes. PETN particles must
be of a specific crystalline configuration —
1. Firing units should consist of special needle shaped — to achieve the proper pressed
high-rate discharge condensers and of switches density.
with minimum inductance and transient re-
sistance so that the rate of current rise is on
the order of 109 A/sec. Triggered spark gap 5. The reaction initiated by an EBW in
switches are most frequently used. secondary explosives appears to be a low
order detonation. Time measurements in-
2. Transmission lines should be as short as dicate initial velocities that are definitely
possible. For more than a few feet of trans- supersonic yet well below the stable rates for
mission line, special "flat" low impedance the explosives and loading densities used. The
cable is desirable. AU connections must be densities and particle sizes used in EBW
firm and of negligible resistance. detonators are such that detonation of PETN
grows to its stable rate in a few millimeters.
3. Bridgewires of pure metals rather than For other material, such as RDX, con-
higher resistance alloys are more efficient for finement and other measures to augment this
EBW purposes. Although silver and copper are transmission are desirable' 7

2-25
AMCP 706-179

2-3.4.4 LASER AND LIGHT 2-3.4.5 SPONTANEOUS DETONATION

As a concentrated beam of energy, the laser Analogous to spontaneous combustion,

can provide a hot spot and thus initiate spontaneous detonation is the self-ignition of
explosives. The focusing properties of its detonating materials through chemical action
monochromatic radiation make it capable of (oxidation) of its constituents or through
producing high temperatures while intensive dissipation of trapped electrostatic charges.
shock may be produced by the higher-power Most modern explosives are stable and need
Q-switched lasers. The explosive initiation some form of external stimulus to cause them
ability of the laser has been demonstrated; to initiate. Hence, spontaneous detonation is
however, all other initiation mechanisms are extremely rare.
smaller, liglrer, cheaper, and much less com-
plex. Hence, lasers have not been used in the However, the spontaneous detonation of
initiation of primary explosives. lead azide has been observed30'31; deto-
nators, relays, and leads — all containinglead
On the other hand, military technology azide — have fired. While this functioning
would welcome the ability to detonate sec- tends to occur only once in eighty million
ondary high explosives directly. This ability items, the huge modern production quantities
would eliminate the need for a primer and make this incident rate significant and totally
perhaps also the safing and arming device. In unacceptable. The cause of failure is postu-
addition, direct reliable initiation of sec- lated to be a hot spot created from the
ondary high explosives by means of laser build-up of an electric charge on the dry lead
radiation also would be extremely useful in azide particles when the particles are moved
explosive sensitivity tests by permitting the about during the automatic loading process.
precise measurement of input energy. Present (Spontaneous detonation has not been ob-
measurement accuracy is limited by the varia- served with manual loading.) In time, the
tions of the initiator used to set off the electrical charge is dissipated through the case
secondary explosive. so that no detonation has been observed after
three days. The manufacturing process is now-
An experimental investigation has been being modified to make it safer3'. In the
carried out to establish the feasibility of interim, all production components contain-
initiating secondary high explosives by means ing lead azide are being held in segregated
of a ruby laser (6943 Ä), both in the free storage for 4 hr. Further, the use of nonprop-
running and Q-switched modes2 5. Explosive agating packaging prevents mass detonation
samples of PETN, tetryl, HMX, and RDX (see par. 11-1.2.3).
were detonated successfully when compressed
against a glass plate. Energy inputs were as 2-3.4.6 SHOCK THROUGH A BULKHEAD
low as 0.025 J/mm2. Design of an explosive
train initiation system has not yet been Mentioned here for the sake of complete-
attempted. ness, through-bulkhead initiators (TBI) are
not true initiators. A true initiator is set off
Explosives can be initiated also by ordinary by a nonexplosive stimulus whereas the TBI
but high intensity light from such devices as a propagates a detonation front. It is a well-
flash cube. However, no practical military established fact that a detonation wave will
system exists at present. Efforts also have transmit across a barrier, and suchbarriers are
been conducted on the initiation of silver often inserted ahead of leads and boosters.
azide crystals by light. While feasible in the The TBI makes use of a barrier, the bulkhead,
laboratgry, it is not practical2 9. Pyrotechnics which is an integral part of its housing and
also are capable of being initiated by high remains intact after functioning3 2. This con-
intensity white light. struction results in a sealed unit, having

2-26
 AMCP 708-179

several advantageous characteristics such as DONOR CHARGE—v BULKHEAD •ACCEPTOR CHARGE

temperature resistance, that is desirable for

initiation of rocket motors3 3 ■

Fig. 2-11 shows a typical TBI. It consists of

a donor charge of secondary high explosive, a
steel body containing a bulkhead that passes
the shock output of the detonating donor
charge without rupturing, an acceptor charge
that is initiated by the transmitted shock, and
an output charge of secondary high explosive
or propellant composition as desired. For
design details, see par. 5-2.5. Figure 2-11. Schematic of Typical TBI

REFERENCES

ct-k Lettered references are listed in the Report 2460, Naval Ordnance Labora-
General References at the end of this tory, Silver Spring, Md., 28 May 1962.
handbook.
7. N. Griffiths and J. M. Groocock, The
1. AMCP 706-180, Engineering Design Burning to Detonation of Solid Explo-
Handbook, Principles of Explosive Be- sives, Part I, "Ionization Probe Studies in
havior. Confined Channels", ARDE Report (MX)
5/59, Ministry of Supply, Armament
2. F. P. Bowden and A. D. Yoffe,Initiation Research and Development Establish-
and Growth of Explosives in Liyuidsand ment, Fort Halstead, Kent, England,
Solids, Cambridge University, Mono- March 1959.
graphs on Physics, Cambridge Univeristy
Press, N.Y. 1952. 8. Proceedings of the Electric Initiator
Symposium, held at The Franklin Insti-
3. M. A. Cook, The Science of High Explo- tute November 29-30, 1960, Report
sives, Reinhold Publishing Corp., N.Y., F-A2446, Papers 14 to 18, 27 (AD-323
1958. 117).

4. S. J. Jacobs, Closed Bomb Burning of 9. A. Macek, "Transition From Deflagration

High Explosives and Propellants, OSRD to Detonation in Cast Explosives", J.
Report 6329, (from Explosive Research Chem. Phys., 31, 1, 162-7(1959).
Laboratory) Office of Scientific Research
and Development, January 22, 1946. 10. J. Pearson and J. Rinehart, Behuvior of
Metals Under Impulsive Loads, American
5. J. W. Taylor, "The Rapid Burning of Society for Metals (1954).
Secondary Explosives by a Convective
Mechanism", in Third Symposium on 11. H. J. Hugoniot, de l'Ecole Polytech, 57, 3
Detonation, Report ACR-52, Office of (1887); 58, 1(1888).
Naval Research, Navy Dept., Vol. l,pp.
77-87, September 26-28, 1960. 12. C. F. Curtiss and J. O. Hirschfelder,
Thermodynamic Properties of Air, Re-
6. R. H. Stresau, Low Velocity Detonation port CF-793, University of Wisconsin
of Certain Primary Explosives, NAVORD Naval Research Laboratory, April 1948.

2-27
AMCP 706-179

13. Second ONR Symposium on Detonation, 21. J. M A. de Bruyne and J. A. McLean,

Office of Naval Research, Navy Dept., The Initiation of Booster Type Explo-
February 9-11, 1955,Papers 15to 18,pp. sives by Low Energy Spark Discharges,
205-85. American Cyanamid Co., Contract
DA-49-186-502-ORD-537, 1 April 1957.
14. H. Eyring, et al., "The Stability of
Detonation" Chemical Reviews, 45, 1, 22. M. T. Hedges, Development of Exploding
69-181 (1949). Wire Initiators, Report 84, Picatinny
Arsenal, Artillery and Rocket Develop-
15. L. D. Hampton and R. H. Stresau, Small ment Laboratory, Dover, N.J., April
Scale Technique far Measurement of 1960.
Detonation Velocities, NAVORD Report
2282, Naval Ordnance Laboratory, Silver 23. W. G. Chace and H. K. Moore, Eds.,
Spring, Md., 27 December 1951. Exploding Wires, The Plenum Press, N.Y.,
1959.
16. P. W. Cooper, Low Firing Energy Deto-
nator Containing No Primary Explosives, 24. Proceedings of the HERO Congress, held
Final Report, Contract DA-11-022-501- at The Franklin Institute May 24, 25, and
ORD-2892, Armour Research Founda- 26, 1961, Report F-A2424, Contract
tion, 15 June 1960. N178-7705, papers 12, 23, 25 (AD-326
263).
17. F. P. Bowden, et al., "A Discussion of the
Initiation and Growth of Explosion in 25. M. J. Bartarisi and E. G. Kessler, Initia-
Solids", in Proc. Royal Society, Series A. tion of Secondary Explosives by Means
Mathematical and Physical Sciences, 246, of Laser Radiation, Report TR3861,
1245(1958). Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N. J., May
1969.
18. T. A. Erikson, "Some Aspects of Pure
Shock Sensitivity", R. McGill and P. 26. R. L. Wagner, Lead Azides for Use in
Holt, Eds., in Proceedings of the Gilbert Detonators, Report TR 2662, Picatinny
B. L. Smith Memorial Conference on Arsenal, Dover, N. J., January 1960.
Explosive Sensitivity, NAVORD Report
5746, U. S. Naval Ordnance Laboratory, 27. E. Demberg, "Accidents/Incidents En-
Silver Spring, Md., 2 June 1958, p. countered in Detonator/Primer/Fuze Pro-
XXXV-348. duction", Minutes of the Second Annual
DCASR, Atlanta Explosives Safety
19. J. Wenograd, "The Behavior of Explo- Seminar, held in Atlanta, Georgia, 23-25
sives at Very High Temperatures", in May 1972.
Third Symposium on Detonation, Report
ACR-52, Office of Naval Research, Navy 28. R. L. Wagner, Shock Initiation Through a
Dept., Vol. 1, pp. 60-76, September Barrier, Report TR 3085, Picatinny
26-28, 1960. Arsenal, Dover, N. J., September 1963.

20. F. W. Brown D. J. Kusler, and F. C. 29. U.S. Patent 3,238,876,. Method for
Gibson, Sensitivity of Explosives to Through-Bulkhead Shock Initiation,
Initiation by Electrostatic Discharges, (McCormick Selph Assoc, Inc.) March
Bureau of Mines, Report of Investigations 1966.
5002, September 1953.

2-28
 AMCP 706-179

CHAPTER 3

DETONATION TRANSFER AND OUTPUT

3-1 EFFECTIVENESS OF ONE CHARGE IN to instrument real charges for detonation rate
INITIATINGANOTHER measurements. Hence, high order detonation
is generally considered to be a reaction whose
3-1.1 DETONATION PROPAGATION effects are not significantly less than the
maximum that has been observed with a
In some instances, two charges are in such charge of the type in question. For main
close contact that the transfer of detonation charges, high order may be considered in
from one to another is indistinguishable from terms of the desired effects of the charge.
the propagation within a single continuous Booster charges, as usually used, tend either
charge. More often, however, packaging, to detonate high order by almost any
structural, and fabrication considerations criterion or to fail completely.
result in the interposition of gaps and barriers
of such magnitude that the agency of trans- A proposed law of similitude for sympa-
mission is nonreactive shock, blast, flying thetic detonation states that the critical
fragments, or some combination of these. The distance for transmission between one explo-
conditions induced by such interruptions sive charge and another varies with the cube
differ in important respects from those of root of the weight of the donor charge3.
stable detonation. In general, it takes time However, where the intervening space was
and space to re-establish detonation in the filled with air rather than solids, a trend was
receptor charge' . noticed toward a relationship of the 2/3
power of the charge weight4.
Fig. 3-1 illustrates a detonation front as
recorded by a streak camera. Investigators 3-1.2 DIMENSIONAL INTERACTIONS
agree that detonation of the receptor first
occurs at a point within the receptor charge The effectiveness of one charge in initiat ng
rather than at a surface exposed to the another is determined by the interaction of
initiating impulse2. Although this phenome- the properties of the explosive, its load ng
non must be taken into account in the design density, and the dimensions and confinement
of initiation systems for main charges whose of the charge. The interaction is such that it
effectiveness is critically influenced by the would be impractical to discuss these factors
form of the detonation wave front, it is separately, except in broad generalities.
generally ignored in other explosive train
charges. For most practical purposes, transfer Although, as might be expected, the effec-
of detonation is considered in terms of the tive output of a donor charge increases
probability that high order detonation will be systematically with its diameter, the relation-
induced in the receptor. ship between acceptor diameter and sensi-
tivity is more complex (see Fig. 3-2a). Note
High order detonation is defined as that in that the optimum diameter of an acceptor,
which the detonation rate is equal to or from the point of view of the air gap across
greater than the stable detonation velocity of which it can be initiated, is slightly less than
the explosive. It is rarely practical, however, the diameter of the donor. This relationship

3-1
AMCP 706-179

Figure 3- 7. Streak Camera Record of Detonation

0.300 0.300

0.250 0.IS0 in. ACCEPTOR 0.230

[Link] in. "
0^00 in.
0.200 in. "
DONOR

/// 'S 0075in /

0.200

• •-—
o.i so
[Link] in.
DONOR

'[Link]
ET*-B^V

0.030

0.050 0.100 0.150 0.200 0.050 0.100 0.150 0.200

DONOR DIAMETER, in. ACCEPTOR DIAMETER, in.

Figure 3-2. Critical Gap as a Function of Column Diameter

3-2
 AMCP 706-179

280

lOO 500 1000

DONOR CHARGE, mg

Figure 3-3. Critical Axial Air Gaps Across Which Detonation

/s Transmitted Between LeadAzide and Tetryl

applies specifically to well confined columns is related to the weight ratio of case to charge.
of explosive. For heavily confined charges (where the wall
thickness exceeds the charge radius) the shock
As might be expected, beyond a certain impedance of the confining material is a good
minimum height the increase in the weight of criterion of confinement effectiveness. The
a donor charge is more effective in increasing object of confinement is to have the greatest
output if it is due to a diameter increase than mismatch possible between explosive and
to a length increase (see Fig. 3-3a). container material so that as much of the
detonation wave as possible is reflected back
Most experimental determination of the into the explosive. Shock velocities of various
relative effectiveness of explosive charges in metals are listed in Table 3-1 (see also par.
initiating other charges has been done as part 5-[Link]).
of a study of a specific system. Hence, the
variables are generally so intermingled as to 3-2 SENSITIVITY TO INITIATION
make generalizations from such data difficult.
However, the evidence that the volume of 3-2.1 SENSITIVITY TESTS
dent which a charge makes in a steel block is
nearly proportional to its effectiveness as an 3-2.1.1 STANDARD TESTS
initiator, combined with relatively broad and
interpretable plate-dent data, makes it pos- The sensitivity of an explosive charge to
sible to derive relationships that appear to initiation by another is the result of the
have relatively broad applicability' . interaction of a number of variables. This
interaction has not been reduced to a
Confinement has a significant effect. In formula. However, a review of available tests
relatively thin-walled containers, confinement should help the designer to develop an

3-3
AMCP 706-179

TABLE 3-1 One test employed to measure sensitivity

to initiation is the booster sensitivity test in
DENSITIES AND SHOCK VELOCITIES which a gap between donor and test charge is
IN VARIOUS METALS filled with wax (see par. 12-[Link] for a
description of the test). Typical results are
Density, Shock Velocity, shown in Table 3-27. The 50% gaps were
Metal g/cm3 mm/jusec determined by means of Bruceton tests (see
par. 12-1.2.2). Results of several other tests
Aluminum 2.71 7.00
are compared in Table 3-3.
Babbitt 9.73 3.25
Brass 8.50 4.57
Bronze 8.80 4.82 3-2.1.2 GAP TESTS
Copper 8.9 4.6*
Lead 11.3 2.1* The small scale air-gap test has been
Magnesium 1.76 7.83 employed by a number of investigators. In
Steel 7.85 5.30 this test, donor and acceptor explosives are
Zinc Alloy (die cast) 6.60 3.95 separated by a variable air gap (see Fig. 3-4a).
Gap distance is the measure of sensitivityk.
"Ref. 6

intuitive grasp of the effects and interactions In Fig 3-5a, results of this test are com-
of the various factors involved. The fact that pared with average impact sensitivity results.
results obtained by various procedures differ Impact data for the various explosives were
does not necessarily imply that one is right compared with results obtained with the small
and another wrong or that one is necessarily scale gap test. This test consists of determin-
better. Each, may be completely valid as a ing the minimum priming charge by loading
measurement of the sensitivity of an explosive the explosive into a cup of a blasting cap with
under the conditions of the test. a priming charge of DDNP. Both donor and
TABLE 3-2

TYPICAL RESULTS OF BOOSTER SENSITIVITY TEST

50% Gap, Density,
Explosive Preparation in. g/cm3

Amatol 80/20 Pressed 0.83 1.65

Amatol 50/50 Cast 0.60 1.55
Composition A-3 Pressed 1.70 1.62
Composition B Cast 1.40 1.69
Com position C Pressed 1.36 1.56
Composition C-3 Pressed 1.36 1.62
Cyclonite (RDX) Pressed 2.33 1.54
DBX Cast 1.35 1.76
Ednatol 55/45 Cast 1.28 1.62
Explosive D Pressed 1.27 1.54
(Ammonium Picrate)
Haleite (EDNA) Pressed 2.09 1.42
Minol-2 Pressed 1.46 1.74
Nitroguanidine Pressed 0.67 1.41
Pentolite 50/50 Pressed 2.36 1.61
Pentolite 50/50 Cast 2.08 1.65
Picratol 52/48 Cast 1.00 1.63
Tetryl Pressed 2.01 1.58
Tetrytol 75/25 Cast 1.66 1.66
TNT Pressed 1.68 1.55
TNT Cast 0.82 1.60
Tritonal 80/20 Cast 0.58 1.75

3-4
 AMCP 706-179

TABLE 3-3

INITIATION SENSITIVITY MEASURED BY SEVERAL TESTS

Impact Tests
Min. Crit. Air
Prim." Bu. Gapd 0.2 Crit. LuciteGap"
Chg., PAb, Mines'3, ERLC in. Diam., 50% Gap
Explosive 9 in. cm No. 12 in. in. DBg

Composition B (Desens.) 0.19 14(17) 95 82 — 0.266 55.75

Cyclonite(RDX) - 8(18) 32 - 0.318 0.470 3.28
Cyclonite/Wax
9911 - - _ 34 - - -
9812 - - _ 35 - - -
9713 - - _ 43 - - -
9515 - - _ 47 - - -
9119(Comp.A-3) 0.21 16(17) >100 - - - -
Cyclonite/Calcium Stearate
99.310.7 — - - - - 0.392 4.07
98.6/1.4 — - 23 - 0.332 4.79
98.012.0 — - 37 0.144 0.313 5.04
97.212.8 - - — 32 - 0.299 5.25
Pentolite, 50150 0.12 12(15) 34 38 - - -
10190 - 14(18) 65 - - - -
PETN 0.09 6(16) 17 - 0.47 - -
Tetryl 0.17 8(18) 26 - 0.184 0.434 3.63
Tetrytol, 70130 0.19 11(18) 28 - - - -
TNT, Pressed 0.25 14(17) > 95 - - 0.281 5.52
Cast - - - - - 0.021 16.7

a
Ref. 8. Table shows charge in grams of DDNPto initiate material pressed to density of 1.4g/cm3
bRef. d. Figures in parenthesesare sample weights in mg.
c
Ref. 10,11.
dRef. 9.
e
Donor - RDX, 1 in. long, 0.2 in. diameter. Pressed in steel at 10 kpsi.

EXPLOSIVES
BEINS
TESTED

ACCEPTOR

Figure 3-5. Minimum Priming Charge and

Figure 3-4. Small Scale Air Gao Test Gap for Critical Propagation

3-5
AMCP 706-179

acceptor were loaded at 10,000 psi. Bruceton donor, the transformation function will show
tests of from fifteen to fifty trials formed the the stimulus to be an inverse function of
basis of the estimates of the gap. For these barrier thickness. The transformation func-
tests, the logarithm of the gap length was tion is
assumed to be a normalizing function.
X =A +10 5 1og(G,/G,) (3-1)
A refinement of the small scale gap test is
illustrated in Fig. 3-612. Here, a steel dent where
block is added and the gap filled with Lucite.
Further, data are analyzed by the gap X = stimulus, DBg (gap decibang)
decibang method. The gap decibang DB is
analogous to the decibel in that it expresses A,B = arbitrary constants
not an absolute energy or stimulus but rather
a comparison with some arbitrarily estab- Gr = reference gap, in.
lished reference level.
Q = observed test gap, in.
This method of expressing explosive sensi-
tivity is based on a function that transforms The reference gap has been selected to be
sensitivity data into a normal distribution in 1.0 in. using a high-intensity RDX-loaded
which the explosive response increases with donor.
increased initiation intensity. Because the
initiation intensity is increased by reducing Corresponding values of decibang intensity
the attenuation of the output of a standard and gap thickness are shown in Table 3-4.
Table 3-512 lists sensitivities of some explo-
sives in gap decibangs as determined by the
DETONATOR
small Lucite gap test. It is possible that the
method of gap decibang analysis may have a
DETONATOR ADAPTER
broader application than that of an arbitrary
intensity measure. It may serve, for example,
DONOR
as a unit of effective initiating output of
DONOR EXPLOSIVE
detonator, lead, or booster. The relationship
7 INCREMENTS RDX
165 mq INCREMENT
between the dent produced by a donor acting
PRESSED AT 10,000 psi through a barrier or gap and the gap decibang
level of the combination appears to be linear.
VARIABLE GAP
(LUCITE SPACER)

3-2.2 VARIABLES AFFECTING SENSI-

TIVITY

3-2.2.1 LOADING DENSITY

ACCEPTOR EXPLOSIVE
The voids that are present in most explo-
sive charges affect the initiation sensitivity by
STEEL DENT TABLE 3-4
BLOCK

RELATION OF DECIBANGS TO
GAP THICKNESS

Intensity, 10 13 1E 19 20
DBg

Thickness, 1000 501 251 12E 100 50.1 25.1 12.E 10.0
Figure 3-6. Small Scale Lucite Gap Test mil

3-6
 AMCP 706-179

TABLE 3-5 material with less than one percent voids,

failures were observed with no barrier at all.
SENSITIVITIES OF SOME EXPLOSIVES Results with small scale gap tests were similar.
ACCORDING TO THE SMALL SCALE Some data are included in Table 3-514. Fig.
LUCITE GAP TEST 3-8'4 show s the results of a test with RDX,
tetryl, and TNT.
Loading Loading Sensitiv-
Pressure, Density, ity,
DB„ 3-2.2.2 LOT-TO-LOT VARIATIONS
Explosive ^JttSS^^™

Cyclonite(RDX) 10.0 1.5649 3.283 The variable with the largest effect on
Cyclonite (ROX) 38.2 1.7373 5.069 lot-to-lot uniformity is loading density. While
TNT Cast 1.5746 16.5 there are other differences in explosives which
TNT 6.2 1.4078 4.635 cannot be explained in terms of density
TNT 19.0 1.5835 6.114 effects alone, these are difficult to pinpoint
Tritonal Cast 2.0557 17.5 and even more difficult to control9'13.
Particle size and its distribution are variables
that have been shown to have an appreciable
providing reaction nuclei and by reducing the effect on the sensitivity of explosives.
pressure in the reaction zone. These effects,
of course, interact with those of charge size,
confinement, and the nature of the trans- 3-2.2.3 ADDITIVES
mitting medium. Results obtained with
pressed, granular explosives in the wax gap The addition of a few percent of a waxy
sensitivity test are plotted in Fig. 3-713. For substance, such as calcium stearate, reduces

Figure 3-7. Effect of Voids on Booster Sensitivity (Wax Gap Test)

3-7
AMCP 706-179

RDX^.

TETRYL

VJNT

Ü I5

20
VOIDS, %

Figure 3-8. Effect of Voids on Booster Sensitivity (Lucite Gap Test)

the sensitivity of RDX by a factor of two or in Fig. 3-1016. Almost the identical plot
three, as indicated by the air gap test. This results if Brinell hardness is replaced with a
effect may be noted in Table 3-3, although on dimensionless strength. All of the data were
closer consideration, it is apparent that a large obtained with tetryl acceptor charges. The
measure of this desensitization is attributable effect of confinement upon sensitivity varies
to the higher density attainable at the same considerably from one explosive to another'.
loading pressure when a lubricant is added. For small columns the differences become
more marked.
In Table 3-6, the effects of added wax on
the sensitivity of a number of cast explosives TABLE 3-6
are given as measured by the wax gap booster EFFECT OF 5 PERCENT D-2 WAX
sensitivity test. ON THE BOOSTER SENSITIVITY OF
VARIOUS CAST EXPLOSIVES
3-2.2.4 CONFINEMENT (Wax Gap Test)

Critical air gaps as determined by the test Unwaxed, Difference,

Explosive in. Waxed, in. in.
illustrated in Fig. 3-4 are related to confining
media of the acceptors used as shown in Fig.
Baronal 0.86 0.64 -0.22
3-9. However, as may be seen in Table 3-715 , Comp. B 1.32 1.16 -0.16
the agreement is somewhat less than perfect. Pentolite 2.08 1.96 -0.12
The sum of a dimensionless density with a Picratol 52/48 1.00 0.88 -0.12
dimensionless Brinell hardness has been pro- PTX-2 1.87 1.63 -0.24
posed to relate the effect of the confining TNT 0.82 1.03 +0.21
medium to sensitivity. This relation is shown Tritonal 80/20 0.58 1.04 +0.46

3-8
 AMU* 706-179

MATERIAL CONFINING THE ACCEPTOR EXPLOSIVE

Figure 3-9. Effect of Acceptor Confining Material upon Sensitivity in an Air Gap Test

TABLE 3-7 3-2.2.5 GAPS AN6 BARRIERS

AIR GAP SENSITIVITY RELATED TO In one way or another, gaps, barriers, or

ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE OF spacer materials are components of explosive
ACCEPTOR CONFINING MEDIUM systems. In some instances, these features are
Shock Impedance designed into a train to achieve a desired
Confining of Acceptor effect. In other cases, they are inherent to
Medium Confinement,. Critical Air construction just as is confinement. Bottoms
of Acceptor megarayl Gap", in. of cups are barriers and manufacturing toler-
ances introduce gaps. In some instances, the
Lucite 0.7 0.063 combination of gaps and barriers are bene-
Magnesium 1.4 0.088 ficial. For example, barrier fragments have
Zinc (die cast) 2.6 0.101 transmitted detonation over a gap that was
Babbitt 3.2 0.148 sometimes forty times that across which the
Brass 3.9 0.153 air blast wave alone could carry it.
Steel (SAE 1020) 4.2 0.260
"Lead azideto tetryl, 0.150-in. diameter columns Available experimental data relating the

3-9
AMCP 706-179

IM>« +B/BM)/( p/pu + B/BM)M,%

Figure 3-10. Gap Sensitivity Related to Density and Hardness of Acceptor

Confining Medium

variables are not complete. Fig. 7-4 compares and RDX, transmission occurred when the
performance under service conditions for sev- charges were displaced somewhat beyond the
eral gap and barrier combinations both uncon- point of tangency. It was also observed that
fined and confined. In Table 3-87 the effect these explosives sometimes detonated from an
of changing the spacer material in the wax-gap apparent central initiation point. Out-of-line
booster test is given for four explosives and a safety should always be tested to make
number of spacer materials. Attention is certain that the train does not propagate in
directed to the air gap data. It has been the safe position (see par. 12-2.4).
suggested that the mechanism of transmission
across an air gap to the more sensitive 3-3. OUTPUT
materials must involve factors other than
shock pressure. 3-3.1 NATURE OF EXPLOSIVE OUTPUT

3-2.3 MISALIGNED CHARGES The mechanism whereby useful output is

derived from an explosion is essentially that
Out-of-line safety is a general requirement of a heat engine. Heat is transformed into
of fuzes. The usual situation is that of two mechanical energy by the adiabatic expansion
well-confined columns of explosives, one of of hot, compressed gas. As a heat engine, the
which is displaced laterally with respect to the detonation of a military high explosive is
other as in Fig. 3-1 la. Propagation occurs remarkably efficient. Over seventy percent of
near the point where the expanded hole of the theoretical heat of explosion usually
the donor becomes tangent to the original appears as measurable mechanical output.
acceptor charge.'In an experiment with PETN However, the effectiveness of an explosive

3-10
 AMCP 708-179

TABLE 3-8 For these reasons, characterization of the

output of an explosive charge in terms of the
SENSITIVITY FOR VARIOUS phenomena involved in its intended applica-
SPACER MATERIALS
tion is the most vahd basis for comparison
(Wax Gap Test)
with charges of other designs and loadings.
50 Percent Point, in. Examples of such phenomena are blast and
fragmentation.
Spacer Com p.
Material Tetryl B HBX Pentolite
The theory of detonation waves is de-
Air 5.04 1.21 0.93 5.01
scribed in par. 2-2.3. The calculations dis-
Wood (oak) 1.39 1.04 0.93 1.47 cussed are based on a number of assumptions
Copper 1.69 1.17 0.86 1.92 that include ideal detonation (Chapman-
Polystyrene 1.85 1.43 1.19 1.90 Jouguet conditions) and a certain reaction
Acrawax B 1.89 1.46 1.28 2.08 chemistry. Although in many investigations
Aluminum 1.90 1.51 1.33 2.05 agreement has been attained between experi-
StanolindWax 2.07 1.50 1.28 2.06 ment and theory, many of the most interest-
ing and important aspects of the output
charge in any particular application is not behavior of real charges stems from their
necessarily directly related to its total nonideality or from deviations in their chem-
mechanical energy output. Only a small frac- ical or thermodynamic behavior from those
tion of the energy usually reaches the target commonly assumed. For these reasons, more
and, of this, most is usually either reflected or quantitative predictions of performance are
absorbed without damange to the target. made by use of the empirical relationships
Hence, effectiveness is characterized in terms based on measurements of output phe-
of the various phenomena that are used to nomena.
transmit the output to the target. These
phenomena include shock waves, gross move- An introduction to actual detonations,
ments of such intervening media as air, water those which are theoretically nonideal, is
or earth, and the projection of metal or other contained in par. 2-2.3.3.
materials that are inert components of explo-
sive items. All of these phenomena accom-
pany most explosions, but the partition of 3-3.2 EFFECT OF CHARGE CONFIGURA-
energy between them varies greatly with TION
variation of design and composition, as do
other quantities associated with each phenom- 3-3.2.1 THE DETONATION FRONT
enon which may be more important than
energy in determining relative effectiveness. As a first approximation, detonation may
be considered to propagate in all directions
within a homogeneous charge at the same
velocity. Thus, if a charge is initiated by a
relatively concentrated source, the detonation
front assumes a divergent spherical form. This
J- jiteaa^B
j^asaaaaa —
m—^-
W**WAW.M. *>»f>7777>

DISPLACEMENT

"T
curvature (convex in the direction of propaga-
tion) is accentuated at the boundaries of the

1 charge (see par. 2-2.3).

Such curvature, if its radius is small enough

to be comparable with the reaction zone
Figure 3-11. Arrangement for Propagation length, results in a reduction of detonation
of Misaligned Charges velocity and pressure from that associated

3-11
AMCP 708-179

with ideal detonation. The explosives used in ironts has been the subject of much re-
applications where detonation pressure is a search' 8. All techniques are essentially ap-
prime consideration (pentolite, Compositions plications of Huygens' principle that forms
A-3 and B and cyclotols) have reaction zone the basis of geometric optics. For ultimate
lengths of the order of a millimeter or less so refinement, account must be taken of the fact
that this effect is not usually important. that detonation velocities are not precisely
However, with small charges of such materials constant, but satisfactory control, for many
as TNT, Explosive D, or tritonal, they can purposes is possible by designs that ignore the
assume importance. In addition, the pressure relatively small variations. The following four
and its gradient vary radially. For some means of controlling the sequence of arrival
applications, most notably the controlled of detonation waves at various points in a
propulsion of solids, wave front profiles, and charge have been used'8''9 :
pressure distributions other than those result-
ing from the action of hydrodynamic laws in 1. Wave interrupters that require the wave
simple charge configurations are desirable. to go around the interrupter.
For such purposes, special configurations have
evolved. 2. Two explosives of appreciably different
rates of detonation.
One of the results of pressure variation
behind the detonation front is the variation in 3. Density and composition variations in
momentum which the detonation wave im- the explosive.
parts to solid objects. Where it is desired to
propel an object of uniform thickness which 4. Air, inert fillers, or both of such thick-
has a relatively large area in contact with a ness as to delay the wave but not destroy it.
charge, these variations in momentum result
in corresponding velocity variations that may Perhaps the simplest devices for the control
result in distortion or even rupture of the of wave front profiles are line wave genera-
object. This problem may be alleviated by tors. Those of the manifold type (Fig. 3-12)
either of two means although they are gen- have been made by loading explosives into
erally combined: channels machined, molded, or cast into
metal or other inert components and by
1. Distributing the explosive charge so as constructing arrays of detonating cord. The
to reduce the variation in momentum trans- detonating cord arrays were, of course,
fer, or limited to relatively large systems by the
spacing needed to prevent initiation or
2. Adding mass at points where momen- damage due to radial blast effects of adjacent
tum is greatest. cords.

The hydrodynamic relationships that deter-

mine momentum distribution in finite explo- EXPLOSIVE PATH

sive charges are too complex to be solved

analytically. However, they have been pro-
grammed for solution by computer' .
Intuitive reasoning and cut-and-try develop-
ment have yielded satisfactory designs in the
past. }- WAVE FRONTS

3-3.2.2 WAVE SHAPING

Figure 3-12. Line Wave Generator o f the
The control of the profile of detonation Manifold Type

3-12
 AMCP 706-179

- FLAT CIRCULAR SEGMENT

The advent of mild detonating cord (MDC) OF SHEET EXPLOSIVE

opens new possibilities in manifold type wave

shaping devices (see par. 9-2.2.1). In such
applications, particular attention should be
given the problem of transmission of detona-
tion from the very small column diameter of
MDC to the larger charges in which it is hoped
to control the wave front profile. Even
though reliable transmission is assured, the
build-up may introduce enough time scatter HOLLOW CONE OF
DETONATION ARRIVES SHEET EXPLOSIVE
to nullify the wave shaping effects. Step SIMULTANEOUSLY AT ALL
POINTS ON THIS LINE IF
construction or a tapered lead should result in
a satisfactory system.
Figure 3-14. Line Wave Generator of
Another line wave generator of the mani- Warped Sheet of Explosive
fold type consists of perforated sheet explo-
sive (see Fig. 3-13).
pressure drop below ambient, and finally (4) a
In addition to such generators, warped
return to ambient pressure. Fig. 3-l5b shows
surfaces may be used to produce line waves of
this pressure-time relationship resulting from
any desired curvature. The circular front
reactions of explosive charges. The area under
generated by the point initiated detonation of
the curve above ambient is called impulse.
a plane charge, may also be modified by
warping the plane and by tranmission to other
The blast wave is produced by a process
explosive surfaces. One example, illustrated in
that may involve several steps. It always
Fig. 3-14, is the generation of a straight line
involves an initial explosion. It may be en-
wave by means of warped sheet explosive. hanced by the afterburning or reacting of the
explosive products with themselves and with
3-3.3 BLAST
the oxygen in the air. It may also be enhanced
by shock reflection from surfaces such as
Blast is the brief and rapid movement of air
ground, water, or walls.
or other fluid away from a center of outward
pressure, as in an explosion, or it is the
Blast decreases in magnitude at a ratio
pressure accompanying this movement. Physi-
equivalent to the cube root of the distance
cal manifestations of blast include (1) a shock
from the charge. Blast pressures P are plotted
front that is created by the rapidly expanding
on graphs as P vs r/Wl/3 where r is the
gases being opposed by the medium around
distance from the charge and W ^3 is the cube
the explosive, (2) a time period in which the
root of the charge weight. Various design
pressure drops to ambient, (3) a continued
equations and graphs have been evolved for
predicting the output from explosive charges,
most of which are the results of empirical
studies. The parameters that affect blast
OO OO O CD
include
C^ CD CD CD '—' CD CD
CD O CO i—■ ^r-. CJ «—, C3
CD CD CD CD '—' ID *—i CD CD
JD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD
CD ff—i *—■ CDS CD CD CD CD CD CD CD
' ' CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD
DD CD CD CD CD CD CO CD CD CD CD C
1. type of explosive
CED O CD CD CD C2D CD *ED CD CD CD CD

2. confinement
material used
Figure 3-13. Line Wave Generator of thickness of material
Sheet Explosive 3. configuration of explosive charge

3-13
AMCP 706-179

DURATION OF NEGATIVE PRESSURE PHASE"

~r

4. effects of exterior media The foregoing studies were concerned with

atmospheric pressure exterior blasts far from ground or reflective
water surfaces. If the charge is exploded close to a
surface, the shock wave that reaches this
5. reflection of blast from surfaces surface will be partially reflected. The re-
exterior blast flected wave may subsequently catch up with
interior blast. the original shock wave and reinforce it. The
reason for its catching up is that the reflected
The studies conducted with explosives wave travels through the hot gases of the
showed that there exists a generalized rela- explosive where its velocity is greater. If many
tionship between energy of the explosive and reflective surfaces are available, the resulting
the output in terms of peak pressure and blast damage can be considerably greater than
impulse. An equation for estimating the blast that without reflective surfaces. The interior
pressures of cylindrical charges is available in of a structure or vehicle offers many such
classified literature2 °. reflective surfaces. Consequently, the damage
produced by exploding a blast charge inside
It was found that steel confined charges an enclosure is considerably greater than that
generally produce decreasing amounts of blast outside of it. Less than 20% of an explosive
output with increasing thickness of confine- may be required for an interior blast kill
ment2 ' . The only exception is a very thin compared with an exterior one.
steel confinement that appears to produce a
blast output equal to or slightly better than Most ammunition is limited in size for
bare charges. This probably is due to the fact tactical reasons. Hence, the designer must
that some unconfined charges break up par- look for the blast explosive that produces the
tially during explosion. Certain materials highest blast damage for a given volume. The
when used as confining media for explosives missile warhead designer faces a weight limita-
appear to react in an explosive manner2 2, i.e., tion in the same manner.
they increase the blast output when they
confine explosives. Some rubbers and plastics 3-3.4 FRAGMENTATION
exhibit this behavior.
3-3.4.1 FRAGMENTATION CHARACTER-
Studies of the effects of altitude on blast ISTICS
showed that there is a constant decrease in
blast output with altitude23. For practical As a manifestation of explosive output,
purposes, there is a 1% decrease in excess fragmentation is characterized by velocity and
pressure for every 1000-ft altitude. size distribution of fragments. For some

3-14
 AMCP 706-179

purposes, the size and shape of fragments are TABLE 3-9

predetermined either by preforming or by
modifications of the case or charge design GURNEY CONSTANTS FOR
which predisposes it to break as desired. Many COMMON EXPLOSIVES
studies have been carried out both for frag-
\/2E~,
mentation projectiles' 4 and for specialized Explosive ft/sec
fragmentation warheads' 5-
Composition B 8800
The initial velocity of fragments is quite
Pentolite 8400
accurately predicted by the Gurney formulas TNT 7600
for cylinders >'0 =
. /KWm — the nature of the target and then on the point
s/W y/l + 0.5 WJW- , ft/sec (3-2) of impact and direction of the flight of the
m
fragments with respect to the target as well as
its size, velocity, shape, attitude, and mate-
r spheres vQ = rials. Ref. 33 provides a quantitative treat-
ment of fragmentation.
V2£ y/\ + 0.6 WJW , ft/sec (3-3)
The determination of the optimum frag-
m
ment size, in addition to the lethality con-
here siderations, requires an estimate of the
probable location of the fragmenting charge
V
initial fragment velocity, ft/sec with respect to the target at the time of burst
o
and a knowledge of the azimuthal distribution
yJ2F = Gurney constant, ft/sec of the fragments. In some instances relative
movement of the charge and target is an
K = charge weight, lb important factor. The position of the charge
with respect to the target is sometimes a
= weight of fragmenting metal, lb design variable that is combined with other
w„
factors to maximize effectiveness. For
The empirical constant E is determined for example, in an air-burst antipersonnel
a particular range of explosive to metal ratios. weapon, burst height, fragment size, and
It is expressed as the quantity of energy per azimuthal distribution are combined to maxi-
unit mass of explosive which is available as mize the lethality.
kinetic energy of the fragments. In general, When a projectile or other container is
this is somewhat more than half of the energy burst by the explosion of the explosive
of detonation. Rather than reducing the contained, the sizes of the fragments pro-
quantities to theoretical terms, Gurney con- duced vary according to a statistical distribu-
stants are usually given as velocities. Table 3-9 tion. Of course, this size is also affected by
includes Gurney constants for some explo- the charge-to-case mass ratio and by the
sives of military interest. Initial fragment physical properties of the case material.
velocities have been computed and are avail- Where all aspects of the design of a fragmenta-
able in tabular form' 6. tion round or head may be varied to optimize
a design, the choice of explosive is simplified
The lethality of a fragment is a function of by this general tendency for explosives that
its velocity, weight, and presented area. The produce the fastest fragments to also produce
problems of assessing lethality and vulner- the finest fragments. The explosive with the
ability are quite difficult because the serious- highest Gurney constant may thus be
ness of the damage inflicted depends first on expected to be capable of producing the

3-15
AMCP 70G-179

largest number of lethal fragments. movement under the action of the explosive
will not be impeded significantly. This con-
Where a case originally designed for anti- tainer, completed with suitable end plates and
personnel use is to be adapted for use against usually with auxiliary thin liners, is loaded
more resistant targets, high performance with the explosive.
explosives may break it into fragments too
small for effectiveness. In such situations a A continuous rod warhead differs from a
less brisant explosive may improve effective- discrete rod warhead in that the rods are
ness. Generally, in projectiles such considera- strongly joined to one another at alternate
tions as structural strength to resist setback ends in a pattern similar to that of a folded
and spin accelerations dictate the use of a case carpenters' rule. This hoop breaks when its
that forms coarser fragments than is desirable circumference equals the sum of the rod
even with the most brisant explosive27. lengths, if excess energy is imparted by the
explosive.

3-3.4.2 CONTROLLED FRAGMENTATION The value of a discrete rod fragment

depends upon maintenance of its shape (as a
Since the breakup of charge cases under relatively straight rod) and its attitude such
explosive attack is mainly two dimensional, that its long axis is at right angles to its path.
the average size of fragments may be reduced The value of a continuous rod depends upon
and their number increased by the use of its retaining its integrity as such. Each of
multiple walled cases. A wide variety of other these requirements, in turn, rests on a basic
methods have been used to produce fragments requirement that the velocity imparted to
that are almost all of the optimum size and each element of the length of the rod is the
shape. Methods which have been used in- same as that for each other element. This is
clude24 : the most important application of the
momentum distribution control discussed in
1. preformed fragments (with or without par. 3-3.2.1. The losses of pressure at the ends
matrix) cause the parts of the rods near the ends of
2. notched or grooved rings the warhead to lag behind those near the
midsection. Discrete rods are bent and
3. notched or grooved wire twisted, and continuous rods are broken as a
4. notched or grooved casings result of the differences in velocity.
5. fluted liners.

One form of preformed fragment is a rod. 3-3.5 OTHER OUTPUT EFFECTS

In controlled experiments, a rod has been 3-3.5.1 UNDERWATER
found to be more effective against aircraft
than the same weight of metal broken into The effects of an underwater explosion are
smaller pieces. It can sever important struc- separable into two distinct phenomena, the
tural members rather than merely perforate shock wave and the pulsation of the bubble.
them. It is of interest to note that seventy to eighty
percent of the heat of detonation can be
A discrete rod warhead consists of a num- accounted for in the sum of the energy of the
ber of rods (usually of steel) arranged like the shock wave and that of the movement of the
staves of a barrel to form a cylindrical bubble. The shock wave is characterized in
container. They are joined together with terms of its peak pressure, energy, impulse,
sufficient strength to provide the needed and time constant. These quantities may be
structural, strength for handling, launching, computed from existing nomographs28 as
and flight but in such a manner that their functions of distance and charge weight.

3-16
 AMCP 708-179

The pulsation and other movements of the At large distances, the disturbances induced
bubble impart large quantities of momentum by underground explosions have essentially
to surrounding water. Under some circum- the same characteristics as seismic waves
stances, the migration of the bubble due to produced by earthquakes. However, at shorter
hydrodynamic and gravitational effects can distances, the positive durations of stress
result in highly concentrated transfer of this waves are similar in magnitude to the expo-
momentum to ships or other structures so nential decay constants for underwater explo-
that the bubble action can outweigh that of sions of charges of similar size30.
the shock wave in its damaging effects.
Bubble parameters may also be calculated In addition to inducing shock, stress, and
conveniently with a nomogram. The behavior seismic waves, underground explosions dis-
and actions of bubbles resulting from under- place the surrounding media. When close to
water explosions has been the subject of the surface, they produce craters. Explosions
several studies29. too deep to burst through the surface produce
spherical cavities known as camouflets. The
3-3.5.2 UNDERGROUND products of the volume of a camouflet and
the strength of the surrounding medium has
The effects of underground explosion are been related to the heat of explosion of the
more difficult to characterize quantitatively charge which produces it.
than are those in air or water because soils
and rocks are so much more variable in
character and because disturbances are trans-
mitted through them as stress waves with 3-3.5.3 SHAPED CHARGE
components of shear and sometimes tension
in additon to the pressure that characterizes The lined shaped charge is one of the most
waves produced by explosions in fluids. The effective means for the defeat of armor in
initial wave transmitted from an explosive terms of the ratio of thickness penetrated to
charge to almost any solid medium is a true diameter of round. Much information is avail-
shock wave, and the pressures are far beyond able on the design of shaped charges24'3 .
the elastic limit. However, such shocks at- Action of the shaped charge is sometimes
tenuate much faster than those in water referred to as the Munroe effect. Operation is
because a large fraction of the energy is as follows. At the detonation front, the metal
expended in shattering the medium. As the liner is deflected inward. Converging sym-
pressure approaches the compressive strength metrically toward the centerline, the metal is
of the material, the shock is modified to a deflected along this line. The slug of metal
stress wave. It loses the sharp rise charac- which accumulates at the center is squeezed
teristic of a shock and may separate into by the continuing convergence to such high
several waves, elastic compression wave, pressures that part of it emerges in a jet, like
plastic wave, surface wave, and a shear wave toothpaste from a tube.
all propagated at different velocities.
Because the theory of shaped charges is
Meanwhile, since soil and rock are usually based on a number of simplifying assumptions
variable in structure and density, waves are and because of unavoidable variations intro-
refracted and reflected in paths of various duced during manufacture and loading, a large
lengths. In addition, where the explosion part of design and development of shaped
occurs close enough to the surface to produce charges has been empirical. The following
an air blast wave, this induces another surface rules of thumb on the design of shaped
wave. As a result of this wave, at a distance of charges, are consistent with the theory al-
a mile, the ground disturbance from a single though they might not be quantitatively pre-
explosion might continue for thirty seconds. dictable :

3-17
AMCP 706-179

1. The optimum cone (included) angle, for counter-balanced, at least to some extent, by
most purposes, is about 42 deg. use of fluted and trumpet shaped liners.

7. As the cone angle becomes larger, the

2. Maxiumum penetration is obtained with
velocity of the jet decreases and that of the
a stand-off distance between charge and target
slug increases. Shallow shaped charges in
of 2 to 6 cal.
which the slug is the effective output are
referred to as Misznay-Schardin charges. They
3. The cone liner material that seems to are used extensively in land mines.
have the best combination of properties is
soft copper, although mild steel and alumi- 8. As the cone angle becomes smaller the
num have been used to advantage. velocity of the jet becomes higher and its
mass becomes smaller until, for a tube, they
4. Optimum cone liner thickness is about approach infinity and zero, respectively.
0.03 cal for copper.
9. Although penetrations by shaped
charges in armor plate as high as 11 cal have
5. Detonation pressure seems to be the been observed in the laboratory, the limit for
most important property of an explosive practical ammunition is closer to four or five
affecting shaped charge performance. cone diameters.
6. In spin-stabilized projectiles, the centrif-
ugal forces are sufficient to impair shaped For information on shaped charge scaling,
charge performance significantly. This may be see Ref. 32.

REFERENCES

a-k Lettered references are listed in the 4. J. Savitt, Investigation of Sympathetic

General References at the end of this Detonation and Evaluation of Structures
handbook. for Ammunition Manufacture, Final Re-
port, Armour Research Foundation,
1. AMCP 706-180, Engineering Design Chicago, 111. Contract DA-11-173-
Handbook, Principles of Explosive Be- ORD-416, October 20, 1955.
havior. 5. W.M. Slie, A Study of Output of Deto-
nator Versus Internal Design Factors of
2. M. A. Cook, D. H. Pack, and W. A. Gey, Limited External Dimensions, NAVORD
"Deflagration to Detonation Transition
Report 3593, Naval Ordnance Labora-
in Solid and Liquid Explosives," Proc. tory, Silver Spring, Md., 10 December
Royal Society, Series A, 246, 1245, 81
1953.
(1958).
6. Ultrasonic Inspection, Nondestructive
3. N. A. Tolch, Law of Similitude for Testing Inspection Handbook, Quality
Sympathetic Detonations, BRL Report Assurance Pamphlet AMCR 7 15-501,
385, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Md., 17 Watertown Arsenal, Watertown, Mass., 17
July 1943. October 1960. (OBSOLETE)

3-18
 AMCP 708-179

7. E. H. Eyster, L. C. Smith, and S. R. 6. J. Savitt, Study of Parameters Affecting

Walton, The Sensitivity of High Explo- Fuze Explosive Train Performance, Re-
sives to Pure Shocks, Memo 10336, Naval port 8, Armour Research Foundation,
Ordnance Laboratory, Silver Spring, Md., Chicago, 111., Contract DA-1 1-022-501-
14 July 1949. ORD-2219, February 1957.

8. Sensitiveness of High Explosives, Report 7. T. Orlow, E. Piacesi, and H. M. Sternbert,

OSRD 6629, (from Hercules Powder Co.) "A Computer Program for the Analysis
Office of Scientific Research and of Transient Axially Symmetric Explo-
Development, March 1946. sion and Shock Dynamics Problems",
Third Symposium on Detonation, Report
9. L. D. Hampton, Sensitivity and Pelleting ACR-52, Office of Naval Research, Navy
Characteristics of Certain Desensitized Dept., Vol. 1, September 26-28, 1959,
RDX Mixtures, NAVORD Report 4320, pp. 226-40.
Naval Ordnance Laboratory, Silver
Spring, Md., 25 June 1956. 18. Proceedings of Detonation Wave Shaping
Conference, Picatinny Arsenal, Cali-
10. S. Duck, G. W. Reynolds, and L. E. Starr, fornia Institute of Technology,
Sensitivity of Explosives to Impact, Pasadena, California, 5-7 June 1956.
NAVORD Report 42 12, Naval Ordnance
Laboratory, Silver Spring, Md., 1 May 19. M. A. Cook, Fundamental Principles of
1955 to 1 November 1955. Wave Shaping, Report TR 52, Utah Uni-
versity, Salt Lake City, Utah, Contract
11. G. Svadeba, Sensitivity of Explosives to N7-ONR-45 107, August 1, 1956.
Impact, NAVORD Report 2940, Naval
Ordnance Laboratory, Silver Spring, Md., 20. Robert W. Evans and D. K. Parks, The
IMay 1953 to 1 July 1953. Development of Equations for the Predic-
tion ofExplosive Effectiveness, Report 8,
12. J. N. Ayres, et al., Varicomp, A Method Denver Research Institute, Contract
for Determining Detonation-Transfer DAI-23-072-501-ORD(P)-35, 15 March
Probabilities, NAVWEPS Report 7411, 1961(AD-323 207).
Naval Ordnance Laboratory, Silver
Spring, Md., July 1961. 21. S. D. Stein, Effect of Confinement on
Blast Performance of Explosives, Report
13. W. E. Dimmock, L. D. Hampton, and L. TR 2555, Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N. J.,
E. Stan, Investigation of the Propagation November 1958.
of Detonation Between Small Confined
Charges, NAVORD Report 2385, Naval 22. R. W. Heinemann, R. W. Snook, and S.
Ordnance Laboratory, Silver Spring, Md., D. Stein, The Effect of Casing Materials
L April 1952. and Explosive Compositions on Blast,
Report DR-TR-1-60, Picatinny Arsenal,
14 J. Smith, Some Observations of the Ammunition Group, Dover, N.J.,
Growth of Detonation, NAVORD Report February 1961.
3753, Naval Ordnance Laboratory, Silver
Spring, Md., August 25, 1954.

15 J. Savitt, Effect of Acceptor Confine- 23. Detonation of Cased Explosive Charges

ment Upon Acceptor Sensitivity, Inside F-47 Aircraft Aft Structures at a
NAVORD Report 2938, Naval Ordnance Simulated Altitude of 100,000 Feet, Fir-
Laboratory, Silver Spring, Md., 13 ing Record P-624 16, Aberdeen Proving
November 1953. Ground, Md., September 1956.

3-19
AMCP 706-179

24. AMCP 706-245 (C), Engineering Design Report 2986, Naval Ordnance Labora-
Handbook, Ammunition Series, Design tory, Silver Spring, Md., 4 June 1955.
for TerminalEffects(U).
29. R. H. Cole, Underwater Explosions,
25. AMCP 706-290 (C) Engineering Design Princeton University Press, N.J., 1948.
Handbook, Warheads—General(U).
30. M. A. Cook, The Science of High Explo-
26. Table of Initial Fragment Velocities Cal- sives, Reinhold Publishing Corp., N. Y.,
culated from Sperui Formulas For Vari-
1958, p. 83.
ous Ratios and Explosive Energies,
NAVWEPS Report 7592, Naval Ordnance
Test Station, China Lake, Calif., Decem- 31. Transactions of Symposium on Shaped
ber 22, 1960. Charges, BRL Report 985, Aberdeen
Proving Ground, Md., May 22-24, 1956.
27. R. Webster, D. Nathan, and G. Gaydos,A
Systems Effectiveness Analysis of the 32. O. A. Klamer, Shaped Charge Scaling,
105 mm Ml Shell Loaded with Five Report TM 1383, Picatinny Arsenal,
Explosives (U), WASP Laboratory Report Dover, N. J., March 1964.
No. 53, Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N. J.
October 1970 (Confidential report). 33. AMCP*706-160 (S), Engineering Design
Handbook, Elements of Terminal Bal-
28. E. A. Christian and E. M. Fisher, Eds., listics, Part One, Kill Mechanisms and
Explosion Effects Data Sheets, NAVORD Vulnerability (U).

3-20
 AMCP 706-179

CHAPTER 4

ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSE

4-1 MILITARY REQUIREMENTS In the course of their use, some explosive

materiel is exposed to temperatures substan-
A military item must perform as intended tially higher than 160°F. Three common
after years of storage under conditions that sources of such high temperatures are hot
may vary from tropical to arctic and from guns, heat transferred through metal parts
jungle to desert'. In the case of explosive from rocket motors, and aerodynamic heat-
materiel, the situation is aggravated first by ing. The hot gun problem, for the present, is
the fact that explosives are of necessity somewhat simplified for the explosive charge
metastable materials, and second by the irre- designer because it is not difficult to find high
versibility of their operation. While all mili- explosives that are more temperature resistant
tary items are not subject to the same than the propellants used in guns. Rocket
environmental conditions, the more common propellants have flame temperatures far
ones have been standardized and are listed in beyond that which any explosive can sustain
Table 4-12. so that the designer of rocket warheads must
consider the heat transfer situation. As mis-
Thus, explosive material must endure siles are projected at higher velocities for
operating temperatures of —50" to 125°Fand longer times, the aerodynamic heating prob-
storage temperatures of —70" to 160°F and lem becomes more severe. At these higher
remain operative. The Temperature and temperatures, all effects are exaggerated and
Humidity TestJ tests over these temperatures. accelerated to a point where the deteriora-
The most common hot surveillance or hot tions, which may take months or years in
storage tests are conducted at 160°F. "Ac- storage, may occur in minutes or seconds and
celerated aging" tests are conducted at higher the thermal decomposition of the explosive
temperatures although interpretation of re- may become self-sustaining and run away to a
sults is subject to question. Both bulk explo- thermal explosion. Such explosions are
sives and loaded items are subjected to hot referred to as cook-off. In addition, the higher
storage, surveillance, or accelerated aging temperatures may cause damage of types
tests. After aging, materials may be weighed which would never occur at lower tempera-
and analyzed to detect chemical decomposi- tures.
tion or tested to determine changes in per-
formance characteristics. Loaded items are In additon to temperature, explosives are
sometimes dissected and their various compo- subjected to other environments. One of these
nents examined and analyzed. More often, is the proximity with metals and other explo-
they are tested functionally. Changes in func- sives that may be chemically incompatible.
tional characteristics may result from chemi-
cal deterioration of explosive or inert compo- In the course of military transportation,
nents, changes in state of aggregation (such as handling, and use, explosives and explosive
fusion and reconsolidation, sintering or redis- charges are necessarily subjected to rather
tribution of components of mixtures), or violent mechanical disturbances. From the
dimensional distortion. viewpoint of analytical mechanics, the mani-

4-1
AMCP 706-179

TABLE 4-1

ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS FOR MILITARY MATERIEL

Condition The Item Must Withstand:

Operating Temperatures ranging from an air temperature of 125°F (ground temperature of 145°F) in hot-
temperature dry climates to an air temperature of- 50°F (groundtemperature of-65°F) in cold climates.
Temperatures can drop to - 80°F in bomb bays of high flying aircraft, and aerodynamic heating
can raise the temperature of missiles launchedfrom high speed planes above 145°F.

Storage Storagetemperaturesfrom - 70" to 160°F and be operable after removal from storage.
temperature

Humidity Relative humidities up to 100%.

Rain A rain storm and function as intended.

Water In certain instances, water penetration, be waterproof, showing no leakage, and be safe and
operable after immersion in water at 70" ± 10°F under a gage pressureof 15± 5 psi for 1 hr.

Rough The rigors of transportation (including perhaps parachute delivery), and rough handling.
treatment

Fungus Fungus growth.

Surveil lance Storage i n a sealed can for 10 yr (20 yr are desired) and remain safe and operable.

festations of these disturbances are compres- 4-2 TEMPERATURE

sion, tension, and shear of the explosive
which must be specified in time-dependent 4-2.1 HIGH TEMPERATURE STORAGE
terms. However, problems associated with
such disturbances are not usually considered 4-2.1.1 CHEMICAL DECOMPOSITION
in such terms. The usual approach is that of
attempting to simulate conditions that may As indicated by the Arrhenius equation
be experienced by explosive charges in service (Eq. 2-2), explosives are decomposing all the
under quantitatively controlled conditions time. An important basis for the selection of
and in circumstances where behavior can be military high explosives is the slow rate of this
observed. Considered in these terms, the decomposition at storage temperatures. The
disturbances to which explosives may be Vacuum Stability Test^ is the criterion of
subjected can be categorized as impact, ac- thermal stability which is used most fre-
celeration, vibration, and friction. quently to predict storage life on an explo-
sive.

The relative sensitivities of common mili- Samples of TNT and tetryl, analyzed after
tary explosives according to standard labora- storage for twenty years, showed no detec-
tory tests are given in Table 4-2d while table chemical deterioration'. Assume an
sensitivities to hazards of use are tabulated in activation energy of 33,000 cal/mol and 1.0
Table 4-3d. For details of test procedures, see cm3 gas evolved in 40 hr at 120°C as the
par. 12-2.1. vacuum stability of tetryl; Eq. 2-2 extrap-

4-2
 AMCP 706-179

TABLE 4-2

RELATIVE SENSITIVITIES OF EXPLOSIVESACCORDING TO STANDARD

LABORATORY TESTS OF GROUND SAMPLES

50%Det.
Bu Mines Sensitivity,
Static Elec. 100-g Tetryl
Impact Tests Friction Tests Tests' Booster

2°
c in?
Ü "a O i "o «5 E~
3I 3 *
c Mo
Q <
^ "O X a. §i
c o ra
5o
eg
« o
S < CO o £* I3 CJ > *t

Explosive Joule Joule in. g/cm3 cm3

Amatol, 50/50 16(17) 95 U - 265d 0.20 0.60 1.55 1.0

Baratol 11(24) 35 - 385' 0.20 0.32 2.55
Black Powder 16(16) 32 s — >12.5 0.8 427'

CompositionA-3 16(17) — u — - 250d 0.25 1.70 1.62 0.6

Composition B 14(19) - u 38 278d 0.20 1.40 1.69 0.9
Composition C-3 14(33) - u - - 280d 0.20 1.36 1.62 1.216
Composition C-4 19(27) — u - - 290 0.20 0.26e

Cyclonite(RDX) 8(18) 100+ E 25 260d 0.05 0.9

Cyclotol, 70/30 14(20) 75 U — 265d 0.20 0.86
Cyclotol, 60/40 14(19) 100+ U - - 280^ 0.20 0.29
Explosive D
(Ammonium Picrate) 17(18) 100+ U - 0.025 6.0 318d 0.20 1.27 1.54 0.4
Haleite(EDNA) 14(17) 32 U 27 189d 0.13 2.09 1.42 1.5
beta-HMX 9(23) 60 E - - 327 0.30 0.45
Lead Azide (pure) 3(30) 75 E - 0.007 0.007 340
Lead Styphnate 8(22) — E - 0.0009 0.0009 282 0.001 0.3

Minol-2f 13 35 U - 435' 2.1

Nitroguanidine 26( 7) 48 — - 275d 0.20 0.67 1.41 0.44
Octol, 75/25 17(25) - U - - 350 0.30 0.39

Pentolite, 50/50 12(15) 34 u 19 220d 0.13 2.08 1.65 3,0e

PETN 6(16) — c 11 0.06 0.21 225dd 0.03 3g 1.6 0.5e
Picratol, 52/48 17(19) 17 u — 285 0.20 1.00 1.63 0.68
Picric Acid 13(17) 100+ - - 320d 0.24 2g 1.7 0.5

Tetryl 8(18) 26 c 26 0.007 0.44 257' 0.10 2.01 1.58 1.0

Tetrytol, 70/30 11(18) 28 u — - 320'' 0.22 1.66 1.66 3.2e
TNT 14-15( 17) 95+ u - 0.06 0.44 475d 0.27 0.82 1.60 0.23
Torpex 9(15) 42 - 14 260d 1.0
Tritonal, 80/20 13(16) 85 u - - 470d 0.20 0.2

a
Figures in parentheses are sample weights in milligrams eAt 100°C, value at 120°C is > 11
b f
E Explodes; C Crackles; S Snaps; U Unaffected Ref. 4
1
cRef. 3 ignites
d
Decomposes

4-3
AMCP 706-179

TABLE 4-3

SENSITIVITY OF EXPLOSIVES TO HAZARDS OF USE

100kg Drop Test3
10% Firing
60 mm Proj. T 7 Bomb Setback13 Rifle Bullet Test
Cast Against 'Max Safe Critical (Approx. percentage)
Height, Density, Armor, Drop, Pressure,
Explosive ft g/cm3 ft/sec ft k psi E P B u
Composition A-3 3.1 1.64p _ — 0 0 0 100
Composition B 3.1 1.65 209 87.5 3 13 4 80
Composition C-3 - - - - 0 40 0 60
Composition C-4 — — — - 0 0 20 80

Cyclonite(RDX) _ 100 _ - _
Cyclotol, 70/30 _ _ — — 30 30 0 40
Cyclotol, 60/40 _ _ — 76.6 5 55 25 15
Explosive D (Ammonium Picrate) — - — - — — 30 70

Octol, 75/25 1.81 _ 82.0 70 — - 30

Pentolite, 50/50 1.5 1.59 170 - 72 20 - 8
PETN — — — _ 100 - - —
Picratol, 52/48 7.1 1.50 - 10,000 - — - 40 60

Tetryl 2.8 1.57p _ _ 13 54 10 23

Tetrytol, 70/30 - - - - 0 55 0 45
TNT 6.5 1.54 1100 5,000 86.0 40 - — 60
Torpex - - - - 20 80 - —
Tritonal, 80/20 3.8 1.67 509c 87.0 60 - - 40

aRef. 5 E Exploded
bRef. 6 P Partially Exploded
c
100-micron aluminum B Burned
p
Pressed, 10,000 psi U Unaffected

olates to predict less than one percent decom- 580°F). Both have good stability when placed
position in twenty years at 160°F. Most in a vacuum at 500°F for extended periods of
military explosives have vacuum stabilities at time8
least as good as tetryl. The storage charac-
teristics of PETN, although worse than those
4-2.1.2 DIMENSIONAL CHANGE
of most military high explosives, are not so
bad as to outweigh its desirable properties for
certain applications. Explosives, in general, have larger thermal
coefficients of expansion than the metals in
A very effective means for achieving long- which they are usually loaded. This results in
term chemical stability is to develop new, the expansion of the explosive charge and the
high-temperature explosives. For some appli- exertion of a force of significant magnitude
cations, such as the space program, it is the on the explosive container when stored for
only choice. Recent efforts in this direction long periods at high temperatures. Under
have produced hexanitrostilbene, HNS, (melt- some circumstances, the pressure developed
ing point of 600°F) and diaminohexa- by this expansion is enough to bulge bulk-
nitrobiphenyl, DIPAM, (melting point of heads or covers.

4-4
 AMCP 706-179

Some wave shaping systems (see par. 3-3.2) 4-2.1.4 EXUDATION

involve the use of air spaces within or
adjacent to explosive charges. At elevated Usually TNT contains a group of impurities
temperatures, the gravitational forces are suf- that can form very low melting multiple
ficient to induce creep at a rate such that the component eutectics. Much of the TNT used
configuration, which is so critical in such during World War I contained large enough
applications, is modified within days to a fractions of such components that they
point where the wave shaping effects are lost. exuded from the surfaces of charges. The
exudate, which was an explosive and which
Materials, like Composition B, cyclotol, could appear in unintended places, presented
and Minol-2 which contain large percentages a hazard. TNT made in accordance with
of TNT, are particularly susceptible to such present specifications (set point 80.2°C) does
distortion because the high storage tempera- exude at 160°Fd. Pentolite, which has an
tures are so close to their melting points. eutectic of 170°F and tetrytol, eutectic
Temperature cycling causes such materials to 153°F, have greater tendencies to exude.
"grow". The growing is a permanent expan- Tetrytol exudes at 149°F. Composition B,
sion which is caused by the opening of. which has an eutectic at 174°F exudes slight-
microscopic cracks due to thermal gradient ly at 160°F.
stresses and the bridging of these cracks by
fusion and refreezing of multiple component During a study designed to prevent exuda-
eutectics. tion, it was found that the addition of a small
amount of calcium silicate* to charges con-
In general, plastic bonded explosives have taining TNT will keep exudation under satis-
better dimensional stability at high tempera- factory control' °. While the exudation is
tures than castable materials. The dimensional controlled, the addition of the calcium silicate
stabilities of the resin binders of such mate- renders the explosive charge more brittle and
rials provide reasonable clues regarding those prone to the development of cracks. The
of the mixtures. degree of increased hazard that this addition
may cause has not yet been determined.

4-2.1.3 EXPLOSIVE PROPERTY CHANGE 4-2.1.5 EFFECTS IN INITIATORS

Some explosive properties, especially those The performance of initiators is determined

associated with initiation and growth of deto- as much by spatial configuration and the
nation (see pars. 2-2 and 2-3), are determined properties of inert components as by those of
by the state of aggregation of an explosive as the explosive materials.
much as by its composition. Prolonged
storage of an explosive at temperatures near Bridgewires of electric initiators may be
its melting point can result in changes of broken by the tension resulting from the
structure and, in the case of mixtures, segrega- thermal expansion of the plastic plugs that are
tion of components. often used in such items. Such failures have
been observed". In a test of a wirebridge
Similarly, a bare tetryl booster in an initiator, substantially increased firing times
unlined cavity in Composition B, or other after hot storage and temperature-humidity
TNT base material, may be desensitized by cycling were noted. Since the basic lead
exudation of the TNTg. The fuzing system styphnate charge used is one of the most
may not be adequate for the initiation of a stable explosives known and is certainly well
desensitized tetryl booster pellet. A similar
problem would exist if bare RDX and HMX *For example, Microcell E, registered trade name of Johns-
boosters had been used. Manville.

4-5
AMCP 706-179

temperature to which a given quantity of

explosive must be heated to obtain its igni-
tion. As a condition that cook-off occur in
any small volume element in the explosive,
thermal energy supplied from an outside
source and from chemical reaction must
exceed energy losses by conduction and radia-
tion. Ignition occurs as some temperature
dependent upon the heating rate. Of all
explosive processes of practical interest,
cook-off is the most nearly ideal manifesta-
tion of the thermal explosion described in
par. 2-1.1.

Figure 4-1. Postulated Condition for When an explosive charge is exposed to a

Initiator Failure Caused by high temperature environment, its tempera-
Wire-explosive Separation ture rises eventually above that of the sur-
roundings. The temperature attained in the
interior of the charge is enough higher than
below any softening or phase transition point that of the surroundings so that the heat
at 160°F, these changes in functioning time liberated by the reaction is carried off. Since
must be attributed to mechanical distortions. the reaction rate is an exponential function of
One such distortion, which may be visualized, temperature, Eq. 2-2, a given increase in the
is the compression of the explosive as a result temperature of the surroundings causes a
of the difference in expansion coefficients of larger than proportional increase of the
metal case and its plastic and explosive temperature of the interior. A point is
contents. When the initiator is returned to reached where equilibrium cannot be main-
normal room temperature, the plastic and the tained. This temperature, referred to as the
explosive contract and a separation of bridge- cook-off temperature, is not a constant
wire and explosive may result as shown in Fig. property of an explosive but a property of a
4-1. system that varies with charge size, thermal
properties of surroundings, and time of ex-
No systematic basis exists for the predic- posure.
tion or prevention of such deterioration of
initiators. Hence, thorough testing in high For any given environmental temperature,
temperature surveillance and cycling tests are the interior equilibrium temperature increases
indicated. with the size of the charge because heat flow
depends upon a temperature gradient, and
4-2.2 COOK-OFF even the same gradient over a longer distance
should give a higher temperature (but more
4-2.2.1 THRESHOLD CONDITIONS heat is liberated per unit area in a large charge
so that the gradient is steeper). Thus, the
Cook-off is the deflagration or detonation surface temperature that will result in a
of explosive material by the absorption of thermal explosion, the cook-off temperature,
heat from its environment. Usually it consists decreases as the size of a charge is increased.
of the accidental and spontaneous discharge As a general rule of thumb, cook-off tempera-
of ammunition orexplosionin agun or firearm ture is decreased about 100°F for each
caused by an overheated chamber or barrel ten-fold increase in charge diamenter.
igniting a fuze, propellant charge, or bursting
charge. The cook-off temperature is that The use of thermal insulation, of course,

4-6
 AMCP 708-179

500

1 HEATING RATE USED ON

COPPER SLEEVE IN CONTACT
WTTH BOOSTER END CUP

2 HEATING RATE OF BOOSTER

WELL AT APPROXIMATE POINT
OF BOOSTER-BOOSTER
WELL CONTACT

3 HEATING RATE OF OUTER

EXPLOSIVE SURFACE AT THE
POINT OF BOOSTER-BOOSTER
WELL CONTACTÄS SIMULATED
BY COPPER SLEEVE-END
CUP CONTACT

4 HEATING RATE OF THE

ALUMINUM BOOSTER CUP
(MIDPOINT)

2 3 4 5
TIME, min

Figure 4-2. Test of a Booster in Simulated Missile Flight

retards the penetration of heat into an explo- reaches a dangerous temperature. Fig. 4-212,
sive charge and thus may forestall cook-off a plot of experimental data, illustrates a case
where the time of exposure is limited. How- where the explosive reaches the cook-off
ever, since it also retards the dissipation of the temperature after the end of expected life.
heat evolved in the reaction, it tends to Such situations may be predicted using con-
reduce the temperature that will result in ventional heat transfer analysis techniques,
eventual cook-off. Decisions regarding the use although experimental verification is neces-
of insulation must be based on the type of sary. Cook-off temperatures of common mili-
exposure anticipated. The probability of tary explosives are listed in Table 4-2.
cook-off is reduced by insulation of charges
that are to be exposed for relatively short 4-2.2.2 COOK-OFF EXPERIMENTS
times to temperatures well above the cook-off
temperatures. Charges to be exposed to The complications of heat flow, phase
marginal temperatures for times long enough changes, and reaction kinetics as applied to
to approach thermal equilibrium are more military explosive charges in service situations
subject to cook-off if insulated than if not. have driven many to the conclusion that the
probability of cook-off can be assessed only
Under usual conditions, exposure to ele- by direct experiment. Tests using complete
vated temperature is for relatively short ammunition under service conditions is usual-
periods. Frequently a charge is detonated ly too expensive. Unless a charge is instru-
purposely after exposure to high temperatures mented, such experiments can yield no more
for a few minutes. Under such circumstances, than a yes or no answer as to whether and
the environment to which the packaged ex- when cook-off occurred under the particular
plosive charge is exposed may be well above conditions. Instrumentation of a missile or
the cook-off temperature of the charge, but projectile involves telemetering, adding to the
the explosive may be detonated before it expense. The compromise that has been

4-7
AMCP 706-179

Data were obtained in an oven; a Wood's

metal bath, and in electrically heated tubing.
Other experiments show that the cook-off
threshold of military explosives is in the range
of 350"to450°F'7'18.

4-2.2.3 SIMULATION OF AERODYNAMIC

HEATING

Temperature and other factors associated

with aerodynamic testing are discussed in par.
1-2.1.2. In some missile applications, the
stagnation temperature, Eq. 1-2, is well above
the cook-off temperature of any known ex-
plosive, and the heating rate is limited mainly
by the surface coefficient of heat transfer
between air and missile. Such a situation is
closely simulated by the use of a heating
6 5 4 3
TEMPERATURE, °F I 10"2 element of constant power in close thermal
contact with the container of a charge. Data
obtained in such an experiment are given in
Figure 4-3. Cook-off Characteristics of Fig. 4-414.
Three Explosives

4-2.3 OTHER EFFECTS OF HIGH TEM-

reached most often is that of simulating the PERATURE USE
thermal conditions of use as closely as is
possible in static tests using live ammunition, 4-2.3.1 MELTING OF EXPLOSIVES
modified only to the extent necessary for the
installation of thermocouples (see par. The fact that an explosive charge reaches
12-[Link]). its target before cooking off is no guarantee
that it is in the same condition as that in
Typical of the many cook-off experiments which it was launched. All of the effects of
is one which was conducted to measure the high temperature storage are exaggerated and
cook-off temperature of the M47 Stab Deto- accelerated at the higher temperatures which
nator and to determine if this temperature sometimes result from aerodynamic heating,
could be raised by modifying its constituents. etc. In addition, some effects that are negli-
The M47, containing NOL 130 primer mix, an gible or nonexistent at 160°F may become
intermediate charge of lead azide, and a base important at higher temperatures.
charge of RDX, when heated in an oven,
cooked off at 369°F (see Table 4-1413). The castable explosives in common military
Seven additional charge combinations were use are based on TNT as a vehicle. TNT melts
tested. The highest cook-off temperature for a at 178°F but most of the commonly used
complete detonator (all three charges) was mixtures melt at slightly lower temperatures.
415°F. One effect of the melting of TNT is the
"thermal buffering" (heat of fusion) that
The cook-off characteristics of TNT, RDX, prevents the temperature from rising above
and tetryl are plotted in Fig. 4-3. The curves the melting point until it is completely
are the composites of three separate experi- melted. This effect may keep a tetryl booster,
ments that show remarkably close agreement. surrounded by TNT or a TNT mixture well

4-8
 AMCP 70G-179

TABLE 4-4

COOK-OFF TESTS OF STANDARD AND MODIFIED M47 DETONATORS

Group Upper Charge Intermediate Charge Base Charge Cook-Off

Designation Explosive Wt ,mg Explosive . Wt , mg Explosive Wt, mg Temp, "F

Standard NOL 130 primer mix 13 Dextrinated lead azide 105 RDX 34 369
PAX-7 Dextrinated lead azide 115 RDX 40 RDX 40 370
PAX-9 NOL 130 primer mix 13 Dextrinated lead azide 105 Inert3 40 535
PAX-8 Inert3 10 Dextrinated lead azide 105 HMXd 36 435
PAX-11 NOL 130 primer mix 13 Dextrinated lead azide 105 HMXb 34 415
PAX-12 NOL 130 primer mix 13 Dextrinated lead azide 105 HMXC 34 405
DEX Inert3 8 Dextrinated lead azide 105 Inert3 36 520
HMX Inert3 10 Inert3 66 HMXC 34 460

a
Inert charges consisted of CP grade sodium chloride.
bHMX, recrystallized, Lot PAE-E-23224, 2.5% RDX, max.
cHMX, recrystallized, Lot unknown, 2.5% RDX, max.
d
HMX, laboratory recrystallized, Lot unknown, 2.5% RDX, max.

below its cook-off temperature until a weap- TABLE 4-5

on reaches its target.
TNT IMPACTSENSITIVITY
Most effects of melting are somewhat less VARIATION WITH TEMPERATURE
beneficial. Wave shaping systems, which de-
pend upon accurate retention of charge con- Temperature, "C 50% Point, in.

figuration, may lose all of their effectiveness

30 23.6
whith relatively slight distortion. The segrega-
50 22.0
tion of the components of mixtures such as
70 17.0
HBX can result in serious changes in explosive 75 14.2
properties. A region in which the RDX 85 4.73
concentration is much higher may be appre- 90 5.12
ciably more sensitive than the original mix- 110 3.54
ture. A hazard associated with the melting of 130 3.15
explosives is the possibility that the material
will work its way into unintended locations.
temperature, less additional temperature rise
In considering the effects of charge melting
is needed to induce a self-propagating re-
in use, a certain amount of common sense is
action. In other words, explosives tend to
necessary. A warhead full of molten explosive
become more sensitive as they are heated.
may be intolerable but a little melting at the
However, the effect is rather small until the
corners might have no ill effect in some
cook-off temperature is approached. Impact
applications. Estimates of the quantity or data are available for TNT at various tempera-
degree of melting and the location at which it
tures as listed in Table 4-5'9. Note that there
is anticipated should be considered in terms is a sharp increase in sensitivity at the set
of tlleir consequences. point (80.2°C).
4-2.3.2 SENSITIZATION
Another effect is that of solid-solid phase
As pointed out in par. 2-3.2, the initiation transitions. An example of one explosive in
process is usually thermal. With increasing common use is HMX which exhibits a marked

4-9
AMCP 708-179

I i
HEAT INPUT- 300 W
O OUTSIDE WALL TEMPERATURE
• INSIDE WALL TEMPERATURE
A CORE TEMPERATURE

HEATING TIME, min

60/40 CYCLOTOL H-6 WITHOUT H-6 NQ 57

N0.29 WAX N0.21

Figure 4-4. Simulated Aerodynamic Heat Test

change in sensitivity attributable to this low temperatures. Hence, low temperature

cause14. However, because most projectiles storage is usually less harmful than storage at
and missiles are on their way to their targets normal atmospheric or elevated temperature.
before they are subjected to aerodynamic Rapid heating after low temperature storage
heating, this type of sensitization may be of can induce thermal stresses that may have
more importance in reducing effectiveness more than usual tendencies to crack some
due to deflagration on impact and similar sealing materials which become brittle at low
defective operation than in contributing to temperatures. Ammunition that depends
the hazards of use. It might contribute to the upon organic seals to protect moisture sensi-
hazards associated with the hangfires in hot tive materials should be subjected to the
guns and externally mounted weapons on temperature-humidity testJ.
high performance aircraft.
Burning, and the initiation, growth, and
4-2.4 LOW TEMPERATURE STORAGE propagation of explosion are often retarded
AND USE or prevented by very low temperatures. Tests
of blasting caps at liquid nitrogen tempera-
Most deteriorative processes are slowed at tures showed much decreased sensitivity.

4-10
 AMCP 706-179

The effect of low temperatures upon the The compatibility of explosives with a large
sensitivities of initiators is usually quite small number of plastics has also been
because the change from room temperature is studied24"2 7. It was shown that the following
only a fraction of the rise associated with types of plastic have negligible effect on
initiation. However, systems that are marginal explosives and are themselves unaffected:
with respect to growth or propagation of acrylates, cellulosics, ethylenes, fluoro-
explosive reaction will usually fail in the low carbons, nylon, properly cured unmodified
temperature test. phenolics, and silicones.

Interestingly enough, the most noticeable An important class of explosive materials is

effect of low temperature upon stable detona- that of mixtures of fuels and oxidants. Both
tion results from the shrinkage in volume. fuels and oxidants are added to explosive
Because of the higher density at low tempera- compounds like TNT. Examples are tritonal,
tures, detonation velocities and consequently TNT/Al (80/20); amatols, TNT/NH4N03
detonation pressures are higher. The increases, (20-80/80-20); and Minol-2, TNT/NH4N03/
of course, are too small to have practical Al (40/40/20). Although the compound-
significance. Where propagation time is criti- ing of explosive mixtures is beyond the
cal and must be synchronized with a process scope of this handbook, a few remarks
that is independent of temperature, this regarding the reactions of some of the
effect, now accentuated by reduction in oxidants may be useful as a guide to
distance, can be a source of difficulty20. designers who specify mixtures contain-
ing them.

4-3 ENVIRONMENT Many of the oxidants used are nitrates,

chlorates, and perchlorates. Water solutions
4-3.1 CHEMICAL INTERACTIONS containing these ions are highly corrosive to
metals. The alkaline metal salts, with the help
Table 4-6 gives the compatibilities of explo- of a little moisture, will pit aluminum quick-
sives with common metals used in military ly. The trend away from potassium chlorate
construction. More complete data regarding in priming mixes is part of the effort to
reactions of explosives with metals have been reduce corrosion in gun barrels. Where explo-
compiled in several studies2' '2 2. sives are used that contain metallic nitrates,
chlorates, or perchlorates in contact with
Of the reactions of explosives with metals, metals, particular attention should be given
that of lead azide with copper deserves special the exclusion of moisture.
comment. Although this reaction is relatively
slow, even in the presence of moislure, some In delay compositions, these corrosion
forms of copper azide are so sensitive as to problems have resulted in widespread use of
create a serious hazard even in minute chromates that, in addition to being insoluble,
quantities, particularly when in contact with tend to inhibit corrosion.
lead azide. For this reason, containers of Mixture containing chlorates and per-
aluminum and stainless steel are now used chlorates in combination with organic mate-
exclusively. Picatinny Arsenal requires that all rials tend to be quite sensitive. There has been
new fuzes be designed to contain no copper a general reluctance to use such mixtures
or copper alloys, with the possible exception except as primary explosives. Exceptions have
of the electrical system; even here the copper been ammonium perchlorate, potassium per-
must be coated for protection against the chlorates, and chlorates in composite propel-
formation of hydrozoic acid23. Another pro- lants. smoke compositions, igniter composi-
hibition is the use of lead thiocyanate in tions, and special applications such as piston
contact with aluminum. motors.

4-11
AMCP 706-179

TABLE 4-6

COMPATIBILITY OF COMMON EXPLOSIVESAND METALS

Lead Lead
Azide Styphnate PETN RDX Tetryl

Magnesium N B N S
Aluminum A N A N A N VS A N VS A N
Zinc C N A B VS

Iron N A B S
Steel C N B N VS A VSS C H
Tin A N A A N

Cadmium C A
Copper D N A B N VS A S s A N
Nickel C A A N

Lead N A A N
Cadmium plated steel B N s VSVS A N
Copper plated steel N B N VS B VSVS A VS

Nickel plated steel N B N VS A N s A N

Zinc plated steel N B N VS A N s A N
Tin plated steel N A B VS

Magnesium aluminum vs B N s
Monel Metal C N
Brass D N B N s A S s B VS
Bronze N A A VS

18-8 stainless steel A N A A N N A N N A N

Titanium N N N
Silver N N N

CODE

A no reaction H heavy corrosion of metals

B slight reactiori VS very slight corrosion of metals
C reacts readily S slight corrosion of metals
D reactstoform sensitive materials N no corrosion

4-3.2 SIMULATION OF IMPACT Table 4-3. Other impact tests are described in
par. 12-[Link].
4-3.2.1 LABORATORY IMPACT TESTS
4-3.2.2 BULLET IMPACT
The objection to the laboratory impact
tests described in par. 2-3.3.1 is that the The standard bullet impact test consists of
explosive sample does not simulate those in shooting at a capped pipe nipple, loaded with
actual use. Hence, a standard machine was the explosive to be tested, with a cal .30 rifle
adapted to the testing of pressed and cast bullet fired from 90 ft. The test is described
military explosives by the use of modified in par. 12-[Link] and data obtained are given
tools in which 1 x 1 in. cylindrical pellets are in Table 4-3. Some of the uncontrolled
cast or pressed directly4. The data are given in variables have been eliminated by the use of a

4-12
 AMCP 706-179

TABLE 4-7

BULLETSENSITIVITY OF 50/50 PENTOLITE

Observed Effects*
Column Plate Avg Chg
Length, Thickness, Density, Detonation
in. in. g/cm3 Unaffected Smoke Burning Partial Complete

1 0.146 1.68 0 10 0 0 0
1 0.250 1.66 0 9 1 0 0
1 0.375 1.69 1 2 7 0 0
2 0.146 1.58 0 0 3 6 0
2 0.250 1.67 0 0 0 9 1
2 0.375 1.63 1 1 0 4 4
3 0.146 1.62 0 0 3 7 0
3 0.250 1.63 0 0 0 6 4
3 0.375 1.65 0 0 0 2 8

'Sample size = 10

test bomb with flat target surfaces in which plate. One aspect of this interpretation, that
both thickness of the target plates and explo- initiation sometimes occurs as the projectile
sive column length may be varied convenient- approaches the rear plate, was the subject of
ly. Some of the effects of such variations are another investigation' 9
shown in .Table 4-728. Note that the sensi-
tivity increases both with plate thickness and
4-3.2.3 MASS IMPACT
charge length.

In the bullet impact tests of other explo- In the course of use, military explosive
sives, both aluminum and steel target plates charges are often brought to rest from high
were used in thicknesses ranging from 1/32 to velocities by impact. Whether the impact is
3/16 in. Most of the explosive specimens were intentional or accidental, it is usually unde-
3-in. long, but 4-, 5-, and 6-in. columns were sirable for an explosion to result. Explosion
also tested. To the extent that it was signifi- due to target impact is usually deflagration,
cant, the effect of charge length was varied low order detonation or, if high order, it
with the explosive and with the criterion used starts from the wrong place or at the wrong
to determine whether or not a charge was time. The undesirability of explosion of acci-
initiated. The general trend toward more dentally dropped or jettisoned charges is
frequent and vigorous reaction with increasing obvious.
target plate thickness, as noted in Table 4-6,
seemed to apply to most explosives tested. The armor plate impact test and bomb
Initiation was also more frequent with steel drop test, which are described in par.
plates than aluminum. These effects of plate 12-[Link] and data from which are given in
material and thickness were referred to as Table 4-3, are direct tests under particular sets
confinement effects. of service conditions. Clearly, the velocity or
drop height that will result in an explosion
Another interpretation is that the heavier can be expected to vary substantially with
plates serve as more effective anvils for the such factors as the design and striking attitude
initiation of the explosives by squeezing or of the ammunition and the nature of the
pinching as the explosive approaches the back surface it strikes.

4-13
AMCP 70G-179

by projectiles are of the order of 30,000 times

that of gravity30. The acceleration increases
from zero to its maximum value (see Fig. 4-5)
in a few milliseconds.

In addition to this very specific accelera-

tion that causes setback, there are several
other accelerations of similar magnitude to
which this discussion applies. The axial force
in the direction opposite to setback has been
designated as setforward. It is the forward
force of inertia that is created when a
Figure 4-5. Typical Time-acceleration projectile, missile, or bomb decelerates. De-
Curve for Projectile While in Gun celeration occurs on water entry and target
impact. Setforward also occurs when projec-
tiles are rammed into an automatic weapon.
4-3.3 SETBACK ACCELERATION Present point-detonating, time, and proximity
fuzes will withstand about 1000 g setforward.
4-3.3.1 THE OCCURRENCE OF SETBACK While weapon designers would like to double
or triple the ram velocity, present fuzes
Setback is the relative rearward force of cannot survive this forces.
component parts in a projectile, missile, or
fuze undergoing forward acceleration during A sideways acceleration occurs because of
its firing or launching. This tendency to move the practical inability to'acliieve perfect align-
is caused by the setback force, the rearward ment between projectile and gun axis prior to
force of inertia that is created by the forward firing. Therefore, upon firing, a sideways
acceleration of the projectile or missile. The force results as the projectile aligns itself with
force is directly proportional to the accelera- the bore. For example, the 175 mm field gun
tion and mass of the parts being accelerated. and the 120 mm tank gun have such high
lateral forces that fuze ogives have broken off.
Table 1-2 lists some typical magnitudes of Hence, special fuzes had to be provided.
acceleration to which weapons are subjected These forces have not been measured or
in the course of their use. More specific data calculated to date. In air-gun and drop tests,
are usually available to the designer of compo- damage was simulated by accelerations greater
nents for a particular application. Effects of than 10,000 g. Worn gun tubes also produce
these accelerations on inert components may greater than normal sideways acceleration; the
be computed by conventional applied word describing this motion is balloting.
mechanics'!. Failure of mechanical compo-
nents as a result of accelerztion-induced The apparatus for the measurement of the
stresses may, of course, result in the applica- sensitivity of explosives to initiation by
tion of impact of sufficient magnitude to rapidly rising pressure -such as that due to
initiate an explosive charge. Some types of setback—is described in par. 12-[Link]. Set-
explosive charge, including shaped charges for back sensitivity data so obtained for various
example, are strongly dependent upon both explosives are listed in Table 4-3.
configuration and point of initiation for their
effectiveness. The explosive material is part of 4-3.3.2 THE SETBACK MECHANISM
the structure which maintains such con-
figuration. The duration of the setback acceleration
period is long compared with the transit time
Typical setback accelerations experienced for a compression wave in the material, but

4-14
 AMCP 706-179

short compared with the time required for TABLE 4-8

significant heat transfer. Thus the compres-
sion that results may be considered to be TEMPERATURES REACHED BY AIR
essentially adiabatic. As soon as the physical WHEN COMPRESSED ADIABATICALLY
mechanism of setback is understood to be
Setback Pressure, psi Temperature, F
adiabatic compression, it becomes clear how
explosives can be initiated by setback. Hot
1,000 1,480
spots are caused by the adiabatic compression 2,000 1,910
of minute air spaces within the explosive. 5,000 2,620
10,000 3,330
The adiabatic compression of the air results 20,000 4,120
in a build-up of high temperatures. The 50,000 5,490
temperatures reached can be approximated by 100,000 6,800
treating the air as an ideal gas
(7 - 1)/- TABLE 4-9
(4-1)
CRITICAL SETBACK PRESSURES OF
EXPLOSIVES OF VARIOUS BASE
where
SEPARATIONS

T2 = final temperature, °K Pressure, psi*

No 1/16 in. 1/8 in.
r, = initial temperature, °K Explosive Separation Separation Separation

P2 = final pressure, psi Composition B 87,500 32,000 11,200

Cyclotol 75/25 82,000t 31,500
Px = initial pressure, psi TNT 86,000 37,000 19,500
Tritonal 80/20 87,000t
7 = ratio of specific heats, dimensionless
(1.4 for air) *Maximum setback pressure a t which explosive can-
not be initiated at 125°F in 25 or more shots.
Even at comparatively low setback pres- t Extrapolated 0% point.
sures, some of the temperatures so calculated
are considerably above the 5-sec explosion
temperature of common explosives, see Table fluid, the pressure at the base of the charge
4-8s. cavity is essentially the weight of a column of
explosive of unit area and length equal to that
While the temperature reached by the of the explosive charge, multiplied by the
compressed air is high, the total heat available acceleration
in the thin layer of compressed air is minute.
Hence, a minimum base separation must be P = 0.036 paL, psi (4-2)
present at any given pressure to initiate an
explosive. The separation of the charge from where
the projectile was simulated by separation of
a plunger from the specimen in a test ap- P = pressure at base of charge cavity, psi
paratus. Critical setback pressures are substan-
p = density of explosive charge, g/cm3
tially reduced as the separation is increased
(see Table 4-95). a = acceleration, number of g's
If the explosive is considered to behave as a L = length of explosive charge, in.

4-15
AMCP 708-179

In a typical projectile with an explosive become lodged in crevices where vibrational

charge of Composition B (p = 1.7), 10 in. friction or repeated impact might result in
long, the pressure at 30,000 g's would come initiation. The prediction of such conditions
to about 18,300 psi. Since this pressure is cannot be reduced to a formula. However, for
several times the 2,200 to 3,000 psi compres- items subject to vibration, some consideration
sive strength for Composition B, the assump- should be given the resonant properties of
tion of fluid behavior is quite valid. explosive/inert structures combinations.

The setback initiation pressure drops linear- It has been shown that primer pellets can
ly with increasing temperature to zero at the dust from the cup due to severe vibration.
cook-off temperature. This increase in sensi- This dusting of the priming mixture can cause
tivity with increasing temperature can raise either misfires or hangfires and, conceivably,
the probability of bore prematures where premature functioning in the cartridges3 3.
projectiles are left in hot gun chambers for
appreciable periods before firing. A number of standard tests have been
devised to simulate vibrations to which
Findings that cavities such as bubbles, materiel is subjected'.
incidental to the casting process, and grit
inclusions can cause substantial reduction in 4-3.4.2 FRICTION
critical setback pressures have resulted in the
following suggested provisions in projectile The sensitivity of explosives to friction is
loading standards'4 '3' '3 2: well known from a qualitative point of view,
but meaningful quantitative techniques for its
1. No cavities should be permitted at the measurement are not included in the standard
interface of explosive charge and inside base explosive laboratory procedures. Some data
of the projectile. are given in Table 4-2 and the test is described
in par. 12-[Link]. Their quantitative appli-
2. No cavity should be permitted in the cability to practical problems is not clear.
explosive charge close to its base. Situations in which explosives are subject to
frictional movement should be carefully
3. No grit should be permitted in the avoided in design, as well as in handling and
projectile. loading practices. At least one fatal accident
has been ascribed to TNT in projectile fuze
4. No projectile with deep gouges on the threads3 4
interior surface at the base area should be
accepted. 4-3.4.3 ELECTRICITY

4-3.4 OTHER EFFECTS The electrical influences to which materiel

is exposed are discussed in par. 1-2.4. The
4-3.4.1 VIBRATION most serious electrical problems stem from
the possibility of initiation of electric
No evidence is available which indicates initiators by spurious signals. Par. 5-2.4 con-
that explosives as such are affected by vibra- tains information regarding the input charac-
tion of the types to which military items may teristics of such items. Normally an electric
be subjected. As structural materials, of initiator cannot discriminate between inten-
course, explosives may be severly damaged by tional and accidentally applied signals.
vibrations. Included in such structural damage
is crumbling, after which small particles of Static electricity can be a source of
explosive, under the influence of strong vibra- spurious signals for the initiation of electrical
tion, may move considerable distances and items and, in addition, is a hazard in the

4-16
 AMCP 706-179

loading of explosives. Sensitivities to static likelihood of any appreciable dosage of X-rays

electricity of powdered explosives are given in or nuclear radiation seems remote.
Table 4-2 and tests are described in par.
Primary explosives, including lead and
12-[Link]. Except for primary explosives,
silver azide, decompose when exposed to
most explosives are quite insensitive to static
visible and ultraviolet light. At intensities
electricity after loading. However, most
many times higher than that of direct sun-
pressed explosives (with the exception of
light, a number of investigators have been able
plastic bonded explosive) are subject to a
to initiate some of these substances by such
certain amount of crumbling and chalking at
radiation36. The initiation is found to be
exposed surfaces. If such attrition of the
basically thermal although there is some
surfaces is not prevented by appropriate
evidence of photochemical action in some
coating or other covering, the powdered
cases. Decomposition under usual daylight or
material can constitute a static hazard. Instal-
artificial illumination is too slow to affect
lations where initiators or bulk explosives are
these materials in the exposure times asso-
handled or stored should be made with
ciated with ordinary loading. However in the
conductive floors and bench tops and .all
loading plant, exposure of lead azide to
personnel should be properly grounded by
direct sunlight is avoided. Decomposition of
conductive shoes, bracelets, or other means.
secondary explosives by visible or ultraviolet
radiation is generally too slow to detect.
For details about hardening weapon sys-
tems against RF energy, see Ref. 35. Data obtained on the effects of exposure to
gamma radiation at an average rate of 105
4-3.4.4 IRRADIATION R/hr are summarized in Table 4-1036. Note
that the effects on most materials are quite
Most materiel is packaged to exclude infra- small and that the greatest effects are those
red, ultraviolet, and visible radiation; and the on lead azide.

REFERENCES

a-k Lettered references are listed in the Schimmel, Evaluation of Minol-2 as a

General References at the end of this Bomb Filler, Report TR 3830, Picatinny
handbook. Arsenal, Dover N.J., December 1968.

1. AMCP 706-115, Engineering Design 5

- R. L. Wagner and M. E. Pollack, De-
Handbook, Environmental Series, Part velopment of alt Impact Sensitivity Test
One, Basic Environmental Concepts. far Cast and Pressed Explosives, Report
TR 2290, Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N. J.,
2. AR 70-38, Research, Development, Test June 1956.
and Evaluation of Materiel for Extreme
Climatic Conditions, Dept. of Army, May 6 R. W. Heinemann and R. T. Schimmel,
1969. Sensitivity of Explosives to Setback Pres-
sure, Report TR 2572, Picatinny Arsenal,
3. F. W. Brown, D. J. Kusler, and F. C. Dover, N. J., December 1958.
Gibson, Sensitivity of Explosives to Initi-
ation by Electrostatic Discharges, Report 7 Surveillance of High Explosives, Report
RI-3852, Commerce Dept., Bureau of TR 986, Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J.,
Mines, 1946. August 14, 1939.

4. S. J. Lowell, M. E. Pollack, R. T. 8- M. J. Kamlet, Perspectives and Prospects

4-17
AMCP 706-179

TABLE 4-10

DATA OBTAINED FROM EXPLOSIVES AFTER EXPOSURE TO GAMMA RADIATION

TNT Tetryl RDX azide styphnate trophenol glycerin PETN

Weight of sample, g 5 5 5 2 5 2 1 5
Volume of gas produced, ml/g, in the following
times, days
10 0.02 0.10 0.16 1.10 0.05 0.25 2.5 0.10
20 0.04 0.20 0.44 1.95 0.07 1.55 5.0 0.43
30 0.06 0.35 0.87 2.90 0.09 3.25 7.5 1.04
40 0.08 0.48 1.49 3.95 - 5.60 9.0 2.33
50 0.11 0.66 - 5.30 0.10 7.2 10.8 -
90 0.20 1.40 - - 0.12 - - -
Total irradiation time, days 90 90 44 52 90 45 56 42
Purity of sample, by chemical analysis, %
original material _ _ _ 93.08 _ _ _ —
irradiated material - — - 89.04 - - - -
Melting points, corrected, °C
original material 82.1 128.8 204.8 — _ _ _ 140.8
irradiated material 80.9 127.8 204.8 — — — — 137.0
Sensitivity to impact, Picatinny Arsenal machine,
in.*
original material 13 _ 9 3 6 2
irradiated material 12 — 8 3 6 2 — —
Sensitivity to impact, Bureau of Mines machine,
cm"
original material 95 25 40 65 20 4 _
irradiated material 95 26 25 75 22 3 - -
Sand test, 200 g bomb, grams of sand crushed
when sample was ignited by black-powder
fuse only
original material 20.5 14.1 22.1
irradiated material 18.7 14.3 14.1
Sandtest, 200 g bomb, grams of sand
crushed when sample was initiated by 0.30g
of lead azide
original material 48.9 56.4 61.7
irradiated material 50.1 56.0 62.0

"Minimum height of fall of 2.0kg weight to produce at least one explosion in ten trials.

for Research in High Energy Chemistry in 10. R. W. Heinemann and S. J. Lowell,

1966-19 75; I. Heat-Resistant Explosives Prevention oj Exudation from Ammuni-
(U), Report NOLTR 65-220, Naval tion Items, Report TR 2675, Picatinny
Ordnance Laboratory, Silver Spring, Md., Arsenal, Dover. N.J., February 1960.
24 May 1966 (Confidential report)
(AD-373 129). 11. G. W. Peet and L. F. Gowen, Evaluation
Test Results on Service and Experimental
A. J. Pascazio, The Suitability of a Bare Squibs, NAVORD Report 6061, Naval
PBX Booster Pellet in the 2.75-Inch Head Ordnance Laboratory, Silver Spring, Md.,
Ml Rocket Head, Report TR 2271, 4 March 1958.
Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J., November
1955. 12. B. 'J. Meleski, Development of Flexible

4-18
 AMCP 708-179

Explosive Lead, Mark 11 Mod 0, and Cylinders of Explosives at Ambient

Warhead Booster Mark 36 Mod I, Ts^nperature and at — 65°F, Report TR
NAVORD Report 6664, Naval Ordnance 2389, Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J.,
Laboratory, Silver Spring, Md., 30 June January 1957.
1959.
21. L. H. Eriksen, Action of Explosives on
13. R. L. Wagner, Development of a Modified Metals Used in Ammunition, Report TR
M4 7 Detonator Having Improved Cook- 1493, Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J., 24
Off Characteristics, Report TR 2519, January 1945.
Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J., June
1958. 22. B. V. Zlotucha and .M. Baer, The Re-
activity of Explosives' With Metals and
14. R. McGill and P. L. Holt, Eds., Proceed- Protective Finishes, Report TR 2288,
ings of the Gilbert B. L. Smith Memorial Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J., May
Conference on Explosive Sensitivity, 1956.
NAVORD Report 5746, Naval Ordnance
Laboratory, Silver Spring, Md., 2 June 23. S. Urman and I. Kabik, Hazards of
1958. Copper Azide (U), Report NOLTR
72-113, U.S. Naval Ordnance Laboratory,
15. W. H. Rinkenbach and A. J. Clear, Silver Spring, Md., 8 September 1972
Standard Laboratory Procedures for (Confidential Report).
Sensitivity, Brisance, and Stability of
Explosives, Report TR 1401, Rev. 1, 24. M. C St. Cyr, Compatibility of Explo-
Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N. J., February sives With Polymers, Report TR 2595,
1950. Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J., March
1959 (AD-7 14634).
16. Third Symposium on Detonation, Report
ACR-52, Office of Naval Research, Navy 25. N. E. Beach and V. K. Canfield, Com-
Dept. September 26-28, 1960. patibility of Explosives With Polymers,
II, Report 33, Plastics Technical Evalua-
17. R. L. Wagner and R. W. Snook, Thermal tion Center, Picatinny Arsenal, Dover.
Stability of Several Electric Detonators, N.J., April 1968(AD-673 713).
Report TR 2482, Picatinny Arsenal,
Dover, N.J., March 1958. 26. N. E. Beach, Compatibility of Explosives
With Polymers: A Guide to the Reactions
18. Günther Cohn, Cook-Off in Aircraft Reported in PATR 2595, Note 22,
Guns, Summary 1952-1959, Report Plastics Technical Evaluation Center,
F-A2144-2, The Franklin Institute, Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J., October
Phila., Pa., Contract DA-36-034-501- 1970 (AD-7 16 624).
ORD-10RD, June 1960 (SPIA 20-688,
AD-239 808). 27. N. E. Beach and V. K. Canfield, Com-
patibility of Explosives With Polymers,
19. Physical Testing of Explosives, Part II — III, Report 40, Plastics Technical Evalua-
Sensitivity Studies With the Drop-Weight tion Center, Picatinny Arsenal, Dover,
Impact Machine Report OSRD 5744, N.J., January 1971 (AD-721 004).
Office of Scientific Research and De-
velopment, December 27, 1945. 28. S. D. Stein and M. E. Pollack, Develop-
ment of an Improved Rifle Bullet Impact
20. G. V. Horvat and E. J. Murray, Propaga- Sensitivity Test, Report TR 2247,
tion of Detonation in Long Narrow Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J., May 1956.

4-19
AMCP 706-179

29. R. L. Jameson and J. S. Williams, Veloc- 33. D. J. Savory, Development of Initiator

ity Loss of Projectiles Passing Through XM41 and Supplementary Testing far
High Explosives, BRL Memo 1127, Project Mercury, Report 1709, Frankford
Aberdeen Proving Ground, Md., October Arsenal, Philadelphia, Pa., March 1964.
1957.

30. AMCP 706-247, Engineering Design 34. S. D. Stein and S. J. Lowell,Initiation of

Handbook, Ammunition Series, Section Explosive in Shell Threads, Report TR
4, Design For Projection. 2441, Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N. J.,
July 1957.
3 1. L. Jablansky, Factors Affecting Sensi-
tivity of Composition B to Setback, 35. AMCP 706-235, Engineering Design
Report TR 2433, Picatinny Arsenal, Handbook, Hardening Weapon Systems
Dover, N. J., June 1957. Against RF Energy.
32. S. D. Stein, Proposed Shell Loading
Standards Based on a Statistical Study of 36. F. P. Bowden (Leader), "A Discussion of
Setback Sensitivities. Report 63, Explo- the Initiation and Growth of Explosion
sives Development Section, FREL, in Solids", Proc. Royal Society, Series A.
Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J., May Mathematics and Physical Sciences, 246,
1959. 1245(1958).

4-20
 AMCP 70G-179

PART TWO - DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

CHAPTER 5

PRIMERS AND DETONATORS

5-1 DESCRIPTION AND SELECTION chapters that follow. While a relay in the
explosive train often follows the delay, it is
5-1.1 INTRODUCTION more nearly related to a flash detonator.
Hence, relays are discussed in par. 5-1.3.4.
Explosive materiel serves its function only
if exploded at the intended time and place. 5-1.2 FUNCTION AND CONSTRUCTION
The fuze is the mechanism which senses these
circumstances and initiates the explosive re- The first element of the explosive train is
action in response to the stimulus generated the initiator. It responds to the target
by target impact, proximity, or some other stimulus received by the fuze and starts the
circumstance or combination of circum- explosive reaction. Initiators are classified
stances to which the fuze is designed to according to the nature of the stimulus to
respond. which they are designed to respond as stab,
percussion, or electric and according to their
The first explosive component or initiator output characteristics as primers, detonators,
is that explosive charge which starts the or squibs.
explosive reaction in response to the initiating
stimulus. At the other end of the train is the A primer is a relatively small sensitive
main bursting charge that produces the de- explosive component used as a first element
sired effect at the target. The intervening in an explosive train. As such it serves as an
components establish a detonation wave, energy transducer converting mechanical or
introduce the desired delay, guide the detona- electrical energy into explosive energy. In this
tion through the required path, and augment respect, the primer is unique among the other
the detonation. explosive components in a train. A primer,
which is loaded with sensitive material, has a
This part is concerned with each of the relatively small explosive output and will not
explosive charges which make up the explo- reliably initiate secondary high explosive
sive train. Each is described, its characteristics charges. Sometimes, however, the purpose of
are specified and design procedures are given. the primer is performed for convenience by a
In addition, there are presented a number of detonator. A squib is a type of electrically
other explosive charges used as auxiliary initiated primer.
devices, such as actuators and explosive bolts,
or the related field of demolition devices, A detonator is a small sensitive explosive
such as destructors. Finally, methods of load- component which is capable of reliably
ing and fabrication and techniques for evalua- initiating high order detonation in the next
tion procedures are discussed. Primers and high explosive element in the explosive train.
detonators are treated in this chapter while In differs fron the primer in that its output
the other components are covered in the will initiate reliably secondary high explosive

5-1
AMCP 708-179

charges. It can be initiated by nonexplosive primer cups are constructed of ductile metals,
energy, in which case it includes the action of commonly brass, in order to avoid rupture by
a primer, or by the output of the primer. the firing pin.
Furthermore, when acted upon by sufficient
heat, or by mechanical or electrical energy, it 5-1.3.3 FLASH DETONATORS
will detonate.
Flash detonators are essentially identical in
Primers and detonators are housed in construction to stab initiators. They are
cylindrical cups of aluminum or stainless sensitive to heat. A typical flash detonator is
steel. Copper and gilding metal are being shown in Fig. 5-l(D). Flash detonators are
phased out because of incompatibility of lead considered to be initiators for convenience of
azide with copper. The open end is sealed grouping even though they are not the first
with a closing disk of metal or of paper over element in the explosive train.
which the end of the cup is crimped. In case
of electric initiators, the cup is crimped over 5-1.3.4 RELAYS
the plug which contains lead wires or contact
pin. Primers contain an explosive priming mix A relay is very similar to a flash detonator.
while detonators contain three charges pri- Typical relays are shown in Fig. 5-2. While
mary, intermediate and base although relays can be separate components, they can
sometimes two of these are combined. The also be the last increment in a delay element.
primary charge is near the input or acceptor The input characteristics are essentially those
end and the base charge is near the output of a flash detonator (see par. 5-2.3) while the
end. output characteristics can be those of a
primer or a detonator as desired (see par. 5-3).
5-1.3 INITIATOR TYPES
The usual relay consists of an aluminum
5-1.3.1 STAB INITIATORS cup into which lead azide is pressed. In some
relays, a sealing disk is crimped over the open
The stab initiator is a rather simple item end while in others, the end is left open, but
consisting of a cup loaded with explosives and the skirt left by partial filling is crimped to an
covered with a closing disk. It is sensitive to angle. When such relays are inserted into
mechanical energy. A typical stab detonator is delay elements and crimped in place, the
shown in Fig. 5-1 (A). crimp is compressed just sufficien ly to result
in a firm and snug fit.
5-1.3.2 PERCUSSION PRIMERS
5-1.3.5 ELECTRIC INITIATORS
Percussion primers differ from stab ini-
tiators in that they arc initiated and fired Electric primers and electric detonators
without puncturing or rupturing their con- differ from stab initiators in that t iey contain
tainers. They are therefore used in fuzes the initiation mechanism as an integral part.
mainly as initiators for obturated (sealed) They constitute the fastest growing class of
delay elements. The essential components of a explosive initiators.
percussion primer are a cup, a thin layer of
priming mix, a sealing disk, and an anvil. Several types of initiation mechanism are
Initiation is accomplished by a blunt firing commonly employed in electric initiators: hot
pin that squeezes the priming mix between wire bridge, exploding bridgeware, film bridge,
cup and anvil. Typical percussion primers are conductive mixture, and spark gap. While
shown in Figs. 5-1 (B) and (C). In general, these types, depending on specific design,
they are less sensitive than stab initiators (I 2 may or may not provide initiators with large
in. oz is a typical "allfire" point). Percussion differences in input sensitivities, they do

5-2
 AMCP 708-179

LEAD AZIDE
RDX

Output
End

^H^ CLOSING
OISK

COINED U — 0.143 IN. H

BOTTOM Figure 5-2. Typical Explosive Relays
(A) STAB DETONATOR (M55)

wires, by center pin and case, or occasionally

by two pins.

To indicate construction, let us examine a

wire lead initiator. Two lead wires are molded
into a cylindrical plug, usually of Bakelite, so
End View that the ends of the wire are separated by a
controlled distance on the flat end of the
(B) PERCUSSION PRIMER (M29AI) plug. This gap can then be bridged with a
graphite film or a bridge wire.

BODY , Most detonators have diameters from 0.1

to 0.25 in. A typical example of a "mini"
»3
detonator is shown in Fig. 5-4. It has the
Input oj ö standard components of a bridgeware electric
End initiator but its diameter is a mere 0.1 in.

5-1.3.6 SQUIBS

(C) PERCUSSION PRIMER (M39AI) The operating parts of squibs are identical
to those of electric initiators. However, squibs
do not have outer metal cups. A typical squib
PRESSED
LEAD AZIDE
is shown in Fig. 5-5. A low explosive, flash
charge is provided to initiate the action of
pyrotechnic devices.
Input output
End End
5-1.3.7 GROUPING OF INITIATOR TYPES

0.342 IN.—»■ Primers and detonators are commonly

(D)FLASH DETONATOR (MI7) placed into two groups, namely, mechanical
and electrical. Electrical includes those which
are initiated by an electric stimulus while all
others (except flash types) are mechanical.
Figure 5-1. Typical Primers and Therefore, the mechanical group includes not
Detonators (MechanicalI only percussion and stab elements that are
initiated by the mechanical motion of a firing
pin but also flash detonators that are included
exhibit different electrical characteristics. because of their similarity in construction and
Typical electric initiators are shown in Fig. sensitivity. As a group, electric initiators are
5-3. Electrical contact is by means of two more sensitive and differ from the mechanical

5-3
AMCP 708-179

FERRULE \ PRIMING
\6Wk*efe7 /
^LEAD AZIDE
/ PETN
group in that they contain the initiating
PLUG mechanism, the plug, as an integral part.
WIRE LEADS —

One interesting detonator cuts across the

two groups, the stab-electric detonator. It is
an adaptation of the button type electric
BRIDGEWIRE initiator in which the pin is replaced by a
BRIDGEWIRE, WIRE LEAD (M36AI
small-diameter stab detonator (see Fig. 5-6).
It is intended for use where a detonator is
initiated either by means of a stab firing pin
SPOT CHARGE—\. y—LEAD AZIDE

PLUG
/ i PETN (which is centered) or by means of an electric
WIRE LEADS
pulse (applied to outside case and stab case as
contacts). The two components are designed
as conventional separate detonators except
that the stab element is small. While this type
detonator is developed, fuze designers have
yet to find an application for its use.
GRAPHITE BRIDGE, WIRE LEAD (M5I)
Delay detonators are those initiators which
contain a delay charge after the priming
charge so as to introduce a time delay in the
output detonation. These are discussed in par.
6-1.

5-1.4 BASES FOR SELECTING AN

INITIATOR TYPE
ELECT RICAL-
CONTACTS
In selecting an initiator for a specific task,
GRAPHITE BRIDGE, BUTTON (T77)
one must consider two main criteria, input
and output. For the latter, both type of
CONDUCTIVE MIX
PLUG
LEAD
RDX
AZIDE
output and time in which this output is to be
delivered are important. In addition to these
main criteria, size, weight, cost, and reliability
should also be considered.

With regard to initiator input conditions, it

ELECTRICAL is probable that the design of the rest of the
CONTACTS
CONDUCTIVE MIX, BUTTON
system has already established whether an
electric or mechanical initiator is to be used.
PETN DISK
If not, the designer is free to choose any
WIRE PLU'
BRIDGEWIRE MILD END PRIMER system that solves his problem most easily.
LEADS Mechanical initiators are usually simpler to
use than electric ones. If the item is to be
completely sealed, a percussion primer is
indicated over a stab primer. The need for fast
functioning times, less than a few hundred
microseconds, or for functioning an initiator
EXPLODING BRIDGEWIRE, WIRE LEAD
that must be remotely located from the
Figure 5-3. Typical Primers and source of power can be satisfied most easily
Detonators (Electrical) by the electric type.

5-4
 AMCP 706-179

LEAD AZIDE SPOT RD 1333 LEAD AZIDE

BRIDGEWARE / HMX
PLUG

Figure 5-4. Electric ""Mini'"Detonator

Once having selected the general method of At the same time the designer selects a type
initiation, the next consideration is that of of initiation and an input condition that is
sensitivity. As a general rule, the designer compatible with his system, he must con-
should use the least sensitive item available sider the type of output desired. As in the
that meets his other requirements. Stab case of input, the first choice is relatively
detonators are more sensitive than percussion simple. The application of the system should
detonators. Electric initiators can be made to indicate whether the output is to be a
fall anywhere in a wide range of sensitivities. detonation, a flame, or a mechanical function.
Initiation by friction or spark cannot be If, for example, the initiator is to be the first
closely controlled so that components element of an explosive train leading to the
initiated in this manner are rarely, if ever, detonation of high explosives, then the
used. They present both safety and sensitivity designer requires a detonation as an output,
problems. or a high-explosive train. On the other hand, a
low-explosive train is called for when the
In the case of mechanical initiators, the output must be flame or gas. Unfortunately,
designer will select the firing pin so that he available output data are more sketchy than
has complete control on the initiation mecha- input data so that firm, quantitative choices
nism. For electric initiators, on the other of output are difficult to make. Adequate
hand, the power source may be located testing is usually required. For more informa-
elsewhere in the system and may have other tion about low-explosive trains, see Ref. 1.
functions to perform. In such instances, close
coordination with the other systems people In addition to the type of output, one is
involved is mandatory so that the initiator usually concerned with the functioning time
will be certain to receive the correct stimulus. of the initiator, which is the interval from
delivery of the input to the initiator until the
For each initiator, definite firing input output of the initiator is realized. If very fast
conditions are specified. It is wise to hold initiation is required in an electric detonator,
very closely to these conditions. For example, an initiator using lead azide as its initial
if the specified input should be designated as charge probably will be necessary. Somewhat
300 V from a 0.001 ßF capacitor, then the longer acceptable times may permit the use of
designer should make certain that intervening lead styphnate as the initial charge. Function-
circuitry between capacitor and initiator does ing times usually are published as a function
not reduce the amplitude or modify the wave of the input stimuli2.
shape delivered to the initiator. The assump-
tion that a similar amount of energy delivered In addition to these criteria, one must
from a different size capacitor will fire the consider size, weight, and cost. The smallest
initiator is risky indeed. and simplest device is the least expensive, and

5-5
AMCP 708-179

BRIDGEWIRE? ELECTRIC ELEMENT7

PLUG-^ SLEEVE
STAB —
LEADS^ ELEMENT \

^232^

U-0.37IN, ,fA
FLASH CHARGE COMPOSITION—'

Figure 5-5. Electric Squib, M2

0.310 IN.
0.435 IN.

incidentally the most reliable, but it is limited Figure 5-6. Stab-electric Detonator, T29
in versatility, sensitivity, and functioning
time. Size and weight are always of some
importance but are relative. They can become Firing pin characteristics and the relationship
critical in the case of a 20 mm fuze while they of firing pin velocity to sensitivity are dis-
may be less important in a large missile. In the cussed in par. 2-3.3.2.
same manner, the unit cost of an item can be
critical if the application calls for millions of Table 5-1 lists the compositions of com-
devices while it may be of little concern if a mon stab and percussion priming mixtures
relatively few items are to be made. High which are used by the Armed Forces.
reliability is expensive but the designer has no
choice but to meet this specification when it 5-2.1.2 EFFECTS OF DISK AND CUP
is required. THICKNESS

Hence, the bases for selecting initiators are The energy required to fire stab initiators
not clear cut and require considerable engi- increases nearly linearly with the thickness of
neering judgment. Two hints may be offered metal that the firing pin penetrates. The zero
to simplify this task. First, initiators have thickness intercept of the drop height curve
been developed by the military agencies along may be presumed to be the energy necessary
certain family lines so that a specific input to pierce the metal. Although data are not on
may be tied to a series of explosive compo- hand, it might be expected that use of
nents with different mounting systems, out- stainless steel rather than aluminum in this
puts, and functioning times. Conversely, a application would result in a less sensitive
specific type of output can be traced back to initiator. There is every reason to expect that
an assortment of initiators requiring differing this relationship interacts with other variables
inputs. These family groups greatly facilitate such as firing-pin dimensions and tolerances
final selection. Second, many explosive trains and the composition and density of the
of different types exist which have a record of priming mix.
proven performance. Compilations of such
past practice make for a good starting place'. 5-2.1.3 EFFECTS OF TEST APPARATUS

5-2 INPUT CHARACTERISTICS Sensitivities of stab initiators are usually

specified in terms of weight and height,
5-2.1 STAB INITIATORS
measured with some standard test apparatus
5-2.1.1 INITIATION (see pars. 2-3.3.2 and 12-[Link]). Often the
firing pin is not changed in design when the
The firing pin used for stab initiators, a dropped weight is varied. As the weight is
truncated conical pin, is shown in Fig. 2-9. reduced to approach that of the firing pin,

5-6
 AMCP 706-179

TABLE 5-1

COMMON PRIMING COMPOSITIONS

Composition, percent by weight

M31
Ingredients FA956 FA982 PA100 PA101 NOL60 NOL130 Igniter Mix

Lead styphnate, basic _ _ 53 60 40

Lead styphnate, normal 37 36 - - - -
Barium nitrate 32 22 - 22 25 20
Lead azide - - 5 - - 20
Tetracene 4 12 - 5 5 5
Lead dioxide - 9 - - - -
Calcium silicide - - - - - -
Aluminum powder 7 - - 10 - -
Antimony sulfide 15 7 17 10 10 15
PETN 5 5 - - - -
Zirconium - 9 - - - -
Potassium chlorate - - 53 - - - 55
Lead thiocyanate - - 25 - - - 45

motion of the pin and energy distribution in velocity to sensitivity are discussed in par.
the system become quite complex
ilex. 2-3.3.3. Priming compositions are listed in
Table 5-1.
The support of the primer is also impor-
tant. Cushioned support can make an item 5-2.2.2 SEALING DISKSAND CUPS
seem much less sensitive than it is.
The material and thickness of sealing disks
Care must also be taken that the movement affect the sensitivity of percussion primers. As
of the firing pin is not restricted so that its an example, data for the MARK 101 Primer
penetration is less than that which would are given in Table 5-2a.
result from free movement under the action
of the drop weight. To overcome some of In a test of the effects of cup hardness, in
these problems, a new tester has been con- which cups ranging from 31.2 to 105.7
structed in which a firing pin is attached to Vickers Hardness were used, the trend toward
the moving weight. This arrangement appears higher drop heights with increasing hardness
to give more consistent results with small was apparent but was neither practically nor
detonators2. statistically significant.

5-2.2 PERCUSSION PRIMERS 5-2.2.3 OTHER VARIABLES

5-2.2.1 INITIATION Loading pressure has a negligible effect

upon sensitivity of percussion primers in the
Percussion primers are fired with round- range from 10,000 to 60,000 psi. Mixtures
nosed firing pins. A typical radius is about that do not contain highly soluble compo-
0.050 in. but variations between 0.023-in. nents are sometimes loaded as a paste without
radius and flat had little effect of sensitivity significant effect on input properties.
in one investigation'. Other firing pin charac-
teristics and the relationship of firing pin Although quantitative data are not avail-

5-7
AMCP70G-179

TABLE 5-2 5-2.3.2 EFFECT OF EXPLOSIVE AT INPUT

END
EFFECTS OF CUP OR SEALING DISK ON
SENSITIVITY Although U.S. flash detonators have lead
azide at the input (also called sensitive) end,
Thickness, 50% Firing Std. Dev.,
lead styphnate has been used in a number of
Seal in. Height, in. in.
foreign items and in our nonelectric military
Paper disk 0.003 1.95 0.41 blasting cap (M7) to enhance sensitivity of
Tin disk 0.005 3.74 0.34 functioning of the cap to a spit of a black
Copper disk 0.005 4.04 0.56 powder fuze. Tests indicate that such items
Tin cup 0.005 4.00 0.63 should be appreciably more sensitive than
Copper cup 0.002 3.88 0.69 lead azide items. Although no data are at
Copper cup 0.003 4.19 0.64 hand to support this view, possibly finer
Copper cup 0.004 4.83 0.91 particle sizes and lower loading densities
Copper cup 0.005 5.00 0.98 should result in more sensitive items. The fact
Primer MARK 101,4-Ounce Ball that flash detonators are ignited by rather
diffusely distributed heat might encourage the
idea that materials like tetryl and PETN,
able, it is clear that firing energy requirements which have rather low ignition temperatures,
can be expected to increase with thickness might be effective at the input end of a flash
and hardness of the primer cup, and with detonator. However, these materials are much
thickness of the layer of primer mix between less sensitive to heat pulses of short duration
anvil and cup. Movement of the anvil can than lead azide or lead styphnate. One flash
drastically reduce the sensitivity to normal detonator, the M3 1, contains a primer charge
firing pin action, while increasing the sensi- of calcium chlorate/lead styphnate, apparent-
tivity to accidental jars and vibrations. Firm ly, to increase its flash sensitivity. This charge
support of the primer is essential (see par. also increases its mechanical sensitivity to stab
5-4.3.2). action. Normally, flash detonators (containing
lead azide) cannot be initiated with a stab
firing pin.
5-2.3 FLASH DETONATORS
5-2.3.3 EFFECT OF CONSTRUCTION AT
5-2.3.1 INITIATION INPUT END

The input characteristics of flash initiators According to a gas blast tester, a flash
and relays are difficult to characterize in detonator, in which the sensitive end was the
terms that are significant indications of per- unpierced bottom of an aluminum cup coined
formance under usual conditions. These items to 0.0003-in. thickness, required gas pressure
are usually initiated by the spit of a primer, about three times as high for initiation as one
the heat from a delay column, or other action with a closure consisting of a paper disk
of previous explosive elements. The exact 0.0015-in. thick held in place by an aluminum
mechanism of initiation varies with the appli- washer crimped into the cup. The sensitivity
cation. In some cases, the flame may ignite of flash detonators to initiation by hot gases
the explosive; in others, either the impact or is determined largely by the heat flow pat-
heat of solid particles or a shock wave may terns and resulting thermal gradients. A factor
play important roles. No useful, quantitative that undoubtedly contributes to the insensi-
results have been obtained with gap tests to tivity of the coined bottom detonator is the
determine sensitivity of the items. See pars. continuous metal path from the bottom
2-3.2.4 to 2-3.2.6 on adiabatic compression around to the sides. Although the paper disk,
theory. as a better insulator, impedes the flow of heat

5-8
 AMCP 708-179

from the gas to the explosive, it also impedes 5-[Link] FLASH CHARGE EXPLOSIVES
the transverse flow to the edges which dis-
tributes the heat more easily. The explosive in direct contact with the
bridgeware is known as the flash charge and
5-2.4 ELECTRIC INITIATORS sometimes as the spotting charge. Relative
sensitivities of a number of explosives are
5-2.4.1 INPUT SENSITIVITY given in Table 2-6. Normal lead styphnate has
the broadest general use at present. For
The input characteristics of electric ini- applications where extremely rapid response
tiators are subject to precise control over is needed, lead azide has been used. Lead
quite remarkable ranges. Items have been azide is also finding application in initiators
designed with threshold firing energies ranging that are required to withstand extremes of
from less than one erg to hundreds of temperatures over the extended ranges of
thousands of ergs, with current requirements modern missile applications (see pars. 4-2.2
from hundredths to hundreds of amperes, and and 4-2.3).
resistance from a few hundredths of an ohm
to tens of megohms. Since the sensitivity of hot bridgeware
initiators is determined largely by heat-flow
Determination of input sensitivity of elec- patterns, both particle size and loading
tro-explosive devices requires sophisticated density have important effects on sensitivity.
testing equipment and is considerably more Three aspects of heat-flow are involved: trans-
involved than that of stab and percussion fer between wire and explosive, dissipation
detonators. For a discussion of initiation through the explosive from the heated sur-
theory, see par. 2-3.2; for details on testing face, and longitudinal flow through the wire
the items, see par. 12-2.2.2. Specifications for (end effects). Of these aspects, sensitivity is
military electric initiators are covered in increased by the first and decreased by the
MIL-I-236593, and input characteristics of other two. The use of explosives of very fine
specfic devices are recorded in the Electric particle size results in improved contact
Initiator Handbook^. between explosive and wire and, at the same
time, reduces the bulk conductivity of the
Input sensitivity varies sharply with the explosive. Explosives have been ground in
type of transducer. Each type —hot bridge- ball-mills, to take advantage of this tendency.
wire, exploding bridgeware, film bridge, con- It was found that milling for longer periods
ductive mix, and spark gap-must therefore be resulted in more sensitive initiators4. Both
considered separately. lead styphnate and lead azide have been
manufactured by processes involving rapid
precipitation. The materials so produced are
referred to as colloidal. Information about
5-2.4.2 HOT BRIDGEWIRE INITIATORS these materials is given in MIL-L-757 for
normal lead styphnate and MiL-L-3055 for
Of all initiators, those in which explosives lead azide. Basic lead styphnate, as procured
are initiated by electrically heated wires under MIL-L-16355, has particle sizes in the
behave most precisely in a manner that can be range between 5 and 95 ß, which is highly
logically anticipated. For this reason, deto- satisfactory for flash charge use.
nators of this type can be designed quite
readily and precisely to any desired input Loading density or pressure, as it is in-
characteristics, within the relatively broad creased, may increase sensitivity by improving
limits imposed by properties of available contact between wire and explosive or de-
materials, and the rather simple laws that crease it by increasing the rate of dissipation
govern their behavior. of heat through the explosive. In lead

5-9
AMCP 70S-179

styphnate, loaded at pressures between 1000 heats of solids, this approximation can be
and 4000 psi, the latter trend apparently extended to the general rule .that the firing
dominates. On the other hand, lead azide energy requirement is proportional to the
loaded at pressures between 3000 and 90,000 volume of the reaction nucleus and, further,
psi becomes more sensitive with increasing the volume of the reaction nucleus is propor-
loading pressure. tional to that of the bridgewire. Both the
variation in critical temperature with size, and
5-[Link] BRIDGEWI RE RESISTANCE the effects of end losses are accounted for in
the empirical equation
The resistance of a bridgewire is given by
w, = 25 + 450d2L,erg (5-2)
2
R = 0.0005Lrw/d , ohm (5-1)
where
where
w; = threshold firing energy (50% point),
R = wire resistance, ohm erg

L = wire length, mil d - wire diameter, mil

d = wire diameter, mil L = wire length, mil

rw = wire resistivity, microhm-cm This equation fits available data within ten
percent for lead styphnate loaded either at
Resistivities of common bridgewire mate- 3000 to 5000 psi, or "buttered" or
rials are given in Table 5-3s. "spotted"8'6.

5-[Link] FIRING ENERGY AND POWER On the basis of a fixed initiation tempera-
ture, the threshold power for initiation should
As pointed out in par. 2-3.1, the assump- be that required to attain equilibrium with
tion of a fixed initiation temperature is a valid the losses at that temperature. Experimental
approximation. In combination with the rela- data indicate that, for short bridgewires where
tively small variation of volumetric specific end losses dominate, the firing current re-
quirement of lead styphnate loaded initiators
is estimated from the equation4'6
TABLE 5-3
/ = 0A/Rf (short bridgewire), A (5.3)
RESISTIVITIES OF BRIDGEWIRE MATERIALS
where
Resistivity, microhm-cm
Metal at20°C at 500°C / = current required for 50%functioning,
A
Tungsten 5.5 20
Platinum 10 30
Rf = bridgewire resistance at the firing
Platinum/1 ridium
temperature (assumed to be 500°C),
90/10 24 39
80/20 31 43
ohm
Nichrome* 100 120
TophetCt 110 132 Note that the current is independent of wire
dimensions and material.
"Proprietary alloy of Driver-Harris Co., Newark, N.J.
tProprietary alloy of Wilbur Driver Co., Newark, N.J. For long bridgewires a semi-empirical equa-

5-10
 AMCP 70G-179

tion has been derived which relates the 1Tt = I]R (5-7)
current required to overcome the radial losses
and which accounts for the tendency for where
larger wires to initiate any given explosive at a
lower temperature8 7 = cooling rate coefficient, W/°C

ra = 2.3<i/V^ (longbridgeware), A (5-4) C = heat capacity of the thermal mass (in-

cluding bridgewire and surrounding
where layer of explosive), W-sec/°C

, = threshold firing current for a lead For purposes of prediction of an absolute

u
styphnate loaded initiator with a value of Tt, the temperature of initiators is
bridgewire so long that end effects not important if C and 7 are computed by
are negligible, A means of Eqs. 5-6 and 5-7. The quantity Tt
may be taken as 500°C, which in practice has
d = wire diameter, mil given reasonably accurate results.

r - bridgewire resistivity at the initiation

temperature, microhm-cm 5-[Link] RESPONSE TIMES

Assumed values for y/r"w are 4.6 for tungsten Condenser discharge firing times vary with
and 11.5 for Tophet C. flash charge material as well as with bridge-
wire characteristics and firing conditions.
The total threshold firing current If is given Table 5 A7 gives functioning times obtained in
by one experiment. Fig. 5-6e shows functioning
times of some typical military items. Azide
/, =v?2+^ (5-5) loaded items, in general, have much shorter
functioning times than those loaded with
However, either Is or I& is usually so domi- other primary explosives. Since the function-
nant that the other may be neglected. Hence, ing time of a hotwire initiator is related to the
bridgewires are grouped into short or long ratio of the firing energy to the threshold
class depending on which term dominates in firing energy, the variation of individual
Eq. 5-5. threshold energies within a lot (as indicated
by the standard deviation of the mean) is
As pointed out in par. 2-3.2.1, the hyper- reflected in functioning times.
bolic relationship between power and energy
applies quite accurately to wire bridge ini- In addition, such factors as particle size and
tiators. Details of the pulse shape are relative- porosity, which affect the growth of explo-
ly unimportant. The average power, whether sion, are contributing factors in the variability
in the from of a damped RC discharge or an of functioning times. Precise control of these
oscillatory discharge, is the important factor. variables, and of those which determine
The response of an initiator to complex threshold firing conditions, can result in
sequences of electrical events is predicted by highly reproducible functioning times. Careful
Eq. 2-20. The constants for Eq. 2-20 are control in test items has resulted in function-
determined from the limiting threshold ing times equal to calculated detonation
energy and current (that can be calculated by transit times within a few hundredths of a
means of Eq. 5-2 for w( and Eq. 5-5 for/e) microsecond (for firing conditions of 600 V
using the relations discharged from a 0.01 nF capacitor, 18,000
ergs compared with a threshold of about 1300
CT, (5-6) ergs).

5-11
AMCP 706-179

TABLE 5-4

FIRING TIMES OF HOT BRIDGEWIRE INITIATORS

Capacitance, MF
Milling Time,
Explosive hr 0.5 0.05 0.0047

Polyvinyl Alcohol Lead Azide 24 1.12- 1.26 1.09- 1.38 1.41- 5.00
Dextrinated Lead Azide 64 1.08- 2.43 1.12- 2.43 3.46- 4.95
Silver Azide 24 1.13- 1.47 1.17- 1.56 1.9 - 13.1
Silver Azide 64 1.23- 1.89 1.23- 2.36 1.3 - 43.1
Normal Lead Styphnate 24 11.8 -12.5 10.0 -20.6 13.1 -374.4
Normal Lead Styphnate 64 10.0 -13.7 10.6 -13.1 10.0 -381.2
Basic Lead Styphnate 24 10.6 -13.1 11.2 -23.1 20.0 -430.0
Basic Lead Styphnate 64 4.4 -13.0 12.5 -14.4 10.6 - 60.6
Diazodinitrophenol 24 8.33- 9.00 10.0 -13.8 91.2 -362.5

50 mg loads of explosives, voltage of 450 V. Times are inptsec.

Functioning times t at relatively low steady microhm-cm from Table 5-3) and using Eq.
currents approach those predicted by Eq. 5-8 5-1
which is a solution of Eq. 2-20'.
R = 0.0005rwL/d2 = 2 = 0.0005 X 110
C V
■ In , sec (5-8)
y \PR - yT, XL/d2

5-[Link] TYPICAL DESIGN PROBLEM Lid2 = 36

Design a hot wire initiator with a resistance Solving for L and d, we get
of 2 ohms, an all-fire energy of 42,000 ergs,
and a no-fire energy of 15,000 ergs. {L/d2)(d2L) = L2 = 55 X 36

Solution: Since firing probabilities tend to L = 45 mils

be normally distributed, with respect to the
logarithm of input energy, the fifty percent and
point should be at the logarithmic mean of
the all-fire and no-fire points d2 = 55/45 = 1.2

w2 = 15,000X42,000 d = 1.1 mils

w, = 25,000 Thus, the requirements are met by an

initiator with a lead styphnate flash charge
From Eq. 5-2 and a Tophet C bridgeware 1.1 mils in
diameter and 45 mils long. If the mechanical
wt = 25+ 450 d2L = 25,000 design of the item makes a longer bridgeware
desirable, the requirements can be met with
d2L = 55 wires of lower resistivity. Where the length is
fixed by other considerations, Eq. 5-2 may be
Assuming a Tophet C bridgeware (r, = 110 solved for the diameter corresponding with

5-12
 AMCP 708-179

30 60 70 I00
FUNCTIONING TIME, /iS6C

Figure 5-7. Functioning Times of Hot Wire Bridge Initiators

the given length. The bridgewire dimensions distribution, and the degree of contact be-
so obtained may then be substituted in Eq. tween explosive and bridgewire) that have
2-20 to determine the resistivity correspond- been found to affect input characteristics,
ing with the desired resistance. A suitable experimental verification of these character-
material may then be selected from Table 5-4. istics is always necessary. If desired character-
Should the value of resistivity be below that istics have been specified within close limits,
of available materials, "heat sinks" can be it is well to be prepared to adjust one or
used which are essentially blind terminals to another of the variables involved after tests of
which the wire is soldered at one or more a preliminary sample.
points along its length. The equations are
applied to the design of such a system by 5-2.4.3 EXPLODING BRIDGEWIRE
considering each segment separately as a series INITIATORS
element.
As pointed out in par. 2-3.4.3, exploding
Note that while hot bridgewire initiators bridgewire (EBW) initiators are defined as
are more readily designed by calculation than those which fire only when subjected to
most initiators, their exact input character- electrical conditions conducive to explosion
istics are affected by a wide variety of of their bridgewires. The initial charges of
variables previously discussed as well as in par. EBW initiators are secondary explosives such
2-3.2.1. The formulas are empirical and in as PETN or RDX. Hence, they are relatively
reasonable agreement with performance data safe from initiation by direct application of
of military fuze items loaded with colloidal or heat and external mechanical influences (im-
milled lead azide or lead styphnate. Since it is pact or vibration) or from electrical input of
impractical to specify in complete detail some most any kind except the highly specialized
variables (such as particle shape, particle size pulses for which they are designed.

5-13
AMCP 706-179

If an EBW initiator is subjected to a intense than that from a large wire. This
gradually increasing current, the bridgewire effect, combined with the characteristics of
can burn out at some point without exploding practical firing circuits and the properties of
and initiating the explosive. The rate at which explosives used, will cause the threshold firing
the current must rise (di/dt) to result in firing energy or voltage of an EBW device to reach
is an important characteristic of an EBW minima at optimum values of bridgewire
device. For typical EBW initiators, this rate diameter and length which have, unfortunate-
must equal or exceed 109 A/sec. Remember- ly, not yet been defined.
ing that this rate is equal to the quotient of
voltage by inductance and that typical firing Of the materials tested, platinum, gold, and
circuits have output voltages in the range of a copper have given the best results''.
few thousand volts, the maximum permissible Nichrome, tungsten, and silver, under circum-
inductance is of the order of a few micro- stances for which data are available, require
henries, which is close to the minimum more energy than the first named materials.
practical value for circuits usable by the Gold and platinum have been preferred be-
military. The high rate of rise results in cause of their corrosion resistance.
concentration in the outer layers of the
bridgewire, and an increase in the effec- 5-[Link] EXPLOSIVE MATERIALS
tive resistance from the static value of a
few hundredths of an ohm to a dynamic value PETN is, for the present, the mbst widely
of a few ohms. In addition to these electrical used initial charge material for EBW deto-
phenomena, the initiation of explosives by nators. RDX and HMX, which are desirable
exploding bridgewires involves interactions of because of their better thermal stability, are
firing voltage and capacitance, bridgewire somewhat harder to initiate (see par. 2-3.4.3).
dimensions, melting point, boiling point,
heats of fusion and evaporation, resistivity, 5-2.4.4 FILM BRIDGE INITIATORS
coefficient of resistivity, heat capacity, sur-
face tension in the liquid state, explosive Conductive films may be applied to the
composition, particle size and shape and the surfaces of insulators by a variety of tech-
distributions thereof, charge dimensions and niques, including chemical precipitation;
confinement, and some other factors. Hence, painting; drying of suspensions and solutions;
EBW initiators do not lend themselves to writing, as with a pencil, crayon, or pen;
precise calculation9. plating; vacuum evaporation; sputtering; and
spraying. Most of these techniques have been
5-[Link] BRIDGEWIRE DIMENSIONSAND used at one time or other to produce bridges
MATERIALS that can be heated or exploded to initiate
explosive reactions.
Clearly, the smaller the volume of a bridge-
wire, the less energy is required to cause it to 5-[Link] INITIATION MECHANISM
explode. However, a given amount of energy
in a given circuit will not necessarily result in The initiation mechanism of film bridge
increasingly vigorous explosions as the size of initiators is complex (see par. 2-3.2.2). Hence
the wire is reduced. A smaller wire, for film bridges cannot be designed by computa-
example, will [Link] sooner. If tion as can hot wire bridge initiators. Typical
this occurs before the current approaches the complications result from the fact that film
maximum value, as determined by the circuit, thickness is much less uniform than is the
most of the energy will be dissipated in an arc diameter of a drawn wire and that various
discharge, generally diffused in a volume paths exist between the electrodes. Where the
much larger than that of the original wire. film is a semiconductor with a negative
The resulting explosion may thus be less resistance coefficient, like carbon, variations

5-14
 AMCP 708-179

in film thickness and path length combine explosive. The input characteristics are func-
with the negative resistance coefficient to tions of electrode dimensions, spacing, con-
channel most of the current into one or a few figuration, particle size shape, distribution of
preferred paths. Since the volume of material each component of the mixture, and intimacy
through which most of the current flows is of the mixture, as well as its composition.
only a small fraction of the film, initiators Flaked or powdered metals as well as graphite
with carbon film bridges are the most sensi- and acetylene black have been used for the
tive in use. conductive component of the mixtures while
both common primary and secondary explo-
Although some experimental results have sives serve as the explosive component.
been obtained with a variety of experimental
film bridge initiators'i ,the only type applied Conductive mix initiators are rarely used in
in standard fuzes has been the low-energy fuzes. The permutations of the variables are
graphite bridge type. so numerous that a systematic study of their
results has not been completed. A number of
5-[Link] GRAPHITE BRIDGE FILMS these results are discussed in par. 2-3.2.2. In
some cases, rather ritualized schedules of
Bridges of graphite bridge initiators are all grinding, mixing, and loading are necessary to
made by essentially the same process. A attain the desired characteristics'2.
droplet of a colloidal suspension of graphite
in water is deposited on a surface that consists 5-2.4.6 SPARK GAP INITIATORS
of two or more metal electrodes separated by,
and often imbedded in, an insulator. The Electric sparks of rather low energy con-
electrical and electrothermal characteristics of tent will initiate some explosives (see par.
a bridge made in this manner are determined 2-3.4.2). The earliest electric blasting caps
not only by such aspects of the design as were spark gap or "high tension" caps. The
spacing and configuration of the electrodes high voltage necessary to fire spark gap
and specified dilution of the droplet but also initiators is still a limitation to their useful-
by the manner of droplet application. ness. As the gaps are reduced to lower the
threshold firing voltage, the critical voltage
The input characteristics of graphite bridge varies so sharply with both gap length and
initiators (both resistance and sensitivity) are electrode configuration that normal manu-
determined, at least in part, by the chance facturing variation makes input characteristics
distribution of the particles of graphite as difficult to predict. This situation is not
they are deposited. Consequently, the item- improved by the presence of a powdered
to-item variation is quite large. The acceptable explosive between the electrodes. For voltages
resistance range for Army items is 1000 to above a few thousand volts, spark gap ini-
10,000 ohms, while that for Navy items is tiators can be made with more reproducible
700 to 14,000 ohms. Generally, several hun- characteristics. Spark gap initiators are not
dred ergs of input energy are required for presently used.
reliable initiation at potentials generally in
excess of 100 V. 5-2.4.7 SQUIBS

5-2.4.5 CONDUCTIVE MIX INITIATORS From the standpoint of input, squibs are
identical to other electric initiators. Since
By mixing explosives with metals or other most squibs are wirebridge devices, they are
conductive materials, mixtures can be pre- designed like hot wirebridge initiators de-
pared which are electrically conductive, and scribed in par. 5-2.4.2. The explosive is one of
in which sufficient current density results in the flash charges listed in Table 5-1. Some
initiation of a self-propagating reaction of the squibs have a second charge of black powder

5-15
AMCP 708-179

or similar material to initiate materials that Any secondary high explosive can serve for
are more difficult to ignite. donor and acceptor charges. PETN and RDX
have been commonly used, the same explosive
Squibs are used in pyrotechnic being used for both charges. The bulkhead
trains'3'14. Initiators for propellants are material is usually dictated by the require-
also called squibs at times. However, these are ments of the housing material. The shape of
larger components and should be called the cavities has not yet been firmed. Full
igniters. For design details on propellant round cavities are not necessarily optimum
trains, see Ref. 1. anymore than full flat-bottom cavities are. The
full round shape permits the bulkhead to be
5-2.5 THROUGH-BULKHEAD INITIATORS thinner because it produces a divergent shock
wave.
The through-bulkhead initiator (TBI) con-
sists essentially of three explosive input A series of experiments served to evaluate
elements (see Fig. 2-11). The first of these, various explosive densities and charge lengths
the initiator, can be any mechanical or elec- as well as different bulkhead materials and
tric detonator. It must be a detonator rather thicknesses. Fig. 5-9' 7 lists the parameters of
than a primer because a shock wave is two of the configurations. The significant
required. The design of mechanical detonators pressures are defined as follows:
is covered in pars. 5-2.1 and 5.2.3 while that
of electric detonators is treated in par. 5-2.4. Pd = detonation pressure, atm
The key explosive elements of the TBI are the
donor and acceptor charges separated by the Pt = transmitted pressure, kpsi
bulkhead.
Pa - shock pressure of acceptor charge at
Rigorous design of TBI's has not yet been the 50%firing point, kpsi
attempted, and all tests to date have used the
Edisonian approach. However, some design Configuration A was tested but found to be
guidance can be given. Initially tests were of low reliability because the P,IPa ratio is
conducted to demonstrate the shock propaga- less than unity. While configuration B was not
tion through a thick barrier' s. For the tested, it is considered to be reliable because
equations of shock wave propagation, see par. of its high pressure ratio.
2-2.2.
5-3 OUTPUT
A typical TBI concept is shown in Fig.
5-716. It is the initial configuration for the 5-3.1 OUTPUT OF PRIMERS
Saturn V launch vehicle where the requirement
called for maintaining a firm seal after detona- The output of a primer includes hot gases,
tion that would withstand 10,000 psi pres- hot particles, a pressure pulse which, in some
sure. The initiator in this instance is a length cases, may be a strong shock, and thermal
of detonating cord, donor and acceptor radiation. Measurable quantities that have
charges are both PETN, and body is type been used to characterize primer output
303S stainless steel with the bulkhead 0.075 include: the volume of the gas emitted, the
in. thick. The TBI was developed to initiate impulse imparted to a column of mercury by
solid propellant rocket motors that are used the pressure pulse, the light output as
during stage separation to control the ullage measured by a photocell, the temperature rise
in the main propellant tanks and to provide of a thermocouple exposed to the output
retro thrust. The TBI ends are sealed so that gases and particles, the ionic conduction
the TBI will better withstand the temperature between a pair of probes exposed to the
environment. output, the .pressure rise in a chamber in

5-16
 AMCP 708-179

RECEPTOR CHARGE (PETN)

DONOR CHARGE (PETN

OUTPUT CHARGE

W/f/f////^

INITIATOR RECEPTACLE /
0.075 IN. BULKHEAD

Figure 5-8. Initial TBI Configuration for Saturn V Launch Vehicle

which the output is confined, the propagation of baffles or the introduction of irregularities
velocity of the air shock, the hangfire, namely that increase the total surface, both inert and
the time lapse between supply of mechanical reactive, exposed to the primer gases may
energy to the primer and initial primer out- necessitate the use of a primer with more
put, the flame duration, the crushing of ouput energy.
honeycomb elements, and the gasifying of
inert polymers. Some of the more brisant
4. Hot particles of solids or globules of
primers emit pressure pulses of sufficient
liquids are particularly effective in the igni-
magnitude to give measurable results in the
tion of materials with high thermal dif-
sand test and lead disk test (see par. 12-2.3.1).
fusivities (such as those containing appre-
Each of these measurable quantities has been
ciable proportions of metal) or of those
related to effectiveness in one or another
whore melting points are well below their
application by experiment, theory, or intui-
ignition temperatures.
tion. However, no general quantitative rela-
tionship of value to a designer has been
developed. The design of a primer for appro- 5. Hot particles and globules establish a
priate output must be based on precedent and number of reaction nuclei, rather than burn-
the following generalities: ing along a uniform surface. This action may
be undesirable in short delay colums, or in
1. Both gaseous products and hot particles propellant grains designed for programmed
emitted by primers play important roles in combustion. Where the particles or globules
ignition. are large, or have high enough velocities to
penetrate beneath the surface, serious prob-
2. The effectiveness of the gaseous pro- lems may result.
ducts in ignition increases directly with tem-
perature and pressure. Since the pressure is 6. The blast effects of pressure pulse and
related inversely to the enclosed volume, an accompanying gas movement are both favor-
increase in this volume or a venting of the able and adverse in igniting by means of a
system may call for primers of greater output. primer. Although they result in more rapid
heat transfer between gases and solid mate-
3. It has been shown experimentally that rials that are to be ignited, they may also
the heat of an enclosed body of gas is "blow out the flame" by moving the hot
distributed quite uniformly over the surface gaseous products from contact with the com-
to which it is exposed' 8 . Thus, the insertion bustible material.

5-17
AMCP 70G-179

CONFIGURATION CONFIGURATION

DONOR CHARGE DONOR CHARGE

0.175 IN. DIAM. 0.175 IN. DIAM.
0.125 IN, LONG 0.175 IN, LONG
1.55 g/cnß RDX 1.65 g/cm3 RDX
(4150 cm2/g) (1270 cm2/g

98 KBAR

BULKHEAD
0.150 IN. THICK
BULKHEAD
0,150 IN. THICK
I' 146 KBAR

17.4 PH STAINLESS TYPE 302 STAINLESS

STEEL, HEAT TREATED STEEL
TO CONDITION
HiisoRcao.s't
P* = 31 KPSI Pt = 35 KPSI
ACCEPTOR CHARGE ACCEPTOR CHARGE
0.250 IN. DIAM. 0.125 IN. DIAM.
32 KPSI 0.055 IN. LONG 0.219 IN. LONG Pa = Ik KPSI
0.97 g/cm3 HIGH PURITY 0.97 g/cm3 HIGH DENSITY
RDX, RECRYSTALLIZED RDX, NOT RECRYSTALLIZED
4150 cm2/q 1270 cm2/g

PRESSURE VALUES ARE TAKEN FROM THE RELATIVE SCALE OF THE PARAMETRIC TESTS
Figure 5-9. Comparison of TBI Parameters

7. In some applications, shock waves that reasonable gage of output. Where the system
are too strong may damage the structure of is essentially vented, blast type phenomena,
either reaction or inert material in such a perhaps as indicated in air shock velocity or
manner that control of system behavior is the lead disk test, are more significant.
lost.
5-3.2 OUTPUT OF DETONATORS
8. The reproducibility of the time of a
delay element is related to the reproducibility 5-3.2.1 PARAMETERS OF DETONATOR
of the output of the primer which initiates it. OUTPUT
The times of short obturated delay elements
are particularly sensitive to variations in As its name implies a detonator is intended
primer output. to induce detonation in a subsequent charge.
The two features of its output which are
9. When a primer is used to drive a firing useful for this purpose are the shock wave it
pin (this combination is used where the emits and the high velocity of the fragments
sensitivity of a stab primer is needed in of its case.
combination with a delay of the obturated
type that requires a percussion primer), the Although it is possible to envision deto-
important aspect of primer output is the nator designs that are effective in inducing
momentum it is capable of imparting to the detonation without detonating themselves,
firing pin. Where the output gases are reason- the output effectiveness of detonators of
ably well contained, the impulse as measured current designs is directly related to the
in the gas volume and impulse machine is a quantity of the explosive which detonates.

5-18
 AMCP 706-179

and to the vigor of this detonation. These 5-3.2.3 EXPLOSIVES USED IN

quantities are somewhat less predictable than DETONATORS
in most other components because the transi-
tions from burning to detonation and from In the past, a detonator was considered to
low order to high order detonation take place be incomplete unless it contained three
in the detonator. charges of different explosives: a priming or
flash charge for initiation, an intermediate
These transitions, as pointed out in par. charge in which the transition from burning
2-2.1, can require anything from a hundredth to detonation takes place, and a base charge
of an inch to the whole length of a detonator, to maximize output. Recent trends have been
depending upon such factors as loading toward the combination of these functions,
density, composition, particle size, confine- but separate discussion is still appropriate.
ment, and column diameter. However, recent Priming and flash charges are discussed in par.
developments in lead azide production have 5-2 under input, priming compositions are
resulted in materials in which these transitions listed in Table 5-1.
require so little explosive that the output of a
detonator can be predicted with a fair degree 5-[Link] INTERMEDIATE CHARGES
of confidence.
The properties of a primary explosive
The effective output of a detonator in- which promote the growth of detonation have
cludes factors of pressure, duration, and area not been defined quantitatively. From a
over which the pressure acts. Clearly a simple practical point of view, the superiority of lead
product of these quantities is inadequate as a azide over other aviailable explosives in this
characterization because a low pressure of respect is such that no other explosive is used
either long duration or large extent obviously as the intermediate charge in a current deto-
would be ineffective. nator for fuze use (except in exploding
bridge wire applications).

5-3.2.2 MEASUREMENT OF DETONATOR There are four forms of lead azide in

OUTPUT current use19 :

Detonator output is difficult to charac- 1. Dextrinated lead azide, the first US

terize except in terms of the characteristics of standard service type, is made by precipita-
a subsequent charge. This is to be expected tion in the presence of dextrin. MIL-L-3055.
because the transmission of detonation in-
volves the interaction of quantities associated 2. Colloidal lead azide is unadulterated
with the acceptor as well as with the donor. lead azide of very small particle size (3-4 /i).
MIL-L-3055.
Detonator output is measured by means by
gap or barrier tests, sand test, copper block 3. PVA (polyvinyl alcohol) lead azide is
test, lead disk test, steel plate dent test, made by precipitation in the,presence of
Hopkinson bar test, and in terms of the polyvinyl alcohol.
velocity of the air shock produced. These
tests are described in par. 12-2.3.1. 4. RD-1333 lead azide, a British develop-
ment, is made by precipitation from a solu-
No known measurement technique yields a tion of sodium carboxymethyl cellulose.
quantitative measure of the output of an MIL-L-46225 (MU).
individual detonator which is usable, without
reservation, as a criterion of the effectiveness Dextrinated lead azide has a large lot-to-lot
of the detonator. variation in the growth of detonation, partic-

5-19
AMCP 70G-179

ularly at the loading densities necessary for velocity has often been used as a criterion but
the output potential of this material. The beta is probably involved mainly as a factor in the
form of lead azide is highly sensitive and detonation pressure.) In Table 5-5a volumet-
unstable and is suspected of spontaneous ric heats of explosion and detonation pres-
detonation (see par. 2-3.4.5). RD-1333 and sures of lead azide and various base charge
PVA lead azides are superior to the other explosives are given.
forms in both chemical and functioning char-
acteristics, and are preferred in modern
design. In general, the comparisioris made for the
various explosives pressed at 10,000psi are of
Although silver azide is an alternate mate- more practical significance than those made
rial, it is not now commercially available and, for voidless materials. Most detonators are
furthermore, is not compatible with some loaded at pressures in this range which is a
presently used materials. In exploding bridge- good compromise value for several practical
wire detonators, the function of the inter- reasons. Colloidal, PVA, or RD-1333 lead
mediate charge (as well as initial charge) is azide, loaded in place of a base charge at
served by an exploding wire. pressures of the order of 25,000 psi, may be
expected to result in detonators similar
5-[Link] BASE CHARGES enough in output to detonators of similar
design with base charges of booster explosives
It has been the practice to include base to be indistinguishable from them. Some
charges of booster type explosives at the investigators report that RD-1333 lead azide
output ends of detonators. The base charges and PETN base charges, loaded in the same
of most electric detonators in current produc- volumes, have equal output. Others show an
tion are PETN. Those of flash and stab increase in output as a PETN base charge
detonators of early designs are tetryl and of displaced lead azide2'. The lot-to-lot varia-
more recent designs, RDX. The difference tions in loading characteristics of both PETN
between electric and nonelectric items is that and lead azide- probably account for part of
the former evolved from commercial electric this disagreement. Variations between test
blasting caps, in which PETN is widely used, procedures and output criteria used by
while the latter have a much longer history of various investigators might also affect relative
development within military agencies. A num- as well as absolute output of variously loaded
ber of experimental electric detonators have detonators.
been made with RDX and HMX base charges
to obtain better stability at high tempera-
tures. However, the improvement in this
respect was not as great as anticipated20. In substitution of base charge explosives,
Meanwhile, the superiority of lead azide to bear in mind that RDX and HMX are less
any of these materials in thermal stability has sensitive than PETN. An intermediate charge
combined with the considerations discussed in that is adequate for reliable high order initia-
the paragraphs that follow to cause a trend tion of PETN may not be sufficient for
toward the elimination of explosive base maximum or reproducible results with these
charges. materials. Experimental investigations of such
substitutions should be made in full cogni-
The limitation of the size of a base charge zance of the effects of confinement on the
is generally that of the volume available. growth and transfer of detonation, as outlined
Thus, one criterion of the relative effective- in pars. 2-3.1 and 3-1.2. Tests that are carried
ness of a base charge explosive is its volu- on with better confinement and consolidating
metric heat of detonation. Another criterion pressures than occur in service may be mis-
is the detonation pressure. (Detonation leading.

5-20
 AMCP 708-179

TABLE 5-5

HEATS OF EXPLOSION AND DETONATION PRESSURES

Volumetric Heat of Explosion Detonation Pressure

Pressed at 10,000 Pressed at 10,000
Explosive Voidless, cal/cm3 psi, cal/cm3 Voidless, kbar psi, kbar

LeadAzide (dext.) 1450 970 317 158

Lead Azide (pure) 1760 1100 394 161
Tetryl 1900 1720 276 221
PETN 2440 2260 327 264
RDX 2330 2050 354 257
HMX 2580 2070 414 261

5-[Link] EXPLOSIVE QUANTITIES AND explosives loaded at densities well below

DIMENSIONS those usually used in military items. On the
other hand, the effective output of stable
The total energy released by a detonator is detonating explosives increases sharply with
the sum of the products of the heats of density. Thus, a given quantity of inter-
detonation and the quantities of the various mediate or base charge explosive has a maxi-
explosives used. Of this energy, only that mum effective output at some optimum
from the explosive which detonates high density. The value of this optimum is affected
order is effective output. In general, this by the composition and particle size of the
includes the base charge and part of the explosive, the vigor with which it is initiated,
intermediate charge. Where the intermediate the dimensions of the charge, and the confine-
charge is dextrinated lead azide, the fraction ment afforded by surroundings. For the con-
that detonates may vary appreciably with ditions in the usual fuze application, the
loading density, confinement, and lot-to-lot optimum density for dextrinated lead azide—
variations in the lead azide. The azide that and normally used base charge materials—is
actually detonates must be sufficient to obtained by loading at between 10,000 and
initiate the base charge. In current detonator 20,000 psi. As indicated in the foregoing, the
designs, this is assured by the use of at least optima for PVA and RD-1333 lead azide are
100 mg of lead azide. A rule of thumb calls much higher. For most lots of these materials,
for a 0.10 in. minimum column height. The in fact, the optimum loading pressure is
necessary quantities of such materials as PVA, beyond practical limits of production tools.
colloidal, and RD-1333 lead azide are con-
siderably smaller than this. At this time, The optimum density for the initial charge
design practices have not developed to a point of PETN in an exploding bridgeware detonator
where a conservatively reliable minimum is less than 1 g/cm3. For some such devices,
quantity of such materials can be specified. it has been found advantageous to load by
increments at varying densities, increasing in
Most detonators are considerably longer stages, as for example, 1.0, 1.2, 1.4, and 1.6
than their diameters. This configuration is g/cm3. Such gradual increases are less neces-
dictated by both fuze and detonator design sary in PETN than in RDX and other less
considerations. sensitive explosives.
5-[Link] LOADING DENSITY OF EXPLO- 5-[Link] CONFINEMENT OF EXPLOSIVES
SIVES
Confinement is an important factor in both
The growth of detonation is most rapid in the growth of detonation (see par. 2-3.1) and

5-21
AMCP 70G-179

the effective output of stable detonation (see output than have stab or flash detonators of
par. 3-1.2). The confinement of a detonator is nearly identical loading.
somewhat difficult to describe in quantitative
terms, because different properties of the 5-4 CONSTRUCTION AND FABRICATION
confining structure are involved in the promo-
tion of detonation growth and in augmenta- 5-4.1 INITIATOR CUPS
tion of the output of stable detonation, and
because of the relative complexity of the Initiators usually consist of simple cylindri-
structure and configuration of detonators. cal metal cups into which explosives are
The confinement afforded by surrounding pressed and various inert parts inserted. MIL-
fuze structures as well as that of the deto- STD-320h describes design practices and
nator itself can contribute significantly to the specifies the standard dimensions, tolerances,
effective output of a detonator. finishes, and materials for initiator cups. In
general, all initiator designs should conform
In the early stages of the growth of to this standard. However, it is not the intent
detonation, the detonator case, closure, and of the standard to inhibit the development of
the surrounding structure should be con- new concepts so that an occasional departure
sidered as a container of high pressure gases. from the standard may be necessary for
At the earliest stages, tightness (the absence special circumstances.
of leaks) is the most important factor. As the
growth progresses, the strength of the con- An example of a deviation from standard
tainer becomes more important while the design is a coined bottom cup. For flash and
importance of leaks diminishes. stab initiators, it is desirable for the input or
sensitive end to be as thin as practical. Cups
As the detonation approaches its stable with standard holes are used in which the
rate, the pressure exceeds the bursting holes are covered from the inside with thin
strength of any feasible container and con- metal disks. However, this construction
finement is mainly a matter of inertia—the results in a sealing problem at both ends.
confining wall is to reflect as much energy Hermetic sealing of a thin disk in aluminum
back into the explosive as possible. In relative- cups by ultrasonic welding has been achieved
ly thin-walled containers, the confinement in initial experimental work. An alternative
afforded by the inertia of the case is related method, which has been used extensively in
to the weight ratio of case to charge. For recent years, is use of a cup in which the
heavy walls (where the thickness equals or central portion of the bottom is coined to an
exceeds the charge radius), the shock appropriate thickness (see Fig. 5-10). Another
impedance of the surrounding material (Table example of a special-purpose shape is the
3-1) is the best criterion of its effectiveness in concave bottom of the "Mini" detonator (Fig.
confinement. 5-4) that was designed to obtain a shaped
charge effect. The optimum thickness and
The confinement afforded by any compo- shape of the closure at the output end is
nent is related to its proximity to the explo- known to affect the ability of a detonator to
sives. For example, a heavy steel case sur- initiate the next element in the explosive
rounding a thick plastic charge holder con- train. Details in defining the optimum con-
tributes little to the confinement of the figuration have not yet been established.
explosive inside the charge holder.
After drawing, cups are punch trimmed. In
The rearward confinement afforded by the this process, the cup is expanded by means of
plug of an electric detonator can contribute a punch, the diameter of which is slightly
significantly to its ouput. Some of the smaller larger than the outside of the cup, to the
electric detonators have appreciably greater point at which it is to be trimmed. The cup is

5-22
 AMCP 706-179

[Link] IN. WALL THICKNESS

-0.002 IN. BOTTOM

THICKNESS ATTAINED
BY COINING

Figure 5-10. Coined Bottom Cup

PUNCHFOACED CUP PUSHED
INTO CUP THROUGH DIE

then forced through a die that fits the punch,

trimming off the expanded part (Fig. 5-11).

Initiators are usually closed by crimping

with a succession of conical crimping tools
(Fig. 5-12). Cups for flat ended cylindrical
items should be made 0.030 in. longer than ENLARGED SECTION OF RESULTING CUP EDGE
the finished length to allow for crimping.

In selecting one of the standard cup mate- Figure 5-11. Punch Trimming of
rials from MIL-STD-320, it is important to Initiator Cups
consider compatibility of metals with one
another and with the explosives used (see par.
4-3.1).
Where a charge of one explosive is longer
5-4.2 EXPLOSIVE LOADING than its diameter, the usual practice is to load
it in increments not over one diameter long.
Initiators are loaded by pressing powdered Shorter increments are sometimes used for a
explosives into the cup. For details of loading precise control of density.
procedures and considerations, see par. 10-3.
For flash and spotting charges of electric The base charge of electric detonators is
initiators, see par. 5-4.4.5. loaded first, the initiator plug forming the
closure. The usual practice for stab and flash
Most fuze initiators are loaded at between uetonators is to load the sensitive end first.
10,000 and 20,000 psi. Exceptions include Some reasons for this practice are:
percussion and stab priming mixtures and
delay compositions which may be loaded at 1. "Press blows" are most probable when
30,000 to 80,000 psi and the flash charges of pressing the priming mix. Both hazards and
electric initiators which are loaded at 3000 to resulting damage are minimized if this is the
5000 psi, or sometimes are "buttered" into a only material present.
cavity in the form of a paste, including
solvent and binder. 2. The greatest sensitivity of stab mixtures
is obtained when they are loaded at pressures
As suggested in par. 5-[Link], experimental higher than those usually used for inter-
evidence indicates performance advantages mediate and base charges. By loading this
may result from the use of loading pressures material first, the charge may be loaded at
between 40,000 and 80,000 psi with PVA, any appropriate pressure without overpressing
colloidal, and RD-1333 lead azide. the other charges.

5-23
AMCP 706-179

CLOSURE DISK SKIRT OF CUP 5-4.3 MECHANICAL INITIATORS

LOADING TOOL
BUSHING
5-4.3.1 STAB AND FLASH INITIATORS

Stab and flash initiators are the simplest

explosive devices, consisting of a cup filled
with the explosive charges. Where a pierced
cup is used, the opening is covered with a
disk. From the standpoint of compatibility,
TOOL FOR FIRST CRIMP the best disk material is the same as that of
the cup. However, thickness and material of
the disk may be dictated by sensitivity re-
quirements. Paper disks, usually supported by
metal washers, have been used for the closure
of relays where there is no sealing require-
ment because most of the sensitivity gained
by the use of paper is lost if the paper is
coated with sealant. The loading tool base has
a protrusion to fit the pierced hole so as to
form, with the remaining edge of the bottom,
TOOL FOR FINISH CRIMP a flat surface for the support of the disk.
Disks for the closure of the output end are, in
general, somewhat heavier to make crimping
more satisfactory. A commonly used thick-
ness is 0.005 in.

It is the usual practice to paint the ends of

stab and flash initiators with a lacquer type
sealant. Although waterproof seals have been
shown to be effective in most instances,
moisture proofing according to the Tempera-
ture and Humidity Cycling TestJ is seldom
Figure 5-12. Initiator Cup Crimping achieved.

5-4.3.2 PERCUSSION PRIMERS

3. The priming mix, which is most vulner-
able to moisture and other atmospheric gases, A percussion primer consists of a cup, a
is farthest from the crimped end (in a solid small charge of priming mix, and an anvil. A
bottom cup). disk of paper or foil is usually assembled
between the primer charge and the anvil. The
primer cup has an interference fit with the
4. The base and intermediate charges have hole into which it is assembled. Most anvils
their density gradients in the most advanta- are held in place only by a force fit and
geous direction. The greatest density of a protrude beyond the edges of the cups. The
consolidated charge occurs at the punch final seating of the anvils takes place as they
interface end. The reaction propagates from are assembled by pressing in place. This
the low density end, which is most sensitive reconsolidation pressure reduces the height of
to flame or detonation initiation, to the high the primer mix between anvil and cup to a
density encj, which has the most effective minimum. Adequate square shoulders should
output. be provided for the anvil support.

5-24
 AMCP 706-179

The relatively thin layer of priming mix widespread application in explosive actuated
used in percussion primers makes it possible devices, discussed in par. 9-1.
to load these items wet with the expectation
that they can be dried in a reasonable amount 5-4.4.2 BRIDGING TECHNIQUES
of time. Most of the primers used for small
arms are loaded wet (as a paste). Most electric initiators are wire bridge
items, and most of the remainder are film
bridge initiators. Several techniques have been
5-4.4 ELECTRIC INITIATORS developed to apply wires to the electrodes of
the wire bridge type.
5-4.4.1 INITIATOR PLUGS
5-[Link] SOLDERED BRIDGES ON
Electric initiators differ in construction RAISED TERMINALS
from mechanical initiators mainly in that they
include plug assemblies that are essentially the Soldering a bridgeware to a raised terminal
means of supporting and insulating a pair of is, of course, the obvious way to connect one
electrodes. The electric firing stimulus is wire to another. (See M36A1 Detonator, Fig.
carried through these electrodes to bridges or 5-3.) For quantity production, a large number
other means of converting electric energy into of plugs are lined up in a fixture and a length
a form to which the explosive will respond. of the bridging wire is stretched so as to bisect
the tips of the terminals. The group is bridged
Most plugs are molded of phenolic material by touching each tip with a properly tinned
or glass-to-metal seal heads. However, to soldering iron. Subsequent operations include
alleviate the hazard of premature initiation or removal of all flux, trimming the ends of each
degredation due to spurious electrical signals bridge at the outside edges of the terminals,
(i.e., RF energy, lightning, or electrostatic and pinching the terminals together to put a
charges), other materials have been sub- little slack in the wire. Although a hand
stituted for the phenolic plug. These materials process, it is reasonably fast. One of the
include powdered iron and Mn-Zn fer- principal disadvantages of this technique is
rites22'23 that the suspended wire is easily broken by
press loading of the explosive.
The plug may have a front region of
reduced diameter onto which a ferrule or 5-[Link] FLUSH SOLDERED BRIDGES
charge holder is forced to serve as a receptacle
into which the flash charge is pressed or This fastening technique is similar to that
"buttered" (see Fig. 5-3). For wire lead with raised terminals, except that the lead
assemblies, two wires are imbedded in a wires are ground flush with the face of the
phenolic plug with the plug acting as the plug. Explosives may be pressed against such a
insulator. The button type assembly consists bridge. However, buttered or spotted charges
of two concentric stainless steel components, may not contact a flush bridge over as large a
pin and ring shaped plug, cemented together fraction of its surface as they would cover a
and insulated from one another by a thin bridge on raised terminals.
layer of synthetic resin adhesive. In addition
to their ruggedness and adaptability to certain 5-[Link] WELDED BRIDGES
fuze designs, the plugs provide rearward con-
finement that significantly augments the out- Where soldering is impractical, bridgewires
put of the initiators. Glass-kovar plug assem- may be resistance welded. In addition to
blies and other metal ceramic seals provide a eliminating the soldering flux, this technique
basis for the development of hermetically reduces the number of metals involved to a
sealed units. Such assemblies have found minimum. The welding of bridgewires, in its

5-25
AMCP70G-179

ultimate development, is ideal for high rate favorable electrical properties, has resulted in
automatic production. Button type plugs their use in most hot wire initiators, in
when used with wire bridges usually are diameters down to about 0.4 mil. Its extreme-
bridged by welding. ly high tensile strength makes tungsten the
preferred material for extremely small bridge-
5-[Link] GRAPHITE FILM BRIDGES wires. It is available in sizes down to 0.1 mil
and is not too difficult to work with in these
Plugs for graphite bridge initiators are made sizes.
by molding the plastic about a twisted pair of
enameled wires, and then grinding the surface 5-4.4.4 SPARK GAP PLUGS
flush. This leaves a plastic surface with two
metal islands separated by twice the thickness A plug for a spark gap initiator is like a
of the enamel. A droplet of a diluted colloidal plug used for graphite film devices without
suspension of graphite in water is applied over the graphite film. The gap between the
the point of closest approach of these islands terminals is about 0.001 in. or less.
and allowed to dry. While hand daubing of
graphite film remains something of an art, a 5-4.4.5 FLASH AND SPOTTING CHARGES
recently developed automatic bridging ma-
chine has permitted the application of fairly The explosive in intimate contact with the
uniform films24 . electric bridge is called a spotting charge. Only
a small qunatity (on the order of 5 mg) is
5-4.4.3 BRIDGEWIRE MATERIALS used. It is painted on the bridgewire and wire
terminals. Milled lead styphnate or colloidal
Bridgewire is selected first for its resistivity. lead azide mixed with nitrocellulose lacquer
Next its adaptability to the bridging process currently are used as spotting charge. For
and its compatibility with the explosive to be flush bridging, dry pressed flash charges have
used must be considered. The very small size been used in a number of initiators. The pure
of the usual bridgewire results in a situation explosive and uniform density of pressed flash
where an amount of corrosion, which might charges makes them more reproducible, par-
be negligible elsewhere, is sufficient to part ticularly in functioning time.
the wire. These considerations limit the
choice to relatively few materials (see Table The resistance of graphite film bridges is
5-3). stabilized to some extent by covering them
with a relatively thin layer of a lead styphnate
Gold, platinum, and platinum-iridium are lacquer mixture that is applied as a meniscus
nearly impervious to chemical attack, and are to the plug surface. Such a charge, known as a
relatively easy to solder. However, the low spotting charge, is used on some wire bridges
tensile strengths of these materials makes as well as on most graphite film bridges. It has
them difficult to handle without breakage in been found that faster functioning can be
sizes much under a thousandth of an inch. obtained by the use of lead azide, either
They are extensively used in EBW devices milled or colloidal.
(gold, however, can form a solid solution with
certain types of solder; hence care must be A ferrule usually is used to contain part of
taken here). Nichrome and Tophet C are the next or intermediate charge of lead azide.
similar to stainless steel in their corrosion It also provides some protection to the
resistance and compatibility characteristics. bridgewire during assembly of the loaded plug
They can be soldered if plated, but usually are into the cup containig the base and other part
welded. Their higher strength, combined with of the intermediate charge.

5-26
 AMCP 706-179

REFERENCES

a-k Lettered references are listed in the Article 30.0 of the JANAF Fuze Com-
General References at the end of this mittee, 23 October 1963 (AD-831 831).
handbook.
10. W. G Chace and H. K. Moore, Exploding
1. AMCP 706-270, Engineering Design Wires, The Plenum Press, New York,
Handbook, Propellant Actuated Devices. 1959.

2. V. E. Voreck and E. W. Dalrymple, 11. W. M. Slie, An Insensitive Substitute for

Development of an Improved Stab Sensi- Graphite Bridge Detonators for Labora-
tivity Test and Factors Affecting Stab tory Evaluation ofFuze Explosive Trains,
Sensitivity of M-55 Detonators, Report NAVORD Report 45 12, Naval Ordnance
TR 4263, Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J., Laboratory, Silver Spring, Md., 6
June 1972. February 1957.

3. MIL-1-23659 (Wep), Initiators, Electric, 12. The Use of Conductive Mixes in Electro-
Design and Evaluation of, Dept. of De- Explosive Devices, Journal Article 48.0
fense, 18 March 1963. of the JANAF Fuze Committee, 3 May
1967 (AD-829 731).
4. R. H. Stresau, L. D. Hampton, and J.
Kabik, Firing Characteristics of Electric 13. TM 9-1370-200, Military Pyrotechnics,
Initiators Made by the Spray Metal Dept. of Army, September 1966.
Process, Memorandum 10771, Naval
Ordnance Laboratory, Silver Spring, Md., 14. AMCP 706-188, Engineering Design
30 March 1950. Handbook, Military Pyrotechnics, Part
Four, Design of Ammunition for Pyro-
5. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, The technic Effects.
Chemical Rubber Publishing Company,
Cleveland, 45th Ed., 1964-1965. 15. Robert L. Wagner, Shock Initiation
Through A Barrier, Report TR 3085,
6. G. W. Peet and L. F. Gowen, Evaluation Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N. J., Septem-
Test Results on Service and Experimental ber 1963.
Squibs, NAVORD Report 6061, Naval
Ordnance Laboratory, Silver Spring, Md., 16. L. W. Corwin and C S. Greenough,
4 March 1958. "Development of the Saturn V Thru-
Bulkhead Initiator", in Proceedings of
7. W. K. Meyer and R. H. Stresau, Initiation the 6th Symposium on Electroexplosive
Times of Various Primary Explosives, Devices, The Franklin Institute Research
NAVORD Report 2644, Naval Ordnance Laboratories, Philadelphia, Pa., July
Laboratory, Silver Spring, Md., 14 1969,pp. 1-4.1 to 1-4.22.
October 1952.
17. W. B. Freeman, "Through Bulkhead Ini-
8. L. A. Rosenthal, Electro-Thermal Equa- tiator Design Margin Study", in Proceed-
tions for Electro-Explosive Devices, ings of the 6th Symposium on Electroex-
NAVORD Report 6684, Naval Ordnance plosive Devices, The Franklin Institute
Laboratory, Silver Spring, Md., 15 Research Laboratories, Philadelphia, Pa.,
August 1959. July 1969,pp. 2-12.1 to 2-12.18.

9. Exploding Bridgewire Surveys, Journal 18. G. J. Bryan and E. C. Noonan, "Energy

5-27
AMCP 706-179

Requirements for the Ignition of Seven Report 3593, Naval Ordnance Labora-
Solid Explosives", Proc. Royal Society, tory, Silver Spring, Md., 10 December
Series A, Mathematical and Physical 1953.
Sciences, 246, 1245(1958).
22. RF Attenuation of Initiators, Journal
19. Robert L. Wagner, Lead Azides for Use in Article 46.0 of the JANAF Fuze Com-
Detonators, Report TR 2662, Picatinny mittee, 3 May 1967 (AD-828 308).
Arsenal, Dover, N. J., January 1960.
23. AMCP 706-235, Engineering Design
20. R. L. Wagner, Development of a Modified Handbook, Hurdening Weapon Systems
M4 7 Detonator Having Improved Cook- Against RF Energy.
Off Characteristics, Report TR 2519,
Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J., June 24. J. F. Heffron and Paul F. Mohrbach,
1958. Automatic Bridging Mechanism for Elec-
tric Detoiiators (U), Report F-A2352,
21. W. Slie,^4 Study of Output of Detonators The Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, Pa.,
Versus Internal Design Factors of May 1961 (AD-326 667) (Confidential
Limited External Dimensions, NAVORD report).

5-28
 AMCP 706-179

CHAPTER 6

DELAY ELEMENTS

6-1 DESCRIPTION 6-1.2 DELAY TYPES

6-1.1 FUNCTION AND CONSTRUCTION 6-1.2.1 OBTURATED (SEALED) DELAYS

Many tactical situations call for the intro- Obturated delay elements are so con-
duction of a time delay between an input structed as to retain all g a ~e\mitted by the
stimulus and firing. A variety of mechanical initiator and the delay element until the relay
and electrical devices has been employed to or other base charge explodes. This class
delay the firing of explosive materiel8. How- includes also the so-called "internally vented"
ever, we arc concerned here with the prolon- delays2.
gation of the burning phase to provide this
delay. As pointed out in par. 2-2.1, burning Advantages of obturated delays include the
forms an important part of the growth of inherent independence of these necessarily
detonation. Hence, it is one of the simplest well sealed units from effects of pressure or
means for providing delay. It is usually humidity of the ambient atmosphere, and the
desirable to interpose a column of a special absence of fumes that might have harmful
delay material in which the rate of burning is effects on other components of a system.
more readily controlled than in material Obturation also helps in the design of short
predisposed to the growth of explosion. Since delays because the resulting increase in pres-
burning rates are affected by such conditions sure increases the burning rate.
as pressure and temperature and their gradi-
ents, it is necessary to take these effects into Obturated delays are either percussion or
consideration when designing initiators for electrically initiated. The principal use of
delay columns and selecting inert components percussion primers in explosive trains is for
in which they are housed. the initiation of delay elements. In this
application, their main advantage over stab
In its barest essentials, a delay element is a primers is their adaptability to obturated
metal tube with an initiator (a primer) at one systems. A typical percussion initiated
end (see par. 5-1.3), a delay column in the obturated delay system is shown in Fig. 6-1".
middle, and a relay or other output charge at Note the heavy construction, to contain the
the other end. In addition, depending upon pressure, and the expansion chamber. Some
the application and the delay material used, delays contain baffles beyond the primer to
the element may include baffles, igniter mixes prevent erratic delay times caused by penetra-
at one or both ends of the delay, a housing, tion of the delay column by hot primer
and provision for internal free volume. Delay particles, erosion by the action of the gas
elements are subdivided according to con- stream, or cracking by the shock wave.
struction into the two main divisions of
obturated (sealed) and vented. Representative The obturated delay elements that are
delays covering various time ranges have been electrically initiated are of two types. Some
compiled in a compendium'. are essentially the same as percussion initiated

6-1
AMCP 706-179

OBTURATED PRIMER
NON-FLANGE TYPE

0.272
EXPANSION CHAMBER

PELLET RETAINER

DELAY PELLET

RELAY DETONATOR

MAIN DETONATOR

ALL DIMENSIONS
IN INCHES 0.242

Figure 6-1. Obturated Delay Element of Bomb Fuze, ANM100A2

items with electric initiators in place of the which gases may escape. As delays become
percussion primers. Others are military adap- longer, the amount of gas they produce and
tations of commercial delay blasting caps. The consequently the internal volume needed in
MARK 35 Detonator (Fig. 6-2a) is an an obturated delay element increases to a
example of such an adaptation. The delay point where the units become too bulky. In
powder is loaded, at bulk density, into a lead practice, before this point is reached, vented
tube of larger than the intended finished delays are used. These designs are usually
diameter. The tube is then drawn to size, more reproducible in functioning time than
consolidating the explosive. obturated delays because the tolerances in
internal volume, size of priming charge, and
In the Electric Delay Detonator T65 (Fig. gaseous impurities in the delay element have a
6-33) advantage is taken of the small size of cumulative effect of varying pressure and,
spotting charges of recently developed electric hence, burning rate of the delay columns of
initiators and of the modern gasless delay obturated items.
compositions to eliminate baffle and air
space. There may be some question as to Vents must be kept closed until the devices
whether the T65 remains obturated through- are fired to protect primer and delay column
out its delay period because the gas produced from moisture and other atmospheric de-
is enough to cause high pressure. Occasional terioration. Fig. 6-Aa shows two means for
fast times observed during development of sealing vents. (A) covering them with disks,
T65 Detonators indicate that those which and (B) providing a soft plug to blow out
have satisfactory delay times do so only under the action of the primer.
because they leak. However, the advantage of
a sealed unit in storage is realized. 6-1.2.3 RING-TYPE DELAY
6-1.2.2 VENTED DELAYS
The ring-type delay is a special type of
Vented delays have openings through vented delay and is therefore discussed sepa-

6-2
 AMCP 706-179

GASLESS STARTER MIX DELAY MIXTURE

BARIUM PEROXIDE
SELENIUM

BASE CHARGI
MATCH HEAD XC -» PRIMER MIX PETN

Figure 6-2. Electric Delay Detonator, MARK 35 MOD 1

rately. The delay consists of a column of The pressure evolved by burning black
black powder which is wound through the powder can be used to give delays in the order
fuze cavity (Fig. 6-54 ). The ring-type delay is of 1-6 msec. The principle involves a rapid
generally so large as to comprise a large part build-up in pressure and terminates in the
of a fuze. The delay time of the M54 Fuze rupture of a disk. Designs based on this
can be set at any desired value from 0.4 to 25 principle can be vented or obturated. Fig.
sec by rotating the calibrated ring, thus 6-6a shows a delay based on this principle,
varying the length of the delay train which using a vented type with baffle.
must be traversed by the flame between the
primer and the output charge. 6-2 DELAY COMPOSITIONS

6-1.2.4 DELAYS ACHIEVED BY METH- 6-2.1 GAS-PRODUCING DELAY CHARGES

ODS OTHER THAN CONTROLLED
RATE BURNING 6-2.1.1 LOADING PRESSURE

Ignition of one charge by another may be Since the burning of gas producing mate-
delayed by control of the heat transfer rials depends upon the transfer of heat be-
process. An experimental design in which tween the gaseous reaction products and the
primer and output relay were separated by a solid, the burning rate is a direct function of
baffle with relatively small ports, to delay pressure. Thus, the delay times of such delays
initiation of the relay until sufficient gas has are greatly influenced by all factors that
passed through the ports, was not successful3. affect the gas pressure at the burning surface.
The burning surface, of course, is aU of the
surface exposed to the gas, including that of
IGNITION CHARGE DELAY CHARGE
LEAD PEROXIDE 707c BARIUM CHROHATE 90%
BORON 30% BORON 10%

COLLOIDAL GRAPHITE
BRIDGE

Figure 6-4. Sealing Methods for

Figure 6-3. Electric Delay Detonator, T65 Vented Delays

6-3
AMCP 70G-179

A-HEAD
■--FIRING PIN
C—SUPPORT
D—WIRE
I—DETONATOR
f—PLUNGER
G—PIN
H~ STRIKER
J—FLASH HOLE
K—FIXED TIME RING
I—PELLET
M—VENT
N—SLACK POWDER
-r (MOVABLE TIME
~]RING
9—PELLET
■—BODY
S—INTERRUPTER
T—MAGAZINE CHARGE
U—PELLET
V_PR|MER

BAFFLE
THROTTLING
WASHER
FELT WASHER
PELLET RING
OR CONTAINER
— RUPTURE DIAPHRAGM
(0.005 IN. PIG TIN)
THROTTLING
ORIFICE (.035 DETONATOR
INCH DIAMETER)

DEL« PELLET

MUNBmBHSIONS

SECTION X-X

Figure 6-6. Pressure Type Delay

point at which a cylindrical pellet would

break free and initiate the relay would be
determined by such random considerations as
Figure 6-5. Fuze M54 surface roughness. The time of breakthrough
is made more definite by pressing an accelera-
tion cavity in the output end of the pellet.
pores and cracks that the gas may penetrate. The pellet is supported by a washer or the
The largest class of gas producing delays are relay detonator cup (Fig. 6-7a).
black powder elements3.
6-2.1.3 EFFECTS OF MOISTUREAND
Reproducible behavior of any delay re- TEMPERATURE
quires that it burn as a continuous homoge-
neous substance. Porosity can result in a The effect of moisture on the burning rate
discontinuous relationship between interface of black powder is quite complex. For this
pressure and burning rate. Black powder reason, black powder delay elements must be
delays therefore are loaded at 60,000 psi or kept dry. Effects of temperature extremes on
more. When a long column is required, it is performance of black powder delay elements
pressed in increments, each pellet being no vary appreciably from one delay to another.
longer than its diameter (see par. 10-3.1.2). The spread of data almost invariably increases
at extreme temperatures. It may be suspected
6-2.1.2 PELLET SUPPORT that these variations are related to subtle
design details.
As a gas producing delay burns, the surface
in frictional contact with the walls diminishes. 6-2.1.4 OBTURATED DELAYS
In addition, for obturated (sealed) delays, the
pressure increases as burning progresses. The In an obturated system, the pressure in the

6-4
 AMCP 706-179

Wd - weight of delay composition, mg

V = enclosed free volume, in?

6-2.1.5 VENTED DELAYS

The burning rate of a gas producing mate-

RELAY DETONATOR (AZIDE)
rial is, in general, nearly proportional to
Figure 6-7. Support of Delay Pellet pressure. At atmospheric pressure, a vented
black powder delay column 0.125 in. in
diameter, pressed at 65,000 psi, burns at an
enclosed free volume is increased, quickly at inverse rate of about 5.5 sec/in.
first, by the primer or flash charge and then
progressively by the gas liberated by the When mounted in fuzes, vented delays
burning of the delay column. The result is must be located so as to vent to the outside or
that the burning rate (which usually is nearly to a relatively large volume. If other compo-
proportional to pressure) accelerates con- nents of the fuze also occupy the volume,
tinuously. The burning rate does not increase account must be taken of the effects of
directly with the column length unless the gaseous combustion products on these
free volume is also increased. This require- components.. Since the behavior of black
ment for a volume more or less proportional powder is adversely affected by moisture,
to the delay time limits obturated gas produc- vents must be sealed until the delay is
ing delays to about 0.4 sec with the common initiated. Two methods of sealing are shown
diameter columns of 0.1 to 0.125 in. The in Fig. 6-4.
delay time of an obturated delay element, in
addition to its direct relationship to the free 6-2.2 GASLESS DELAY CHARGES
volume, is inversely related to the gas volume
and heat of explosion of the primer (Fig. 6-2.2.1 DELAY COMPOSITIONS
6-8a).
The limitations of gas producing delay
If the pressure rise in an obturated system compositions and the inherent problems as-
is sufficient to cause bursting or significant sociated with their design have led to the
leakage, the overall burning time will be development of gasless delay mixes. It is
greatly increased or the delay charge may not possible to write stoichiometric equations for
sustain its burning. The pressure may be many highly exothermal reactions that pro-
calculated from thermodynamic consideration duce no gaseous products. A larger number of
of heat and gas volume liberated by the these have been considered and many sub-
primer and delay column and the enclosed jected to experimental investigations6"9 .
free volume in which the gases are confined. However, most of them have been discarded
For design test purposes, the following for one or another of the following reasons:
emperical equation gives a reasonable estimate
1. Erratic burning rates
P = 30(Wp +Wd)/V,Vsi (6-1)
2. Too large column diameter necessary
where for reliable propagation

P = pressure, psi 3. Large temperature coefficient of burn-

ing rate

W = weight of priming composition, mg 4. Failure at low temperatures

6-5
AMCP 706-179

I.U 0.017
3
a
t-

lo.8
UJ
0.015
2 ""A
UJ ui
a
z
<
UJ
-^B
*3 0.6 0.013*
a.
5 A- GAS IMPULSE, IN. x 10

< ^C B- RESIOUAL GAS VOLUME,

ARBITRARY UNITS
UJ"

I 0.4
c- AVERAGE RELATIVE ENERGY OUTPUT,
0.01
_i
o D- DELAY TIME, SEC
> D^-^
en
<
0.2 a.009
10 20 25 30 35
CHARGE WEIGHT, mg

Figure 6-8. Characteristics of an Obturated Black Powder Delay Element

5. Hygroscopicity sitions are too insensitive to be initiated

directly by the agent used in the particular
6. Rapid deterioration application. These ignition powders also can
be used in systems requiring very short time
7. Unavailability of reproducible supply of (microsecond or millisecond) delays. Table
raw materials 6-2 gives the compositions of igniter mixes
used in gasless delay elements.
8. Large pressure coefficient of burning
rate Note that these are all gasless mixtures that
also have application as gasless delay mix-
9. Failure at low pressure tures. They differ from the mixtures of Table
6-1 in that they burn faster and are readily
10. Reaction products liquid or otherwise ignitible.
subject to movement from acceleration during
burning. 6-2.2.3 PROPERTIES OF DELAY AND
IGNITION POWDERS
Table 6-1 lists the gasless delay combina-
tions in. current use. The range of composi- 6-[Link] PROPERTIES OF INTEREST
tions given for some of the combinations
allows for adjustment of the burning rates In addition to burning rates, properties of
over wide ranges. delay powders of interest include variability
of burning rate, temperature coefficient of
6-2.2.2 IGNITION POWDERS burning rate, pressure coefficient of burning
rate, effects of storage (both wet and dry),
A column of gasless delay composition is effects of column diameter, and obturation
usually preceded by a charge of igniter mix. and mechanical properties. Other special
Igniters are necessary when the delay compo- problems may be associated with the use of

6-6
 AMCP 706-179

TABLE 6-1

GASLESS DELAY COMPOSITIONS IN CURRENT USE

Fuel Oxidant Inert

Boron Barium Chromic None

chromate oxide
4 to 11 89 to 96 -
13to 15 40 to 44 41 to 46
Manganese Barium Lead None
chromate chromate
45 to 30 0to40 15to70
20 to 50 70 to 40 10 None
Molybdenum Barium Potassium
chromate perchlorate
20 to 30 70 to 60 10
Ni-Zr Barium Potassium None
Alloy chromate perchlorate
60 14
Ni-Zr Mix Barium Poatssium None
chromate perchlorate
5/31 22 42
5/17 70 8
Selenium Barium - Talc
Peroxide 0.5 (added)
84 16
Selenium Ba02 - Tin/lead alloy
20 80 powder
(15/85)
20
Silicon Red Lead - Celite
20 80 max. 8 parts
by weight
Tungsten Barium Potassium Diatomaceous
chromate perchlorate earth
27 to 39 59 to 46 9.6 5 to 12
39 to 87 46 to 5 4.8 3 to 10
Zirconium Lead — None
dioxide
28 72

one or another type of composition. Before quent treatment of the ignition, and delay
discussing these properties, it should be powders. It should not be assumed that
stressed that they are affected by such vari- similar properties will be observed in all
ables as particle size, particle size distribution, mixtures of the same nominal chemical com-
intimacy and uniformity of mixture, relative position. The description of the compounding
distribution of components of a mixture, and of delay compositions is beyond the scope of
impurities that are not readily detectable. To this handbook.
control these variables, relatively elaborate
6-[Link] BURNING RATES
procedures have been established for the
procurement, characterization, and treatment Table 6-3] ° gives the ranges of burning
of raw materials, and the mixing and subse- rates of current gasless delay compositions.

6-7
AMCP 706-179

TABLE 6-2 TABLE 6-3

IGNITION POWDERS FOR GASLESS BURNING RATES OF GASLESS

DELAY ELEMENTS DELAY COMPOSITIONS

Fuel Oxidant Inert Approximate

Inverse
Boron (30) Lead - Designa- Burning Rate,
Composition* tion sec/in.
peroxide (70)
Boron (10) Barium - BaCrO, /Cr2 Q /B 4.5-8.5
chromate (90) 44/41/15 4.5
Zirconium (41) Ferric oxide (49) Diatomaceous 44/42/14 6.5
41/44/13 8.5
(10)earth
Zirconium (65) Ferric oxide (25) Diatomaceous
BaCrO, /B
(10) earth (amorphous) 0.5-3.5
Zirconium (33) Ferric oxide (50) - (crystalline) 9-12.5
Titanium (17) 9515 1.5
90110 0.6

BaCrO, /KCIO„/W
The variation of burning time within a lot of 40110/50 12.5
70/10120 41
delay elements is expressed as a coefficient of
variation, the standard deviation of the burn- BaCrO, /KCI04/(Zr-Ni|(alloys) 3-11
ing time expressed as a percentage of the total 60/14/9(70-301/17(30-70) Type II 6
60/14/3(70-301/23(30/70) Type III 11
burning time. Under controlled laboratory
conditions, the coefficients of variation of BaCrO, /PbCr04/Mn D-16 2.5-12.5
most of the materials listed are three percent 0145155 2.17
30133137
or less. 9.45
30133137 16.58

Lot-to-lot variability may be compensated BaO,/Se/Talc 2.3

by adjusting the length of the delay column 84/16/0.5 added

for each new lot of delay composition or by Red Lead/Si/Celite 4-11

adding appropriate ingredients and remixing 80/20/3 to 7 added
to speed up or slow down the mixture.
PbO,/2r 28/72
Variation may be greatly reduced by careful <0.5

control of raw materials and preparation Zr/Ni/BaCr04/KCI04

procedures. 5/31/42/22 T-2 6.5
5/1717018 HP-25 17.8
Coefficients of variation as small as three "Numbers given are percentages
percent, however, cannot be expected in
practical delay elements. Variations in other
components than the delay column con- lower than those of most explosive reactions,
tribute to the variability. In general, these it is to be expected that temperatures of —65"
other variations affect the shorter delays most to +125°F, the usually specified operating
seriously. range of military materiel, should have a
significant effect. In general, the effect is
6-[Link] EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE more than is desirable, experimental results
AND STORAGE ranging up to 25% variation.

Since the burning of a pyrotechnic delay A number of delay compositions have been
composition is essentially a heat transfer stored at both high and low humidity'*. All
process and since the peak temperatures are those tested survived the low humidity

6-8
 AMCP 706-179

storage without failure whereas a number of 6-[Link] PARTICLE SIZE

mixes failed after high humidity storage. It
was concluded that the mixes will survive The effect of particle size on the inverse
storage in well sealed packages. Effect of burning rates of delay compositions is nearly
surveillance on burning rates was inconsistent, direct. In addition to increasing the burning
some mixes slowing down 6% while others rate (faster burning), reduction of the particle
accelerated up to 30%. It is not clear whether size tends to reduce the effects of tempera-
the tests demonstrated the effectiveness of ture and pressure.
the seal or the moisture resistance of the
delay composition. 6-2.2.4 DESIGN, FABRICATION, AND
LOADING
6-[Link] EFFECTS OF REDUCED PRES-
SURE An ideal delay composition would be a
material which, once ignited, would burn at a
In some applications, vented delay systems uniform rate that is independent of all sur-
are required to operate at high altitudes. rounding conditions. This ideal has not been
Many compositions are affected appreciably attained. Reasonable performance of a delay
at low pressures. Some of the slower mixes element demands that the design take into
with crystalline boron, for example, could not account the effects of various conditions
be initiated at pressures less than 50 to 2000 upon the behavior of the composition.
mm of Hg. One molybdenum mix at 40 mm,
the lowest pressure at which it would ignite, 6-[Link] LOADING PRESSURE
doubled its burning time as compared with
normal atmospheric conditions. Data relating burning rate to density for
barium chromate/boron compositions are
given in Table 64. Similar results necessarily
will not be found with other compositions.
6-[Link] EFFECTS OF ACCELERATION The rather small and systematic change of
burning rate with loading pressure suggests
Delay elements are often subjected to very that considerable latitude is available to the
high accelerations while the delay composi- designer and that adjustment of pressure
tion is burning. If the structure of the might be a convenient way to compensate for
material at or behind the reaction front is too lot-to-lot variations in burning rate. However,
weak, the accelerations may cause the hot considerations of ruggedness have resulted in
products to lose contact with the unburned the practice of loading gasless delays at
delay composition or a subsequent charge, pressures between 30,000 and 40,000 psi. In
and extinguish the reaction. this respect, it should be borne in mind that a
crack in a delay column can result in a "blow
Although quantitative data regarding the through" and instantaneous functioning. For
resistance of delay compositions to this type best results, delay columns and igniter charges
of failure are not available, the "slag reten- should be loaded in increments not over
tion"—the fraction of the weight of the one-half diameter long.
original charge remaining in an open ended
delay column after functioning—has been 6-[Link] COLUMN DIAMETER
used as a qualitative indication of this prop-
erty and the relative gaslessness of the com- Radial losses of heat can retard or extin-
position. Slag retentions are in the following guish the burning of a delay column. Such
descending order: Red lead, 90%-95%; tung- losses, of course, become more serious as the
sten, >88%; Ni/Zr, 80%90%; Boron, column diameter, burning rate, and ambient
50%-90%. temperature are reduced, and these effects

6-9
AMCP 706-179

TABLE 6-4

EFFECTOF LOADING PRESSURE ON BaCr04-B COMPOSITIONS

Loading Pressure, 103 psi

95/5BaCr04-B 36 18 9 3.6 1.3 0.5

Mean burning rate, sec/in. 1.69 1.60 1.49 1.39 1.29 1.21
Mean burning rate, sec/g 0.648 0.655 0.645 0.642 0.646 0.693
% Coefficient of Variation 1.2 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8

90/10 BaCr04-B

Mean burning rate, sec/in. 0.670 0.653 0.619 0.586 0.558 0.544
Mean burning rate, sec/g 0.272 0.276 0.280 0.287 0.297 0.309
% Coefficient of Variation 1.5 0.9 1.1 1.6 2.0 1.8

combine to result in a failure diameter asso- conductor might accelerate burning by pre-
ciated with delay mix and temperature (see heating the column ahead of the burning
Table 6-5). For practical manganese delay front' ' .
mixtures at 65°F, the quarter-inch diameter
usually used is well above the failure di- The strength of the delay body can be
ameter. important. Yielding under the loading pres-
sure has been found to result in erratic delay
times' 2. Stress analysis of the body as a tube
TABLE 6-5 stressed hydraulically is a conservative means
of assuring adequate strength. However,
FAILURE DIAMETER VARIATION OF experience indicates that delay bodies will
MANGANESE COMPOSITIONS AT -65°F usually give satisfactory results under condi-
tions such that calculated stress is well be-
Inverse Burning Rate, Failure Diameter,
yond the yield point.
sec/i n. in.

3 < 0.109
10 0.125-0.156 6-3 DESIGN PRINCIPLES
12.5 0.156-0.203
6-3.1 OBTURATED VS VENTED DESIGN

6-[Link] WALL THICKNESS The harmful effects of moisture and other

atmospheric gases make sealed delay elements
The body into which a delay is loaded desirable in all cases and mandatory for
serves as a heat sink. Metals in general are situations where an element that must be
much,better conductors of heaf'than is the exposed to normal storage and handling con-
delay composition. Delay columns close to ditions contains materials that fail after
their low temperature failure diameters tend humid surveillance. Obturated delays in-
to have larger thermal coefficients as the herently are sealed.
surrounding wall thickness is increased. For
materials well above their failure diameters, Delay powders are divided into two cate-
the effect of wall thickness becomes less gories, those whose reaction products are
important. It has been suggested that a body largely gaseous, and those known as gasless.
with very thin walls of a good thermal All current design effort has been applied to

6-10
 AMCP 706-179

the latter that lend themselves to obturated 2. Use obturated or internally vented con-
design. struction where practical.
3. Where obturated construction is imprac-
The term gasless must not be taken literal-
tical, use a seal that opens at ignition.
ly. Gasless delay compositions produce some
gas, chiefly as a result of impurities. Gas 4. If a sealed unit is not practical, use
quantity is much less predictable than that of delay compositions of demonstrated resis-
gaseous delays. For this reason, it is the best tance to conditions of high humidity.
practice to use an internal volume large
enough so that the effect of pressure build-up 5. Calculate the effect of cumulative toler-
on the delay time is negligible. This is quite ances upon such pertinent factors as internal
practical in relatively short delays. However, free volume.
as the length, and consequently the amount 6. Provide for adequate free volume in
of delay powder increases, the required free obturated units.
volume also increases, so a delay element can
get quite bulky. Such considerations often 7. Analyze stresses induced by both inter-
drive the designer to the use of a vented nal and external forces which may be antici-
system. pated during loading, shipping, launching, and
operation.
6-3.2 DESIGN RULESOFTHUMB
8. Make sure that all components will
Because delay compositions are metastable survive these stresses taking into account the
materials containing all ingredients necessary elevated temperatures that result from burn-
for self-propagating reaction, their burning is ing of the delay column.
metastable. The effect of any factor which
9. Specify adequate loading pressures (at
tends to cause an increase or decrease in
least 60,000 psi for gas producing composi-
burning rate is exaggerated. For this reason,
tions and at least 30,000 psi for gasless delay
satisfactory performance requires accurate
powders) and short enough increments (one-
control of all such factors. Control must be
half diameter).
maintained from the procurement of raw
materials until the munition, of which the 10. Provide for proper support of delay
delay is a component, reaches its target. The column.
following rules should govern the designer:
11. Use diameters well above failure diam-
1. Use delay compositions prepared by a eter at -65°F. (Usual practice is 0.2 or 0.25
well established procedure from ingredients of in. for gasless mixtures; 0.1 or 0.125 in. for
known and controlled characteristics. black powder.)

REFERENCES

a-k Lettered references are listed in the H. S. Leopold and E. E. Kilmer, An

General References at the end of this Investigation of Internal Venting far De-
handbook. lay Actuators, NAVORD Report 5724,
Naval Ordnance Laboratory, Silver
1. A Compendium of Pyrotechnic Delay Spring,Md., 10 September 1957.
Devices, Journal Article 31.0 of the
JANAF Fuze Committee, 23 October D. E. Seeger and R. E. Trezona,Deve/op-
1963,AD-474 833. ment of the 50 Millisecond-Delay T65

6-11
AMCP 706-179

Electric Detonator, Report TR 2594, Laboratory, Silver Spring, Md., 14 March

Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J., April 1951.
1959.
9. Effect Of Loading Variables on the Burn-
4. TM 9-13 00-203, Artillery Ammu- ing Characteristics of Delay Powders,
nition for guns, howitzers , NAVORD Report 2262, Naval Ordnance
mortars, and recoilless rifles. Laboratory, Silver Spring, Md., December
DA, 6 April 1967. 1951.

10. M. F. Murphy, A Comparative Study of

5. J. Squier and L. Zernow, Short Delay
Five Pyrotechnic Delay Compositions,
Baffle Detonators for Antiaircraft Con-
NAVORD Report 5671, Naval Ordnance
tact Fuzes, BRL Report 690, Aberdeen
Laboratory, Silver Spring, Md., 2 April
Proving Ground, Md., February 1949.
1958.
6. David Hart, Long-Range Development of 11. B. A. Breslow and R. K. Blanche, Sr.,
Delay Powders for Ammunition Fuze Development of a Short-Time Interval
Application, Report TR 1733, Picatinny Fuze Delay Element for 2.75-inch Fold-
Arsenal, Dover, N.J., 7 June 1949. ing Fin Aircraft Rocket, NAVORD Re-
port 3333, Naval Ordnance Test Station,
7. Burton Werbel, Development of Delay China Lake, Calif., May 1954.
Powders, Report TR 2249, Picatinny
Arsenal, Dover, N.J., September 1955. 12. E. E. Kilmer, The Development of the
XE-57B Delay Primerfor the Picket Bout
8. R. Comyn and R. Dwiggins, Surveillance Depth Charge Pistol, NAVORD Report
Characteristics of Gasless Igniters, 6092, Naval Ordnance Laboratory, Silver
NAVORD Report 1774, Naval Ordnance Spring, Md., 13 October 1958.

6-12
 AMCP 706-179

CHAPTER 7

LEADS AND BOOSTERS

7-1 DESCRIPTION make up the auxiliary arming device. It is the

purpose of the auxiliary arming device to
7-1.1 GENERAL prevent initiation of the booster in .the event
of a premature functioning of the fuze deto-
Leads and boosters are those components nator. When armed by setback and centrifugal
of the explosive train whose functions are (1) forces of firing, the booster detonator moves
the transmission of the detonation established into line with the fuze detonator. The explo-
by the detonator, and (2) its augmentation to sive train is then complete so that the
a level such that the main charge is initiated detonator in the fuze initiates the booster
reliably. They are the most flexible tools of detonator which in turn sets off lead and
the explosive train designer and they are the booster charge. This is an example of a
components most influenced in operation by complex booster. Usually the booster consists
his decision regarding the design of inert only of a booster charge and a housing. The
parts. They are relatively simple in function safing and arming device normally is part of
and fabrication. the fuze explosive train.

The explosive contained in a booster is Fig. 7-22 illustrates the use of boosters in
called a booster charge. In common usage, the spit-back systems. Two booster charges are
term booster charge is abbreviated to booster. required for this application, the donor (aux-
Actually, a booster consists of a housing and iliary booster) at the end of the fuze explosive
other metal parts, the booster charge and, as a train and the receiver (booster) at the bottom
special feature, an auxiliary arming device. We of the projectile cavity. Operation of this fuze
are concerned here only with booster charges. is discussed in par. 7-2.5.

Figs. 7-1 to 7-3 are sectional views of Finally, Fig. 7-3* shows a typical small
typical military items that illustrate the use of caliber fuze with booster charge. Because of
leads and boosters. Fig. 7-1J shows a com- the compactness of the 20 mm fuze, no lead
plete booster, the M21A4, that is employed is required. When the fuze is armed, the firing
with point-detonating fuzes to effect the pin initiates the detonator that sets off the
functioning of projectiles. The external booster directly. This figure illustrates that
threads screw into the projectile so that the booster design is not hard and fast. Here the
booster rests in the fuze well. The internal booster acts as an auxiliary booster while the
threads hold the nose fuze, one of the M48 top-off charge loaded into the projectile acts
family. as a booster (see also Fig. 1-2).

The booster consists of two parts that 7-1.2 FUNCTIONS

thread together, (1) the booster charge N(a
tetryl pellet) held in the aluminum booster 7-1.2.1 LEADS
cup M and (2) the brass housing A that
contains detonator E, lead L, and a rotor as In some constructions, the separation be-
well as a variety of pins and springs which tween detonator and the next charge may be

7-1
AMCP 708-179

7-1.2.2 BOOSTERS

The main charges of high explosive materiel

are as insensitive as it is practical to make
them. Detonators and leads are as small as is
consistent with reliability. In general, neither
detonators nor leads are in themselves suf-
ficient to initiate main charge explosives
A-BODY
I COVER reliably. Boosters are elements of sufficient
C ONIONSKIN PAPER
D-ROTOR STOP PIN
C-OETONATOR
output to detonate main charges reliably
r ROTOR
G-ROTOR LOCK PIN when initiated by detonators or leads. Hence,
M ROTOR LOCK
PIN LOCK
J PIN
the main function of the booster is to
K-PIVOT PIN
L BOOSTER LEAD augment the detonation wave.
«-BOOSTER CUP
M-BOOSUR CHARGE
P-tOCK PIN

Generally, boosters are loaded with the

same or similar explosives to those used in the
base charges of detonators and in leads.
Therefore, their intensity as characterized by
Figure 7-1. Booster, M21A4 velocity of propagation, pressure, tempera-
ture, and particle velocity is not distinguished
from that of detonators and leads. However,
since the booster charge is larger, its output is
correspondingly greater.
short, while in others, the detonator is
mounted remotely from the booster. A lead is 7-1.3 EXPLOSIVES
used to transmit the detonation from deto-
nator to booster when the gap is too large for For many years tetryl was the standard
direct transmission. Leads are also used when lead and booster explosive. It is still used in
complexity or safety of the train demands much service ammunition.. Many of the princi-
them. These various circumstances have re- pal rules of thumb, practices, and procedures
sulted in the evolution of a wide variety of that serve as guides in the design and loading
leads. Some are simple cylindrical charges of of explosive components and systems derive
relatively small length-to-diameter ratios and in part from the properties of tetryl. For this
others are quite long. Some transmit detona- reason, tetryl has served as a standard of
tion around corners or angles and others are comparison for booster explosives. It has
flexible. given rise to such design guidance as "no lead
or booster shall be more sensitive than
While the function of a lead is merely the tetryl", at least in the U.S. Navy. Quantitative
transmission of a detonation, in practice leads criteria for the acceptability of explosives
are often used to augment the output of below the train interrupter have not yet been
detonators. This is done because, for reasons established3. However, Ref. 4 is the result of
discussed in par. 3-1, boosters are generally efforts by the services, under the leadership of
harder to initiate than leads and because leads the Navy, in this direction.
are often called upon to initiate subsequent
charges across large gaps or through heavy There are a number of objections to tetryl.
barriers. On the other hand, it is possible to It is expensive to manufacture, causes air
design detonators with output adequate for pollution, and has undesirable dye charac-
the direct initiation of boosters, even where teristics. For these reasons, the manufacture
gaps are appreciable, In fuzes for small arms, of tetryl is being terminated. However, a
leads usually are not necessary (see Fig. 7-3). universally accepted substitute has not yet

7-2
 AMCP 708-179

-BOOSTER (BARE POLYSTYRENE BONDED RDX PELLET) AUXILIARY BOOSTER MI22

-MAIN CHARGE DETONATOR

-SPIT-BACK TUBE

Figure 7-2. 2.75-in. HEA T Rocket With Spit-back Explosive System

been agreed upon. RDX containing a maxi- state of aggregation of the explosive, and the
mum of 2% wax (acting as a binder-lubricant) dimensions of the explosive elements. The
is used in many current Army designs. HMX effects of these variables interact to make
and other explosives have been found to be quantitative prediction difficult unless the
advantageous for some applications. MIL- experiment is a reasonably accurate simula-
STD-13165 lists HNS, DIPAM, and CH6. All tion of the conditions of use. Fortunately, the
of these are expensive and, in addition, CH6 design and loading practices for leads and
does not work well in trains3. Recently, boosters are well enough standardized that a
Compositions A-3, A-4, and A-5 have been relatively modest test schedule can be devised
recommended as interim materials4. to include conditions representative of all but
highly specialized applications.
An essential feature of any military explo-
sive item is the safety provision of the fuze. Table 3-3 is a list of the sensitivities of
This feature would lose its purpose if the various booster explosives as measured by
sensitivity of the leads and booster were not several techniques. For comparison, a few
limited. On the other hand, the booster must typical main charge explosives have been
be sensitive enough to detonate reliably when included. Note that the presence of one or
initiated by means of a detonator or explosive two percent of calcium stearate or wax has an
lead. Thus, maximum and minimum allowable adverse effect upon the sensitivity of RDX to
limits of sensitivity must be closer together initiation. Some designers have considered
for lead or booster explosive than for other these materials only as binder-lubricants for
explosives. Considerations of design economy the improvement of loading properties, over-
and of safety and reliability determinations looking their effects upon sensitivity. For this
tend to compress these limits still further. reason, notations appear in drawings or speci-
fications indicating that "up to I percent" of
The explosive material used in the booster these materials may be added. The variation
is somewhat more sensitive than the main allowed by such notations can result in a
charge, is smaller than the main charge, and is change in gap sensitivity by a factor of three
less sensitive than the previous explosive or four. This is sufficient to make the
components. It should be remembered that difference between a highly reliable system
initiation sensitivity is a function of a number and one that is almost completely inoperable.
of variables of the experimental system in-
cluding the agency of energy transfer, the In choosing an explosive material for a
confinement of the explosive elements, the booster, both the design of inert parts and

7-3
AMCP 706-179

FIRING PIN ROTOR particularly when plastic bonded6, are

markedly superior to tetryl.

DETONATOR BOOSTER Most boosters are pressed as pellets. Pure

RDX forms low density, crumbly, pellets
when pressed at 5,000-15,000 psi, and, at
high pressures, the pellets are so brittle that
they often break as they are pushed from the
die. RDX Class C was developed to alleviate
this difficulty that may be further reduced by
the addition of one or two percent of a
binder-lubricant.

Polystyrene bonded RDX 9/91 (PB-RDX)

was origninally intended as a compound for
hot molding as a plastic. However, it can be
press loaded at ordinary room temperatures
like other powdered explosives. When so
loaded, its physical properties, although not
as good as those of hot molded PB-RDX, are
definitely superior to those of almost any
other pressed powdered explosive usually
Figure 7-3. 20 mm Fuze, M505 98/2 RDX/binder. The sensitivity of PB-RDX,
when pressed at similar pressures, is almost
identical with that of other booster explo-
special environmental conditions associated sives, while its output closely resembles that
with the application must be considered. of tetryl. Improved physical properties and
Sensitivity and output of explosives may be output can be obtained by hot pressing under
adjusted by varying their loading densities. vaccum-hot pressing alone can produce
Thus, in some applications, substitution is pellets that pop open like muffins when
possible, without adverse effects upon estab- ejected from the die-higher loading pressures,
lished safety or reliability levels if the designer or both, but at the expense of somewhat
is free to specify the loading density of the reduced initiation sensitivity.
substituted explosive. However, the loading
pressure needed to attain the necessary 7-2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
density may exceed the strength of the
container. On the other hand, if the necessary 7-2.1 RELATION TO FUZE DESIGN
density is too low, the explosive may be
subject to breakage, crumbling, or to other As fuze components, dimensions of leads
mechanical failure. and boosters are largely determined by the
necessities of fuze design. Similarly, the
The need to consider cook-off and thermal mechanical design of the fuze in which it is
decomposition at high temperatures is used is one of the important governing factors
obvious. In the case of leads and boosters, the in the confinement afforded an item of this
effects of temperature extremes upon explo- type. The fact of the matter is that the design
sive properties, in particular upon sensitivity, of leads and boosters interacts with the
may be more serious than in other explosive mechanical design of fuzes to such an extent
charges. As is shown in pars. 4-2.2 and 4-2.3 that the most practical arrangement is usually
these effects can be quite large. In these that in which these items are designed by the
respects, RDX and many of its mixtures, fuze designer.

7-4
 AMCP 708-179

The design of leads and boosters in not as to take place over as many as fifteen diam-
complex as that of initiators. For this reason, eters but the reproducibility of this process is
many past designs have been evolved by not well enough established to be relied upon,
copying a previous design that served its even if systems involving such gradual growth
purpose satisfactorily. There is nothing wrong in leads had attractive design possibilities. At
with such an approach provided improve- the present state of the art, the only valid
ments are added when possible, care is taken reason for use of a lead more than four
not to perpetuate errors, and due considera- diameters long is the necessity arising from
tion is given to safety and reliability. Since the mechanical separation of the components
lead and booster layout and materials affect that it connects.
other fuze design features to a large extent, it
is best to give them careful consideration in 7-2.2.2 DIAMETER AND CONFINEMENT
early design stages before major dimensions
are frozen. In the case of leads, standards have The most usual combination of lead diam-
been established for dimensions and cupsh. eter and confinement in military usage is an
explosive column between 0.150 and 0.160
7-2.2 LEADS in. diameter, heavily confined in brass or
steel. Fig. 7-1 is an example of such a design.
7-2.2.1 LENGTH Failure diameters are listed in Table 7-1. It
must be rernembered, however, that failure
When a lead is initiated by a detonator or diameters are highly dependent on particle
another lead it is best to have no gaps or size, density, and confinement.
barrier at all. When there must be a gap, it is
best to have the donor component end As is indicated in par. 3-1.1, the most
covered by a metallic disk on the order of reliable transmission of detonation between a
0.005-0.010 in. thick. When the lead has a detonator and a confined lead occurs when
closure at the output end, a small gap at the the lead is close to the same diameter or
end may also increase the reliability with slightly smaller in diameter than the deto-
which it will initiate the succeeding element. nator. Since a common diameter of deto-
Although a number of investigators have nators in military use in 0.192 in. OD and
noted that detonation is more effectively about 0.172 in. ID , the prevalent lead diam-
transmitted by moving fragments than by eter is well chosen from this point of view.
shock, flame, or even by the direct contact of
detonating explosive, the permutations of The effect of lead diameter upon lead
variables are so numerous as to have dis- sensitivity is not usually of practical signifi-
couraged a quantitative study of their inter- cance in the design of military materiel.
actions to affect reliability. Where it is, present practices are close to
ideal.
Where a lead is used to augment the output
of a relatively mild detonator or where it is The importance of diameter and gap to
initiated for use under adverse conditions sensitivity is illustrated for idealized acceptors
such as across a large gap or through a heavy similar to leads in Fig. 3-2. Effect of gap and
barrier, it may be necessary to make leads confinement for actual service leads on initia-
longer than they would be just for trans- tion by detonators is shown in Fig. 7 4.
mission. It has been found that the output of
a lead that detonates high order for most of The effect of the wall thickness of a
its length reaches a point of diminishing' confining tube upon the initiation sensitivity
returns when the length is about four or five of leads or similar small columns, has not
diameters or more. The growth of detonation been quantitatively evaluated. In one ex-
in marginally initiated leads has been observed periment with 0.169-in. diameter leads, there

7-5
AMCP 706-179

TABLE 7-1

FAILURE DIAMETERS OF LEAD AND BOOSTER EXPLOSIVES

Confinement, in.
Fabric Heavy
(Detonating Aluminum13 Lead Brass
Explosive Bare, in. cord) Lucitea (0.006 walls) (MDF> or Steel0

PETN 0.06 <0.05 <0.01 <0.05

RDX — — _ <0.02 _
RDX/Calcium Stearate98/2 _ 0.14-0.17 _ 0.08-0.12 „ _
Tetryl <0.50 __ 0.10-0.13 <0.08
TNT (Granular) 0.50-0.70 <0.63 0.50 _ _ <0. 10
TNT(25ju) <0.10 - - -
a
Ref. 7
b
Ref. 8 (Dimensionsare in inches.)
c
Ref. 9

was no significant difference resulting from The foregoing remarks regarding diameter
confinements between 0.500 and 12.25 in. and confinement of leads are intended to
OD. apply to common arrangements where lead
and booster are in contact or separated only
An important aspect of lead confinement is by short gaps and thin diaphragms incidental
the effect of clearance between the lead cup to assembly and packaging within a single
and the hole in which it is inserted. By unit. If heavy barriers are necessitated by
resisting radial expansion, the confining mechanical design or if lead and booster are
medium directs a larger fraction of the energy mounted in separate structural units of a
along the axis toward the booster. In an weapon system, larger leads should be used to
experiment with a standard lead of 0.171 in. insure reliability.
nominal diameter, three groups were tested
under identical conditions except for clear- 7-2.3 BOOSTERS
ance10. Of those with a snug fit, ten out of
ten fired high order; of those with 0.004-in. In general, boosters are so large compared
diametral clearance, only four fired high order with the leads or detonators which initiate
while all ten with 0.008 in. clearance failed. them that the initiation may be considered as
In view of these results, the designer has the a local action that is affected by neither
following alternatives: dimensions nor confinement10. Their dimen-
sions are so much larger than the failure
1. Call for force fits of leads diameters of the explosives with which they
are loaded that neither dimensions nor con-
2. Load the cup in place. (This procedure finement are factors in propagation within a
is of value only when the loading pressure is booster. All of the important effects of
substantially beyond the [Link] of the booster dimensions and confinement are
cup.) those upon output.

3. Evaluate reliability on the basis that The function of a booster is, of course, to
only the lead cup provides confinement, and provide adequate output for the reliable
safety on the basis that the lead is well initiation of the main charge. The size of
confined. booster needed to initiate a main charge, as

7-6
 AMCP 706-179

BARRIER CONFINEMENT
NONE
boosters of most 20 mm fuzes (see Fig. 7-3)
NONE
LUCITE
ALUM
are closer to leads than to boosters in their
!AIR) BRASS
STEEL
size and function. For most high explosive
15 20 25 30 35 10 45 50 55
materiel, however, the following motives
AIR GAP LENGTH, In apply for the reduction in the size of boosters
NONE
so that the booster will be only a small
LUCITE
ALUM
fraction of main charge size:
STEEL
BRASS
STEEL

NONE
1. Because of the greater sensitivity of
BRASS
LUCITE
ALUM
booster explosives to friction, impact, and
BRASS
STEEL
bullets, the booster should be protected by as
NONE
much main charge explosive and metal and
ALUM.
LUCITE
ALUM
offer as small a target as possible.
BRASS
STEEL

NONE
2. Hazards such as cook-off and setback
WAX
LUCITE
ALUM
tend to increase with the mass of a charge as
BRASS
STEEL
well as with the sensitivity of the explosive of
which they are composed.
BARRIER THICKNESS, In

STEEL DENT OUTPUT TEST WITH TETRYL LEADS, 0.169 INCH OD. 3. The larger the booster, the more it
TI8E3 DETONATORS IN GROUPS OF 30
MINIMUM DENT FOR HIGH ORDER DETONATION IS 0015 INCH displaces of the main charge explosive, which
was chosen for its special output properties.

Figure 7-4. Critical Conditions for In general, the mechanical design of a fuze
Detonation of Lead leaves a certain amount of vacant space in the
fuze cavity. If the designer fills this with as
large a cylindrical pellet as practical, allowing
pointed out in par. 3-1, depends not only for packaging the pellet and stand-off, he will
upon the explosive material of the main be doing as well as possible. In this case,
charge, but upon its confinement, its state of booster geometry is usually not critical.
aggregation as determined by manufacturing
and loading procedures and conditions, and While it might be possible to derive some
the location of the booster with respect to the notions from the data in par. 2-2.3 regarding
main charge. an ideal length-diameter ratio, if such a ratio
is attained by reducing the quantity of explo-
Although the design of a fuze or booster sive in the booster, the improved ratio will
may be made with one particular main charge result in a less effective booster.
design in mind, boosters should be made as
large and effective as possible to allow for The only reservation that might be ex-
maximum interchangeability and for future pressed about filling the available space de-
changes in main charge design, loading proce- rives from the fact that metal fragments
dures, and explosive materials which may accelerated by the action of the booster may
require more effective booster action. be more effective in the initiation of a
subsequent charge than the direct action of
If the process of making boosters as large as the explosive. However, quantitative data on
possible were carried to the extreme, one this effect have not evolved. Additional as-
might ask, "Why not fill the whole round pects of booster design are covered in Ref. 12.
with a booster explosive and forget the
7-2.4 CHARGE DENSITY EFFECTS
booster?" This is essentially the way some
small caliber rounds are loaded. The so-called The sensitivities of most explosives reach

7-7
AMCP 708-179

maxima at a specific density range. The larger variations of sensitivity at very high
optimum density varies with the explosive densities. Before specifying densities in excess
material as well as with the mode of initia- of 95 percent of voidless, a careful investiga-
tion. For most situations encountered in tion should be made of factors in fabrication
military materiel, the optimum density is well and loading which can affect loading density
below the range of densities at which military to determine the maximum density which can
explosives generally are loaded. For most be anticipated in production. It should be
practical purposes, the sensitivity of explo- determined that the preceding element is
sives to initiation may be considered to adequate for the initiation of lead or booster
decrease with increasing density. Output, of at this maximum density.
course, increases with increasing density, the
rate of the increase ranging from linear to 7-2.5 OUTPUT WAVE PROFILE
cubic depending upon the aspect of the
output under consideration. The output wave profile of the usual
cylindrical booster or lead is a relatively
Booster and lead explosives for most simple curve, convex in the direction of
military materiel are loaded at densities be- propagation. For short boosters initiated by
tween 85 percent and 95 percent of voidless relatively small diameter leads orboosters, the
(corresponding with loading pressures be- front is essentially spherical, centered at the
tween 5,000 and 20,000 psi). Within this input lead. For longer charges, the curvature
range, the designer may adjust densities to is determined by radial flow and shock
attain needed compromises between sensi- propagation as described in par. 2-2.2. When
tivity and output. If there is the need to the purpose of the lead or booster is only that
employ explosives loaded at densities appre- of reliably initiating a subsequent charge, the
ciably outside this range; loading, handling, gain in effectiveness which might result from a
and quality control problems discussed in modification of this profile will usually be
pars. 10-3.2 and 10-6.2 should be considered. more than offset by the displacement of high
performance explosive with lower per-
In addition to the problems that are clearly formance explosive and inert materials used in
in the province of production or quality such modification. However, main charges for
control, the use of extremes of loading many applications depend for their effective-
density introduces a group of propagation ness upon the profiles of the wave fronts,
problems that must be taken into account. which in turn are determined, at least in part,
The longer reaction zones and more gradual by the boosters that initiate them.
growth and decay of detonation in lower
density explosives result in a relatively large The techniques for the design of charges
variation in detonation velocity, both stable for the control of wave front profiles are
and low order. These variations not only described in par. 3-3.2. Charges of this kind
increase the probability of failure due to low are often called explosive lenses because of
order effects at corners, small sections, or the close analogy between these techniques
abrupt changes, but often make it difficult to and those of geometric optics.
pinpoint the exact causes of such failures. In
general, very low loading densities should be Most of the means used to shape wave
used only with larger than average charge profiles are present in all boosters. However,
dimensions. in most shaping applications in military
materiel, the wave shaping features are in-
The decrease in sensitivity with increasing cluded in the design of the main charge rather
density becomes more abrupt as the voidless than the booster. In such instances the im-
density of an explosive is approached. Thus, portant requirement, so far as the booster is
small variations in density cause increasingly concerned, is that it initiates a wave with

7-8
 AMCP 708-179

reproducible and symmetrical profile in the from the use of shaped charge leads or
main charge. Variable or asymmetrical initia- boosters.
tion will, of course, defeat the best efforts at
wave shaping' 3. The most frequent use of shaped charges in
explosive trains, except in the projectile
Two alternate means are available to the charge, is in spit-back fuze systems (Fig. 7-2).
designer for the reduction of variability and In a spit-back system, the target is sensed by a
distortion of the wave front induced in the nose fuze that initiates a booster at the rear of
main charge: (1) specification of precise the explosive charge. Initiation of the main
controls of all variables, or (2) design of a charge from the rear is essential for satis-
system to minimize their effects by the factory performance of the shaped main
closest possible approach to the situation in charge. Note that the shaped auxiliary booster
which lead, booster, and main charge form a has a hemispherical rather than a conical liner,
continuum of explosive through which the so as to have less degradation on spin and to
wave propagates as a continuous detonation. provide a wider area of impact on target.
Of these, the latter is usually the easiest and Since reliable initiation of the booster in a
most satisfactory. The following practices will spit-back system requires direct hits of the
help in this respect: relatively small part of the booster exposed at
the bottom of the spit-back tube, and since
1. Use of the most effective lead feasible. the slug orjet will be deflected by asymmetry
of the liner or of the detonation front that
2. Use of a booster diameter that is large projects it, close control is necessary of all
compared with the failure diameter of the dimensions of the auxiliary booster, of the
main charge explosive. fuze body that confines it, and in the loading
procedure. In recent years, with the develop-
3. Use of the most sensitive explosives ment of piezoelectric fuze systems, the
compatible with safety. interest in spit-back systems has waned' 4.

4. Minimization of barrier thicknesses and 7-3 CONSTRUCTION AND FABRICATION

densities, and of gaps between leads and
7-3.1 LOADING TECHNIQUES
booster, and between boosters and main
charges. A bare booster in an unlined cavity is The design of leads and boosters, from the
nearly ideal. point of view of fabrication and construction,
is largely determined by the loading proce-
5. Use of explosives with the finest particle dure to be used. Three procedures are
sizes available and compatible with reasonable common:
loading procedures.
1. Insertion of preformed pellets into con-
6. Use of explosives in a density range high tainers
enough for relatively rapid growth of detona-
tion and low enough to avoid desensitization 2. Reconsolidation of preformed pellets to
(90 to 95 percent of maximum theoretical conform to containers-used almost exclu-
density is a good range). sively for boosters

The shaped charge effect, as used in a 3. Direct pressing of powdered explosive

HEAT round (see par. 3-3.5), results in the into containers. This method is used most
concentration of a substantial fraction of the extensively in the production of leads; volu-
axial output of an explosive charge in a rather metric charging by automatic equipment pro-
small diameter jet. In most situations found in duces a pellet that is very uniform in both
explosive systems, little advantage accrues weight and size.

7-9
AMCP 708-179

Of the three common techniques, the first compressibility of the explosive will combine
is the simplest and most economical. Auto- to vary the length of the reconsolidated
matic machines are available which will pro- pellet. Similarly, if the pellet is pressed to a
duce pellets of any size suitable for use in specified length, all of these tolerances and
leads or boosters. Most pellets are pressed at variations will be reflected in the density of
pressures between 5000 and 20,000 psi or to the reconsolidated pellet, and consequently in
corresponding densities. It is the usual the pressure it exerts on the walls of the
practice to limit pellet lengths to about one container.
diameter because large density differences
from one end to another are probable in 7-3.2 SHORT LEADS
longer pellets. Of course, when this technique
is used, provision must be made for the Short leads are loaded by any of the
retention of the pellets in their cavities. techniques discussed in par. 7-3.1. When
Clearances resulting from the accumulated pellets are direct loaded, they may be retained
tolerances of the cups and containers, requir- by means of staked-in closure disks as shown
ing the use of inert padding—such as card- in Fig. 7-5; by features incidental to the fuze
board and felt disks to fill these clearances- design as in Fig. 7-6, or by a cup as in Fig.
may reduce the effectiveness of items loaded 7-7.
in this manner.
Where there is insufficient space for closure
The third method, that of loading the disks or cups, leads are loaded either by
powder directly, has the advantage that it can pressing powdered explosive or recon-
be used to fill a cavity to an exactly pre- solidating pellets directly into the cavity. An
determined point, with a specified loading optional method that has proven useful in
pressure (if the last increment is adjusted to filling small lead holes nearly flush without
compensate for tolerances of the container). adjusting weights for each individual item is
This procedure may be expected to result in that of loading somewhat more than enough
the most effective as well as the most repro- to fill, and breaking off the excess as in Fig.
ducible performance. It is also the most 7-8. However, this method is never used for
expensive procedure. When inert components production. Where, as in Fig. 7-9a, the open
are designed for this type of loading, it is well end of a lead is at a sliding surface, it is the
for the designer at least to lay out a concept usual practice to coat the ends with lacquer or
of a loading tool. In dimensioning the item, it varnish to prevent dusting. Onion skin disks
should be remembered that the consolidating are also used. Allowance should be made for
punches should fit the die with only a few the sealant in loading. Thic method involves
thousandths of an inch clearance. Misalign- the risk of gumming the surface so as to
ment can initiate the explosive on the one impede arming. The holes in which leads are
hand or result in excessive binding on the to be loaded directly are sometimes scored to
other hand. Columns much over one diameter improve explosive retention.
long are usually loaded in increments one
diameter long or less. Most leads are loaded into cups. Both
flanged and straight cups of standardized
The second method, although somewhat dimensions are usedh. Where leads completely
simpler and easier to tool for than the third packaged in metal are desired, closure disks
and dispensing with some of the disadvantages are crimped in place. Moisture resistance is
of the first, can give trouble unless a means is sometimes augmented by painting the
provided of dealing with tolerances. If a pellet crimped end with a lacquer, but the seals so
is reconsolidated at a fixed pressure, all of the obtained are not reliable.
tolerances in container, in weight or dimen-
sions of the pellet, as well as any variations in Leads may be installed by crimping in place

7-10
 AMCP 706-179

360° STAKE

FUZE BODY
CLOSURE DISK
SCREW THREADS
LEAD PELLETS

LEAD PELLETS

■METAL PLUG

Figure 7-5. Lead Pellets Held in Place b y

Staked-in Closure Disk

(Fig. 7-10), securing with adhesive, force Figure 7-6. Lead Retained by a Feature
fitting, or by pressing the explosive into the of Fuze Design
cup after the cup has been inserted into the
hole. The first method is the best adapted to
economical production but should be speci- loose pellets in a long hole, there is always a
fied only if the designer has taken into chance that one .will jam, leaving a gap that
account the effects of clearances upon con- can be detected only by X-ray or neutron
finement as discussed in par. 7-3.1. radiography. Use of pellets without reconsoli-
dation may lead to failures because of accel-
In designing for a force fit, the controlling eration forces (setback) producing reconsoli-
dimension is the maximum cup dimension dation with resulting gap. The small ram
after loading. The diameter is slightly larger clearances necessary for direct loading of
than the manufactured cup to allow for powder, combined with a small deviation
clearance between cup and loading tool. Since from straightness, can cause enough binding
the hoop stress induced by the loading pres- to seriously affect the reliability of the
sure is usually larger than the yield stress of system.
the cup material, the cup expands to fit the
tool. The cup may also expand slightly when Spit-back systems are discussed in par.
removed from the loading because of residual 7-2.5. Essentially, a spit-back system consists
stresses from loading. Therefore, when the of a small shaped charge that is initiated by a
lead cup is to be assembled as a force fit, fuze system and that initiates a remote
diametral dimension and tolerance should be booster or receiver by the action of its jet.
specified on the loading drawing of the lead. Most spit-back systems have been used to
attain rear initiation of shaped charges from
7-3.3 LONG LEADS nose fuzes.

Four types of construction have been used Detonating cord has the advantage that it
for explosive transmission between widely can be bent around curves and may thus be
separated arming devices and boosters: (1) used as the basis for flexible leads to transmit
elongated leads or stacks of lead pellets of the detonation along complex paths. As a very
types described in par. 7-3.2, (2) spit-back convenient form of a preloaded long explosive
systems, (3) detonating cord, and (4) MDC column, it also has been used for long straight
(see par. 9-2.2.1). leads. Detonating cord and MDC are described
in par. 9-2.2.1.
Of the various adaptations of short lead
7-3.4 BOOSTERS
fabrication practices to long leads, the recon-
solidation of pellets is preferable. In loading Radial confinement is much less important

7-11
AMCP 706-179

STAKE
DETONATOR 0.005 IN. FOR
SEALANT

LEAO
LEAD PELLETS BOOSTER'

Figure 7-9. Lead End Coated With Sealant

However, with careless charging, it is possible

Figure 7-7. Lead Retained by a Cup for the explosive to stack obliquely against
one side of mold or container as shown in Fig.
7-12. Explosives so stacked will not com-
in its effect upon booster performance than pletely redistribute themselves under pressure
upon lead performance. For this reason, so that the resulting pellet may be appreciably
unreconsolidated pellets are frequently used denser at one side than at the other causing
in booster construction. Cardboard disks and asymmetry of the output wave.
felt pads are sometimes used to take up
tolerances, even though they detract from
output if used at the bottom of a booster and Housings for boosters take many forms.
from input sensitivity, if used at the top. An They may be cavities machined into fuze
arrangement where the variations in pellet bodies or they may be separate packages.
length may be taken up by screwing a cap to a Some booster charges have no housings at all
snug contact with the pellet would be prefer- and some are housed in thin drawn metal cups
able if possible. A method of forming booster or thin-walled tubing with closure disks
pellets to clear the fillets in the bottom of crimped in place. By far the most common
booster cups is illustrated in Fig. 7-11. housings are of the type shown in Fig. 7-1
which are simple cups, drawn, extruded, cast,
It is important that loading density of or machined with walls thick enough to be
boosters be uniform. If density is allowed to threaded so as to screw into the fuze body.
vary unduly, this variability will be reflected For the usual thread pitch, NS-16, the walls
in the profile of the wave front generated in must be something over a sixteenth of an inch
the main charge. Most explosives vary in thick. Unless metal fragments are needed to
density from point to point with a resulting defeat a heavy barrier, the walls through
variation in detonation velocity. The small which the detonation is to be communicated
and reproducible gradient occurring between
the ends of a pellet is not usually serious.
CUP FLANGE

DIE ASSEMBLY FihiifiUFn i rin IN nifr

Figure 7-8. Explosive Loaded by

Breaking Off Excess Figure 7-10. Lead Cup Crimped in Place

7-12
 AMCP 706-179

BOOSTER PELLET
7 BOOSTER CUP
7
V.

11
35°

-0.O32 IN. (TO ELIMINATE "FEATHER EDGE"

ON RAM)

Figure 7-11. Chamfered Booster Pellet Figure 7-12. Improper Charging of Cup

to the main charge should be as light as pellet, it is the usual practice to use a paper
consistent with mechanical strength. gasket to prevent explosive dust from being
pinched directly between metal surface?.
Most boosters are closed merely by screw- Where high spin accelerations are anticipated,
ing the booster cup or cap into or onto the it is a frequent practice to stake the threads
fuze. Others are closed by crimping a disk in heavily after the booster has been screwed
place, cementing, or even soldering the cover closed. Threads and crimps are usually sealed.
on with low melting solder. Where covers or Another precaution is the use of left-handed
cups are screwed against surfaces close to a threads.

REFERENCES

a-k Lettered references are listed in the . Safety and Performance Tests for Quali-
General References at the end of this fication of Explosives, Report NAVORD
handbook. OD 44811, Vol. 1, Naval Weapons
Center, China Lake, Calif, 1 January
1. TM 9-1300-203, Artillery Ammu- 1972.
nition for Guns, Howitzers,
Mortars, and Recoilless Rifles. , MIL-STD-13 16, Fuze, Design Safety, Cri-
DA, 6 April 1967. teria For, Dept. of Defense, 17 Septem-
ber 1970.
2. T. Fruchtman, Development of 2.75-Inch
HEAT Rocket Head T20E1 (Ml), Report A. J. Pascazio, The Suitability of a Bare
TR2252, Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J., PBX Booster Pellet in the 2.75-Inch Head
December 1955. Ml Rocket Head, Report TR2271,
Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J.. November
1955.
3. R. H. Stresau, "Confusion Concerning
Lead and Booster Explosives", in Pro- The Rate of Detonation of Various Ex-
ceedings of the Seventh Symposium on plosive Compounds and Mixtures, Report
Explosives and Pyrotechnics, held at The 5611, (from Explosives Research Labora-
Franklin Institute, September 8-9, 1971, tory) Office of Scientific Research and
Paper 11-12. Development, OSRD, 15 January 1946.

7-13
AMCP 706-179

8. L. D. Hampton, Minimum Diameter for NAVORD Report 2844, Naval Ordnance

the Propagation ofDetonation in Tetryl, Laboratory, Silver Spring, Md., 13 April
RDX, and PETN, NAVORD Report 1953.
4082, Naval Ordnance Laboratory, Silver
Spring, Md., 1 August 1955. 12. Some Aspects of the Design of Boosters,
Journal Article 21.0 of the JANAFFuze
9. L. D. Hampton, and R. H. Stresau, Small Committee, 20 June 1961 (AD-270 275).
Scale Technique for Measurement of
Detonation Velocities, NAVORD Report 13. G. M. Bryan, et al., "Effects of Asym-
2282, Naval Ordnance Laboratory, Silver metry on Shaper Detonation Waves", in
Spring, Md., 27 December 1951. Proceedings of Detonation Wave Shaping
Conference, Picatinny Arsenal, held at
10. M. J. White Jr., "Initiator Output Test- Jet Propulsion Laboratories, California
ing", in Proceedings of the Electric Ini- Institute of Technology, Pasadena, Cali-
tiator Symposium, held at the Franklin fornia, 5-7 June 1956.
Institute 11-12 September 1957. Paper
XXXIII (AD-15 3 579). 14. T. Fruchtman, Development of the
T2017E1 2.75-Inch HEAT Rocket Head,
11. J. Savitt, The Propagation of Detonation Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J., December
in Some Special Explosive Systems, 1955.

7-14
 AMCP70G-179

CHAPTER 8

MAIN BURSTING CHARGES

8-1 DESCRIPTION than optimum for blast or fragmentation

characteristics (see pars. 3-3.3 and 3-3.4).
8-1.1 FUNCTION Fuze seat liners are desirable to prevent the
occurrence of loose explosive in the fuze well
The purpose of the explosive train is (which could constitute a hazard during fuz-
achieved by initiating effective detonation on ing, handling, and use).
the main bursting charge of high explosive
ammunition. The resulting detonation is the The armor-piercing projectile shown in Fig.
source of energy for the output effect of the 8-22 is presented for historical interest. Now,
item, designed to reduce or preferably destroy projectiles of this type contain no explosive
military targets. filler.

For other types of military materiel, such Because the forces to which mortar projec-
as chemical ammunition, the main bursting tiles are subjected are much lower, they may
charge (called burster) is designed to open the be designed for more nearly optimum charge-
case and disseminate the contents of the to-weight ratios in accordance with principles
round. outlined in pars. 2-2.3 and 3-3.2. The same
holds true for rocket and missile warheads
Each ammunition item is color-coded to and, for that matter, grenades that are subject
indicate the type of loading according to to relatively mild forces.
M1L-STD-7091 .
High capacity, high explosive bombs (Fig.
8-1.2 TYPICAL MAIN BURSTING 8-33) are thin walled tanks, the thickness of
CHARGES which is no more than sufficient to withstand
normal rough handling. As much as 70%- of
8-1.2.1 HIGH EXPLOSIVE (HE) AMMUNI- the total weight of such a bomb may be that
TION of the main bursting charge. For fragmenta-
tion and target penetration, heavier cases are
High explosive ammunition is designed to sometimes used. Land mines are merely
produce a blast or fragmentation effect. It is packaged explosive charges with fuzing sys-
primarily a container filled with high explo- tems (Fig. 8-44). The mine family is as
sive. Its size, shape, and construction are versatile as other munitions, including anti-
determined by ballistic and structural con- tank and antipersonnel mines. Some are
siderations that vary depending on whether armor defeating, some are blast type, while
the vehicle is a projectile, bomb, or other others are fragmenting.
ammunition.
Underwater mines, depth charges, and tor-
A typical high explosive projectile is shown pedo warheads are generally relatively thin-
in Fig. 8-12. To withstand setback and spin walled containers with shapes dictated by
forces, such projectiles usually have wall structural and pre-explosion functional con-
thicknesses and metal-to-charge ratios greater siderations. These items are usually loaded

8-1
AMCP 708-179

FUZE AND
BOOSTER

E FILLER
8ASE PLATE

Figure 8-1. High Explosive Projectile

with aluminized explosives to produce high Pyrotechnic ammunition, a special class of

intensity shock waves. chemical ammunition, is designed to produce
heat, smoke, or light6. It is employed for
8-1.2.2 HIGH EXPLOSIVE ANTITANK incendiary effects, screening, illumiation, and
(HEAT) AND HIGH EXPLOSIVE signaling.
PLASTIC (HEP)AMMUNITION
8-1.2.4 HIGH EXPLOSIVE INCENDIARY
As pointed out in par. 3-3.5.3, the shaped (HEI)AMMUNITION
charge effect of HEAT rounds'results from
the progressive collapse of the liner as it is A high explosive incendiary projectile con-
engulfed, from the rear, by the detonation tains an explosive, such as MOX-2B, that
wave (Fig. 8-52). Thus, in addition to requir- produces both an explosive (blast) and an
ing a special configuration, a shaped charge incendiary effect. Its design is similar to that
must be initiated from the rear in order to of the straight HE projectile (Fig. 8-1).
form an axially symmetrical detonation wave.
Initiation can be from a piezoelectric nose 8-1.2.5 CLUSTER AMMUNITION
element to a base fuze or by means of a
spit-back system as shown in Fig. 7-2. Axial When it is desired to cover an area with an
symmetry of the explosive charge is particu- explosive effect, this end may be accom-
larly important in HEAT rounds. plished by packing a cluster of bomblets into
a canister or dispenser. Each of the individual
The HEP round is one that deforms, to bomblets is a fuzed item of ammunition. The
attain intimate contact with a large area of canister itself, acting like a bomb, is fuzed
the armor which is attacked, before detonat- separately to dispense the ammunition. One
ing. The detonation is transmitted to the type of canister fuze initiates a linear shaped
armor as a shock wave which, upon being charge to cut the canister in half longitu-
reflected, causes the inner surface to spall. dinally so that the bomblets can fall out.
Both case and filling of such rounds must
deform. It is important that the explosive is 8-1.3 SIZE AND WEIGHT
initiated from the rear—which is accomplished
by an inertia fuze. The total weight and bulk of weapon plus
ammunition is limited by the capacity of the
8-1.2.3 CHEMICAL AMMUNITION means of transportation. In modern warfare,
the variety of such means and combinations
The main bursting charges of chemical which might be used is so great that such
ammunition are no larger than necessary to factors can be considered only in terms of
burst the case and disseminate the contents'. overall operations analysis. The explosive
They are usually small diameter cylindrical charge designer will usually be given an upper
charges which often extend the full length of limit of dimensions and weight of the ammu-
the projectile (see Fig. 8-62). nition. Under such circumstances, it is usually

8-2
 AMCP 708-179

/BASE FUZE AND TRACER

/EXPLOSIVE CHARGE BODY

WINDSHIELD

Figure 8-2. Armor-piercing Projectile

best to utilize as much of this weight and small fraction of the total weight and space
space as possible in the main charge. Where a remain for the main charge.
definite tactical purpose is specified, the
designer may make a worthwhile contribution In chemical, flechette, leaflet, and signal
if he can show how to accomplish this ammunition, where the function of the burst-
purpose with a significantly smaller or lighter ing charge is that of releasing and sometimes
round. This weight-saving may be used to disseminating nonexplosive items, the burst-
increase the tactical effectiveness of the sys- ing charge should be as small as is compatible
tem by providing a larger complement of with the performance of this function. Not
ammunition or by increasing its mobility. In only does a larger charge displace some of the
these terms, the smallest and lightest round principal cargo, it also increases the proba-
that will serve the specified purpose is the bility or magnitude of damage to the cargo.
best design. The size and composition of bursting charges
for such items are determined by the inter-
action of considerations of case strength,
Size and weight often are limited by desired area of dispersion, vulnerability of
ballistic factors. In gun-fired projectiles, the cargo to damage, etc. These considerations are
outside diameter (caliber) is fixed. The length clearly so specifically applicable to particular
of the round is limited in spin-stabilized devices that formulas of general applicability
weapons 'by considerations of stability. Set- are not feasible.
back forces and still higher impact forces
place such stringent demands on the struc- Let us consider for example, a marker
tural properties of many rounds that only a projectile. It is intended to produce a con-

«GING WELL SMfWNG PtUG

,SUS*ENS!ON tUC IAH RKI
NOSE Hill WEU
NOSE FUZE

NOSE
SEA1M
(INE«T) NOSE ADAPTEt IOOSTEI

FA» SEALEI (INWT)

AH AOAPTEI tOOSTEl

Figure 8-3. General Purpose Bomb

8-3
AMCP 708-179

fUZf RETAINER SPRING.

ARM IMG PLUG'
PRESSURE PLATE

Figure 8-4. Antitank Mine, M 15

spicuous colored cloud, visible for a few The bursting charge for this projectile is a cast
minutes, to serve as a signal or marker for cylinder of 67/33 baratol. A coating of
ground targets. Red, green, and yellow' acid-proof black paint is used on the inner
markers are standard. Standard projectiles are surface of the smoke charge to prevent
used with a smoke-producing material. They chemical interaction between it and the
are loaded by drilling a cavity in the pressed baratol bursting charge.
charge and inserting an axial bursting charge.
8-2 EXPLOSIVES
The smoke material consists of a fine
powder, usually dye diluted with a non-
reactive agent used as a coolant, such as 8-2.1 SELECTION
sodium chloride pulverized to an average
10-micron particle, treated with an appro- The design of explosives for main charges is
priate diluent. Typical smoke mixtures used complex and intimately associated with the
in the 90 mm M71 Projectile are: terminal effects desired. Moreover, such de-
sign falls under the topic of explosive chem-
1. (Red) 80/20 1-methylamino-anthro- istry which is outside of the scope of this
quinone/sodium chloride handbook. An explosive chemist must be
consulted when an unusual application is
2. (Yellow) 50/50 dimethylamino-azoben- required. Fortunately, however, sufficient
zene/sodium chloride guidelines can be given to permit the explo-
sive charge designer to select the proper
3. (Green) 40/40/20 auramine hydrochlo- explosive for most applications. This is pos-
ride/l,4-dimethylamino-anthraquinone/sodi- sible because many explosives have been
um chloride7. optimized for a particular end use.

BASE FUZE [Link] ME FILLER CONE OGIVE AND

' UNION, ASSEMBLY

OGIVE

Figure 8-5. High Explosive Antitank Projectile

8-4
 AMCP 706-179

BURSTER CASING \ BURSTER CHARGE SLEEVE

ADAPTER

-CHEMICAL FILLER

Figure 8-6. Burster Type Chemical Projectile

The common high explosives for main 6. Each particular kind of ammunition has
bursting charges are listed in Table 1-1. Their its own special requirements. See AMCP
properties are included in AMCP 706-l77d. 706-23910 for small arms, - and AMCP
Table 8-1 lists the explosives according to 706-240'' for grenades.
their preferred use.
7. Several recent commercial explosive
The foregoing discussion is not to imply developments are being considered as alter-
that the selection of explosives is routine. Due nates for bomb fillers. The utilization of
considerations must be given to the factors gelled slurries would reduce the quantity'of
that follow: TNT being used' 2. Ammonium nitrate/fuel
oil mixtures and a number of proprietary
1. Projectile wall thickness is the most compositions are less sensitive. They require a
important factor in blast vs fragmentation critical diameter above 3 in. for propagation.
effects. The wall thickness must be matched
to the explosive for optimum results. For 8. In rapid fire weapons, like the 30 mm
more detail on the design of terminal effects, machine gun, cook-off may be a limiting
see AMCP 706-2455. factor on the explosive selected. See par.
4-2.2.
2. For certain applications, plastic bonded
explosives (PBX) are optimum. As their name 9. Another critical factor is cost. Some of
implies, the explosives are bonded with a the explosives are very expensive. The de-
polymer to provide greater cohesive strength. signer's cost effectiveness analysis will deter-
The addition of a polymer permits the use of mine whether the application calls for a cheap
explosives having greater output without in- noisemaker or for the most effective—and
creasing the sensitivity at the same time. hence most expensive—explosive available.

3. Producing a high over-pressure, fuel-air 10. Main charges of some smaller muni-
explosives (FAE) are optimum for blast tions and submunitions are actually booster
damage'. explosives. An example is Composition A-5
(98.5% RDX plus 1.5%stearic acid).
4. Minol-2 has been used in place of
tritonal as an emergency alternate fill. Forty 8-2.2 EXPLOSIVE LOADING
percent of the TNT content of tritonal is
replaced by ammonium nitrate at a reduction Voids, imperfections, and discontinuities in
in cost without degradation in performance . an explosive charge play an important role in
the transmission and propagation of detona-
5. Pyrotechnic ammunition requires many tion. For example, cast charges, in which the
different outputs including smoke, light, voids tend to be fewer, larger, and farther
flame, and heat. For details, see AMCP apart, are appreciably less sensitive to initia-
706-1886. tion than pressed charges of the same com-
AMCP 708-179

TABLE 8-1 well as de-aeration during melting and

pouring.
PREFERRED USE OF MAIN EXPLOSIVES
3. Several casting methods may be em-
Explosive Optimized Use
ployed, including the conventional pour, sedi-
mentation cast, and vibrated sedimentation
Octol shaped charge and fragmentation
cast with and without programmed post-pour
Com p. B shaped charge and fragmentation
Minol-2 blast
conditioning.
Tritonal blast
Comp.A-3 HEP and fragmentation 4. For critical applications, such as shaped
H6 air blast charges, the more elaborate casting methods
HBX3 underwater blast are superior.

8-2.3 INERT SIMULANTS

position and density (Table 3-2). Casting
procedures, such as "cream casting", which When ammunition is subjected to ballistic
are conducive to the formation of fine, tests, it is desirable to replace the explosive
uniform crystal structure will sometimes in- filler with an inert substance not only for
crease sensitivity to initiation while improving safety and convenience but also to permit
charge quality at the same time. Other loading recovery of the projectile. The inert simulant
techniques are discussed in pars. 10-2 and must match the physical properties of the
10-3. explosive so that the ballistics of the projec-
tile will not be changed. Properties of a
In general, particle size and particle size number of materials having the same strengths
distributions that are conducive to the best and densities as explosives have been tabu-
loading characteristics are also conducive to lated' 4 ; examples are gypsum, rochelle salt,
initiation difficulty. The tendency is for and glycerides.
sensitivity to increase with uniformity of
particle size and with decreasing particle size. 8-3 INITIATION
Explosives tend to become less sensitive with
increasing density, within the range used in 8-3.1 SENSITIVITY
military items. In taking advantage of modern
techniques to approach maximum theoreti- An essential factor in the choice of an
cally attainable densities, the designer may explosive for use in main bursting charges of
lose more in reliability than he gains in military items is its insensitivity to stimuli
performance or safety. incidental to handling, storage, and launching
which are discussed in par. 4-3. Such insensi-
When pouring the energetic binary explo- tivity is, in general, inseparable from that to
sive, consideration of the following factors purposely applied stimuli. Hence, boosters are
will yield charges of high quality' 3 : usually necessary for the reliable initiation of
main bursting charges.
1. The properties of the solid ingredient in
TNT-based melts having the greatest influence The initiation of a main charge explosive is
on charge density and homogeneity are grain not always a matter of simple fire-misfire
size, grain size distribution, and surface char- reliability. All main charge explosives (includ-
acteristics. ing TNT) are capable of low order detona-
tion under conditions where the probability
2. The viscosity of the colloid-like suspen- of complete failure is low. Thus, the problem
sion in TNT-based melts is dependent on melt of main charge initiation is that of reliably
temperature, agitation, and melt duration, as initiating high order detonation. Experimental

8-6
 AMCP 708-179

investigations of this aspect should include boosters, usually pellets contained in thin-
output determinations, such as a fragmenta- drawn sheet metal containers, are used to fill
tion test' 4. the space left when shorter fuzes are used.
Where the boosters of existing fuzes are
The design of boosters for the reliable
inadequate, auxiliary boosters may be used,
initation of main charges is discussed in par.
or a relatively small fraction of the main
3-3.2. The relative booster sensitivity of vari-
charge, immediately surrounding the booster,
ous explosives is given in Table 4-2. Other
may be loaded with a more sensitive explosive
comparisons appear in Tables 3-2 and 3-3.
than the rest of the charge. These supple-
When a less sensitive explosive is to be
mentary charges are sometimes referred to as
substituted in a main charge, the adequacy of
boosted surrounds. TNT surrounds have been
the booster must be verified.
used with amatol main charges in 105 mm
8-3.2 BOOSTER POSITION howitzer projectiles' and Composition A-4
boosted surrounds are used in 40 mm projec-
Since detonation is transmitted between
tiles loaded with MOX type explosives' 6. In
charges through their adjacent surfaces, the
these examples, the insensitive main charge
reliability and effectiveness of transmission is
explosives are employed for reasons other
directly related to the area of the surfaces (see
than safety (which would be adequate for the
par. 3-1.2). Hence a booster that intrudes into
items named if they had been loaded entirely
a cavity in the main charge is more effective,
with the explosive used in the boosted sur-
other conditions being equal, than one which
round). Relative advantages of various
can communicate only through its end.
designs, from this point of view, must be
Intuitive reasoning leads to the expectation considered in terms of desired terminal
that gaps and barriers will be detrimental to effects'.
the transmission of detonation. However, as
pointed out in par. 7-2.5, they have been 8-3.4 CONFINEMENT
observed under some circumstances to be
Confinement has a great effect on the
useful means of increasing reliability and
sensitivity of an explosive charge (see par.
effectiveness. It may be suspected that the
3-2.2.4). Because of the relatively high cost of
booster cups (provided primarily as con-
statistical experiments with loaded full-scale
tainers) combine with the clearances provided
ammunition, data are scarce. However, there
for ease of assembly to make service items as
is every reason to expect that the trends
effective as they are, although relatively few-
indicated in initiators also apply to larger
designs have been consciously optimized from
charges. It is reasonable to expect that the
this point of view. Where improvements in
same explosive similarly loaded will be more
manufacturing techniques or design changes
sensitive in projectiles than in bombs, and in
make it possible to reduce clearances between armor-piercing projectiles than high capacity
boosters and fuze wells, such reductions
projectiles. For items as heavily confined as
should be made only after determining that
projectiles, smaller projectiles are probably
they will not affect reliability adversely.
more easily initiated than larger ones, if the
Similarly, changes in booster cup and fuze
booster diameter remains constant. On the
seat liner materials should be considered in
other hand, for nonmetallic mines, that are
this respect.
rather poorly confined, the self-confinement
8-3.3 AUXILIARY BOOSTERSAND provided by the surrounding explosive prob-
BOOSTED SURROUNDS ably makes larger items more sensitive.
When fuzes of several intrusion lengths are While it is thus clear that confinement
to be used in a main charge, the fuze well enhances the explosive output, it should never
must, of course, be deep enough to receive be depended upon to help in cases of marginal
the longest fuze. In such cases, auxiliary performance.

8-7
AMCP 706-179

REFERENCES

a-k Lettered references are listed in the Bomb Filler, Report TR 3830, Picatinny
General References at the end of this Arsenal, Dover, N.J., December 1968.
handbook.
10. AMCP 706-239 (S), Engineering Design
1. MIL-STD 709, Ammunition Color Cod- Handbook, Small Arms Ammunition (U).
ing, Dept. of Defense, June 1960.
11. AMCP 706-240(C), Engineering Design
2. TM 9-1300-200, Ammunition, General, Handbook, Grenades (U).
Dept. of Defense, October 1969.
12. Shepherd Levmore, Principal Charac-
3. TM 9-1325-200, Bombs and Bomb teristics of the Gelled Slurry Explosive
Components, Dept. of Army, April 1966, DBA-22M, Report TR 4237, Picatinny
Arsenal, Dover, N.J., July 1971.
4. TM 9-1345-200, Land Mines, Dept. of
Army, May 1966.
13. N. E. Berkholtz, Pouring Explosive
5. AMCP 706-245 (C), Engineering Design Charges ofHigh Quality, Honeywell, Inc.,
Handbook, Ammunition Series, Design Hopkins, Minn., April 1970 (AD-869
13).
for Terminal Effects (U).

6. AMCP 706-188, Engineering Design 14. The Physical Properties ofExplosives and
Handbook, Military Pyrotechnics, Part Inert Materials Whose Physical Properties
Four, Design of Ammunition for Pyro- Resemble Those, of Explosives. Journal
technic Effects. Article 17.0 of the JANAF Fuze Com-
mittee, 1 March 1960 (AD-468 070).
7. S. D. Stein and Paul B. Tweed, Develop-
ment of Shallow Cavity Red Marker Shell 15. M. E. Pollack and D. E. Seeger, Study of
for 90 MM Guns, Report TR 2294, Initiation of High Explosives by Booster
Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J., August Pellets, Report TR 1956, Picatinny
1956. Arsenal, Dover, N J., 17 September
1953.
8. L. H. Smith, Fuel Air Explosive Warhead
Design Criteria (U), Report NWC TP 16. S. M. Adelman, P. B. Tweed, and J. D.
4732, Naval Weapons Center, China Hopper, Study of Loading of MOX-2B
Lake, Calif., September 1970 (Confi- into 20 MM Shell and Acceptance Tests
dential report). of Cartridge Containing Projectile Filled
With This Explosive, Report TR 1935,
9. S. J. Lowell, ME. Pollack, R. T. Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J., 11 May
Schimmel, Evaluation of Minol-2 as a 1953.

8-8
 AMCP 706-179

CHAPTER 9

OTHER EXPLOSIVE CHARGES

9-1 ACTUATORS is shown in Fig. 9-3. Gas is generated by two

electrically-initiated actuators (Navy nomen-
9-1.1 DESCRIPTION clature for gas-producing squibs) that ignite
propellant powder. The actuators are dupli-
Actuators are explosive devices that pro- cated for increased reliability. The gas pres-
duce gas at high pressure in short periods of sure pushes the piston out. There are two
time into a confined volume for the purpose seals: (1) the thin frangible section ahead of
of doing work. They are small, reliable, the piston face protects the assembly during
one-shot devices well suited to remote control storage; it is sheared when the piston starts to
of small movements such as switch closures. move, and (2) the O-ring retains the gas
Most actuators are electrically initiated. behind the piston. The protective caps, added
Hence, their initation mechanism and their for handling purposes, are removed before
input characteristics are those of electric operation.
initiators described in par. 5-2.4.
Each of these motors has been used to
A dimple motor is similar in construction open or close switch contacts or to provide
to an electric detonator except that the other mechanical movement. A number of
bottom is concave and the explosive is a small units have been designed containing a motor
gas producing charge (Fig. 9-1). The pressure and a series of switch contacts within a single
of the gas liberated by the reaction inverts the unit. The one shown in Fig. 9-4 has six
end to a convex surface. A typical dimple double-pole, single-throw, normally-closed
motor imparts a0.10-in. movement against an switches attached to the same slider. Other
8-lb load. The relatively complex curvature of switches in the XM-60 series have other
the dimple, as well as accurate control of combinations of normally open and normally
metal condition, is necessary for reliable and closed contacts. Devices designed for other
satisfactory functioning1 . mechanical functions are rarely if ever used in
ammunition. Such devices-including cutters,
The lower cups of bellows motors are pin pullers and pushers, valves, catapults, and
metallic bellows' . A typical bellows motor ejectors-are treated in AMCP 706-2703.
(Fig. 9-2) moves 1 in. against a 10-lbload. In
addition to linear movement, bellows motors An interesting variation in a switch is the
may be used to give a rotary movement. They pyroswitch that has no moving parts, and
have been made to work against loads as large hence, is not strictly an actuator. The pyro-
as 1001b. switch (Fig. 9-5) is based on the fact that
certain mixtures of gasless powders are non-
In a piston motor, the gases generated by conductors of electricity before burning but
the explosive push a piston in the cup or good conductors after burning. This is an
housing that acts as a cyliner. Piston motors open-to-closed switch. The reverse (closed-to-
can be as small as bellows motors or con- open) also has been developed.
siderably larger, depending on the output
desired. A larger driver (Navy nomenclature) Nonelectric actuators are based on pull-

9-1
AMCP 708-179

MOTOR CHARGE
LMNR 95%
\ CaSiO, 5%
WITH EGYPTIAN LACQUER

■FERRULE

LEAD STYPHNATE^ -MOTOR CHARGE

SPOT CHARGE LMNR 95%
KCI04 5%
WITH NITROCELLULOSE LACQUER

Figure 9-2. Motor, Bellows, T5E1

3DIMPLE
BEFORE
U? mixture (lead selenium). Recent develop-
ments in the design and production of ini-
FIRING
tiating elements have made it possible to use
Figure 9-1. Motor, Dimple, T3E1 lead styphnate for dimple motor charges. Lead
mononitroresorcinate, that produces only
about one-third as much gas as lead styph-
type igniters. They have been developed to nate, has been used for bellows motors.
perform delayed mechanical functions, as in
parachutes. In dimple and bellows motors, that have
appreciable internal free volumes before
A table has been prepared listing some movement, the rapid burning of materials like
sixty actuators used in fuzes4. lead styphnate and lead mononitroresorcinate
is tolerable. In the usual piston motor, how-
9-1.2 OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS ever, the rapid burning of these materials
within the small free volumes would cause the
The usable output from the explosive pressure to rise above the burning point.
charge of an actuator is the work accom- Smokeless powder of the sporting arm type
plished by the expansion of the gases has been effective'. Detonation, of course,
liberated as it burns. The magnitude of this would be disastrous in any actuators, so
output has been computed for propellant azides and other detonation-prone materials
actuated devices based on assumptions of are avoided.
adiabatic conditions and no motion before
powder burn-out3. Often squibs can be used as actuators.
Actuators can also incorporate one of the
For most design purposes, simple scaling of various delays discussed in par. 6-1.2.1.
charge size to requirements from existing
items will suffice. In such scaling, the quan-
tity of charge should be proportional to the
pressure or force desired for constant volume, 9-1.3 EXPLOSIVE BOLTS
to the volume for a constant pressure, or to
the energy requirement. In dimple motors, Explosive bolts are a convenient means for
the quantity of explosive used is so small that separating subassemblies which, up to the
it presents measuring difficulties in produc- instant of desired separation, must be firmly
tion. One means of alleviating these diffi- attached. Stage separation of multistage
culties is that of using a mixture containing a missiles is a typical application. Explosive
small percentage of a gas producing material bolts are to two types, high-explosive and
(3% nitrostarch) with an essentially gasless low-explosive.

9-2
 AMCP 706-179

PROTECTIVE CAP PROPELLANT POWDER PISTON PROTECTIVE CAP

Figure 9-3. Driver, Explosive, MARK 12 MOD 0

9-1.3.1 HIGH-EXPLOSIVE BOLTS bottom radius, and on type and amount of

explosive are not available.
As the name implies, a high-explosive bolt
is a hollow bolt that contains a charge of high By taking advantage of the interactions of
explosive. The charge may be permanently reflected tension waves and the rarefactions
placed, or more conveniently, in a removable that follow detonation induced shocks, it is
cartridge. When detonated, the high explosive possible to design an explosive bolt of nearly
generates a shock wave that will exceed the the full strength attainable in the diameter
ultimate tensile strength of the bolt at the used that will break along a predetermined
base of the bore thereby resulting in failure at surface. A shock wave in a condensed medium
that point. In its most rudimentary form, a is reflected from a free sur-face as a tension
high-explosive bolt would function by merely wave. The shock produced by a detonation
loading it with enough high explosive to tends to retain the pressure-time profile, and
shatter it upon firing. A bolt of this descrip- hence the pressure-distance profile of the
tion might serve some purposes but, in most detonation itself. This profile is sharply
applications, its use would subject nearby peaked, so that the shock is followed closely
components of the system to damage by by a rarefaction. The interactions of these
fragments. reflected tension waves with one another, and
with the rarefaction waves behind the detona-
A more suitable type of bolt then is one tion, induce fracture6. Such interactions are
that parts at a predetermined surface and is utilized in the explosive bolt illustrated in Fig.
otherwise essentially intact. One method of 9-6.
attaining this end is that of so weakening the
bolt at the intended breaking point that it Since all high-explosive bolts shatter, the
may be severed by an explosion too weak to danger of fragments is inherent. The military
do other damage. A circumferential notch or therefore prefer a low-explosive bolt.
groove will accomplish this purpose. Most
high-explosive bolts have been designed by 9-1.3.2 LOW-EXPLOSIVE BOLTS
industry. Hence, little is known about the
important parameters that affect the fracture In contrast to a high-explosive bolt, the
mechanism. Data on notch position, depth, low-explosive bolt depends on the generation

9-3
AMCP 708-179

SECTION A-A SQUIB

Jvfffr Tft—ffi— !jl -H4-

f (*

ZU
I II ill
I
ill
I I I

Y y v f H

2 IN.

Figure 9-4. Switch, Squib Actuated, Non Delay, XM'60

of pressure in the bolt cavity. Sufficient 9-2 DEMOLITION DEVICES AND ACCES-
internal pressure will cause a tension failure in SORIES
the bolt material as a result of the internal
pressure working against the piston area repre- 9-2.1 DESTRUCTORS
sented by the cross section of the bolt bore.
The low-explosive bolt then is in fact a special The destruction of equipment, either to
piston motor (see par. 9-1.1). It is designed prevent it from falling into enemy hands or to
like other actuators3 and has also been the halt further functioning of a missile that has
subject of special studies7. Low-explosive gone out of control, is accomplished by
bolts generally result in a break having mini- explosive devices called destructors. De-
mum swelling of the bolt parts and practically structors are also used as complete initiating
no fragments. systems for improvised mines, demolition
devices and the like. A wide variety of
explosive destructors has been devised to
9-1.3.3 EXPLOSIVE NUTS accomplish such destruction. Destructors vary
in size and shape depending upon their
specific applications.
Explosive nuts are nuts housed in a bonnet
that fractures in the same manner as explosive A typical destructor, the Universal De-
bolts. structor MIO, is shown in Fig. 9-78. The
principal portion is the pair of booster cups.
The one nearer the activator bushing contains
tetryl pellets with a center hole for the
IGNITION CHARGE D STYPHNATE insertion of the activator while the other one
BaCr04 75% NON-C
Z 28% 3NDUCTIVE POWDER contains solid tetryl pellets. A bushing with
PDO 97% two different external threads permits the
PLUS— CASE-^ B 3%
device to fit most fuze cavities. The input end
of the destructor can accommodate a firing
device and blasting cap combination, a firing
device and activator combination or a blasting
cap, electric or nonelectric.

Construction of such a manual destructor

as the M10 differs greatly from that of
destructors that are built into missiles or
Figure 9-5. Pyroswitch classified components. The large explosive

9-4
 AMCP 708-179

1.7 IN. DIAMETER THREAD'

2 IN. DIAMETER THREAD

CLOSING PLUG AMMUNITION BUSHING

\
R.ÄNEOF
SEPARATION

BLASTINO CAP
BUSHING BOOSTER CUPS

Figure 9-6. Explosive Bolt in Which i—m—m m COMPONENTS

Reflected Tension Waves Are Utilized

Figure 9-7. Destructor, Universal, M 10

charges required for these purposes must be as of comparatively low sensitivity, the new
safe to handle as those of the main charges. detonating cord has replaced almost com-
Further, accidental functioning of such pletely the lead-bound fuse in the United
charges must be precluded as definitely as States'. Core loading is from 20 to 400
that of the main charges. For these reasons, grains/ft.
large destructors are essentially special fuzing
systems that have their own explosive trains While the textile-covered cord has many
and safety devices. Hence, destructors that advantages and is widely used in the blasting
form a part of a weapon system are designed industry, its use cannot be tolerated where
in the same manner as the functioning compo- brisance and noise level are to be minimized.
nents of the system. The destructor is usually In such instances, a recently developed cord,
tucked away into whatever free space is initially designated low-energy detonating
available. cord (LEDC) must be employed. This consists
of an explosive detonation-conveying cord,
9-2.2 EXPLOSIVE CORDS, CAPS, AND comprising a metal sheath that encases a
SHEETS continuous core of high explosive. A covering
of fabric or coating of a flexible plastic
9-2.2.1 EXPLOSIVE CORD material may be employed around the plastic
sheath. With PETN, this cord has been made
For many years cordeau detonating fuse, a in loadings from 0.1 to 50grains/ft. Recently
lead-bound TNT core fuse, had been used for developed cords also offer increased resistance
detonating multiple charges with a single at higher temperatures.
detonator. This fuse, now obsolete, was pre-
pared by loading a lead tube with TNT and The textile-covered cord has been assigned
drawing the tubing down to a greatly reduced various names, depending on such factors as
diameter. The detonation velocity of cordeau the degree of shielding of the cord and the
fuse, about 5000 m/sec, compares with a user's prerogative, including for example, mild
value of approximately 6500 m/sec for its detonating cord (MDC), miniature detonating
replacement, a textile covered cord having a cord (MDC), mild detonating fuse (MDF), and
core of either PETN or RDX. The textile is flexible linear shaped charge (FLSC). These
waterproofed with water-resistant fillers and are all general designations that have been
may be reinforced with a wire or cord binding used to identify metal-sheathed material with
and may be plastic coated. Because cordeau or without fabric/plastic covering. Confined
fuse has a weight disadvantage, requires an mild detonating cord (CMDC) refers to basic
expensive tubing process, and contains TNT MDC overwrapped with alternating layers of a

9-5
AMCP 70G-179

fibrous yarn material and plastic. Shielded several charge pieces are attached to ring the
mild detonating cord (SMDC) refers to basic tree trunk1 2.
MDC covered with a thin fibrous overbraid
and contained in a thin-walled metal tube. Of 9-2.2.3 BLASTING CAPS
all these designations, the most common is
MDC. MDC is covered by MI1.-C-506971 °. Blasting caps are just like detonators but
have a greater output to initiate dynamite and
Except for flexible linear shaped charge other insensitive main charges directly. They
(see par. 9-2.2.2), detonating cords simply also are used in field assembly of an explosive
detonate along their length. MDC is used train, mainly for demolition purposes. The
principally as a transfer media in explosive nonelectric blasting cap is set off by the flash
trains and in explosive forming. FLSC is used from a fuse, see par. 5-2.3 for input considera-
in such special applications as cutting, weld- tions. The electric blasting cap is initiated by
ing, stage separation of rockets, and separa- a blasting machine, see par. 5-2.4 for input
tion of special and large-caliber ammunition considerations. The output, discussed for
stages. The use of MDC in explosive testing is detonators in par. 5-3.2, applies as well. The
discussed in par. 12-[Link] . military blasting caps are designated M613
and M714 for electric and nonelectric types,
Where MDC is to be used to transmit respectively. ■
detonation between a detonator and a charge
of booster explosive, the limitations of trans- 9-2.2.4 SHEET EXPLOSIVE
mission of detonation between small and large
columns of explosive, discussed in pars. 3-1.2 Flexible sheet-'explosive is a mixture of
and 7-2.5, must be considered. A series of PETN with some additives. This material has
mild end primers is available for use with the consistency of a vinyl floor covering and
MDC. can be cut with a sharp knife or razor blade.
Sheets can be obtained in various sizes and of
9-2.2.2 FLEXIBLE LINEAR SHAPED various thicknesses. Extrusion in other shapes
CHARGE are also available. Blasting caps are recom-
mended for initiation.
When MDC is drawn into a V shape, it
becomes a flexible linear shaped charge 9-2.3 DEMOLITION BLOCKS
(FLSC): In this form its action is like that of a
shaped charge operating along its entire Composition C-4 and its variants are hand
length. The collapse mechanism of FLSC is moldable mixtures of RDX with various other
complex. It consists of the formation of a solids that form a putty-like moldable plastic
discrete jet followed by a slug of housing explosive. Properties of these materials are
material' '. given in Tables 3-2 and 4-2. The materials are
available in bulk form and in the form of
FLSC is used widely in metal cutting demolition blocks' 'ls. With reasonable care,
operations. In one application, it circles the material from the demolition blocks may
bomb let dispensers. When detonated, the be remolded into almost any desired shape
charge cuts the canister in half so that the without appreciable reduction of density
bomblets can fall out. from the 1.50 g/cm3 of the blocks. For
mock-up experiments, Composition C-4 at
Although not flexible, linear shaped demo- this density resembles many of the standard
lition charges operate on the same principle. main charge explosives closely enough in
For example, Charge XM184 consists of output characteristics (par. 3-3) that experi-
V-shaped pieces of Comp. B, 7.25 in. long. ments with such mock-ups can be very useful
Specifically developed to fell large trees, for the early investigation of design concepts.

9-6
 AMCP 708-179

Where simulation of explosives of higher relatively low ram pressures, if vacuum tech-
performance than that of Compostion C-4 at niques are used. Where less brisant materials
a density of 1.5 is desired, it can be consoli- are desired, military dynamites LVD16 and
dated to a density of 1.6 or higher, with MVD17 may be used.

REFERENCES

a-k Lettered references are listed in the 9. Mild Detonating Cord, Journal Article
General References at the end of this 44.0 of the JANAF Fuze Committee, 3
handbook. May 1967(AD-816 229).

1. F. K. Van Arsdel, Development of an 10. MIL-C-50697, Cord, Detonating, Dept. of

Improved M4 (T3) Explosive Dimple Defense (Note: supersedes MIL-C-
Motor, Report TR 2689, Picatinny 17124).
Arsenal, Dover, N.J., June 1960.
11. G. A. Hayes and T. L. Herling, Optical
2. F. K. Van Arsdel, Development of an Metallography of Linear-Shaped-Charge
Improved M6 Explosive Bellows Motor, Fragments, Report TP 4859, Naval
Report TR 2648, Picatinny Arsenal, Weapons Center, China Lake, Calif, July
Dover, N.J., October 1959. 1970.

3. AMCP 706-270, Engineering Design 12. POMM 1375-358-10 (PA-DCS), Charge,

Handbook, Propellant Actuated Devices. Demolition: Shaped, Linear, XM184,
Picatinny Arsenal. Dover, N.J., July
4. A Survey of Explosively Actuated De- 1966.
vices Used in Fuzes, Journal Article 20.0
of the JANAF Fuze Committee, Septem- 13. MIL-C-45468 (MU), Cap, Blasting, Elec-
ber 1960 (AD-222 604). tric, M6, Dept. of Defense.

5. E. E. Kilmer and M. J. Falbo, The 14. MIL-C-4569 (MU), Cap, Blasting, Non-
Development of the XE-16A Actuator, Electric, Ml, Dept. of Defense.
Explosive, as a Replacement for the MK
I MOD O Actuator, Explosive, NAVORD 15. T. W. Stevens, D. E. Seeger,D. H. Stone,
Report 6111, Naval Ordnance Labora- Development of the M5 and MSAl
tory, Silver Spring, Md., 26 May 1958. Demolition Blocks, Report TR 2332,
Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J., August
6. J. Savitt, R. H. Stresau, and L. E. Star, 1956.
"Compression Wave Velocity Experi-
ments With Copper", J. Applied Physics, 16. B. J. Zlotucha, Preparation of Low-
10,1307-11(1954). Velocity Military Dynamite on a Semi-
plant Scale, Report TR 2576, Picatinny
7. R. C. Sutter, Development of Release Arsenal, Dover, N.J., November 1958.
Bolt, Nonfragmentation, Report R-1645,
Frankford Arsenal, Philadelphia, Pa., 17. C. E. Jacobson and B. J. Zlotucha,
June 1962(AD-291 769). Development of a Military Dynamite
Equivalent to Commericial Dynamite,
8. TM 9-1375-200, Demolition Materials, Report TR 2239, Picatinny Arsenal,
Dept. of Army, January 1964. Dover, N.J., February 1956.

9-7/9-8
 AMCP 708-179

CHAPTER 10

LOADING AND FABRICATION

10-1 PROCESSSELECTION diameter, the explosive is usually loaded in

increments.

Most solid high explosives are manufac- After pressing or casting, it is sometimes
tured by processes that yield granular material. necessary to machine explosives, either to
Their bulk densities are generally somewhat provide a smooth surface or a fuze cavity at
less than 1 g/cm3. They are used in military the filling hole, or to produce complex
applications as solids of well defined con- contours required for some specialized pur-
figurations, usually at densities between 1.5 poses. In some cases, mating contours of two
and 1.7 g/cm3. charges are cemented together. Cavities are
also formed using a special tool on final
The two principal loading techniques are pressing.
casting and pressing. All explosives in com-
mon military use can be pressed. However, Of increasing importance are the plastic
those that are castable are usually cast be- bonded explosives (PBX) These are exactly
cause of the greater convenience and flexi- what the name implies, and like plastics can
bility of this process. As a rule of thumb, be obtained in many different forms. Hence,
main bursting charges of large caliber muni- PBX's are available for casting, pressing, or
tions are cast while small explosive compo- extruding. They vary from rigid to rubbery
nents (initiators to boosters) are pressed. consistencies depending on the type of plastic
used as the binders- thermoplastic or thermo-
More pounds of military explosive are cast setting-and the degree of polymerization
than are loaded by all other processes. Essen- permitted. High mechanical strength and high
tially, the casting of an explosive involves thermal stability are possible'.
only melting it and pouring it into a charge
case or mold. In practice, like most funda- Other considerations for process selection
mentally simple processes, the procedures include fabrication facilities and suitability of
necessary to cast charges of the quality the explosive for its intended application.
needed for acceptable performance and safety
can become quite elaborate. A suitable pour 10-2 CASTING
viscosity is of over-riding importance.
10-2.1 PROJECTILE PREPARATION
The most common procedure for pressing
powdered explosives is that of pouring the As part of the manufacturing process, the
powder into a mold and pressing it with a ram interior wall of the projectile is sprayed with
that fits snugly. The pressure most frequently paint or varnish, primarily to prevent rusting
specified for charges used in military items is of the projectile in storage. The requirements
10,000 psi. Charges may be pressed directly of the coating are that it be compatible with
into their containers or pressed into molds the explosive, adhere well to the projectile
and ejected as pellets. Where they are pressed wall, and offer a good bonding surface for the
into containers of lengths greater than the explosive. The latter requirement is necessary

10-1
AMCP 708-179

to prevent rotation of the charge relative to vary from microscopic size to a substantial
the spinning projectile. The finished coating fraction of the size of the charge, depending
at the base of the projectile should be thin upon casting conditions and procedure. The
enough to assure thorough drying and be approach known as cream casting (par. 8-2.2)
sufficiently smooth to eliminate irregularities results in very fine crystals. In mixed explo-
that could otherwise form air pockets. sives, which usually are cast in the form of
slurries, the solid particles tend to inhibit
The molten explosive is usually poured crystal growth, although TNT crystals some-
through a funnel-former. This tool is specially times apparently grow around the particles of
designed to furnish the desired surface con- the slurry. The effects of particle size on
tour upon removal and to hold a sufficient initiation sensitivity, failure diameter, and
reservoir of molten explosive to replenish the performance characteristics (see par. 3-2.2)
shrinking, cooling mass beneath it. A thin film also have been observed to apply to crystal
of silicone grease is applied sometimes to the size in cast TNT.
former to aid in its release when the explosive
has solidified. 10-2.2.3 UNIFORMITY OF COMPOSITION

10-2.2 EFFECT OF CASTING PROCEDURE Most castable explosives are poured as

ON CHARGE CHARACTERISTICS slurries of RDX, aluminum, etc., in molten
TNT. The instant a charge is poured, the
10-2.2.1 POROSITY AND CAVITATION particles of higher density than TNT start to
settle, and those that are lighter start to rise.
The porosity of an explosive charge is As a result, by the time the material solidifies,
usually introduced by two principal causes, its composition varies from point to point
entrained air bubbles and dissolved gases, and within the charge. Another cause of non-
shrinkage that occurs as the charge solidifies uniformity of composition is the tendency of
and cools. The higher the temperature of TNT to form essentially pure crystals, leaving
casting and the more fluid the melt, the larger other components of the mixture at grain
is the fraction of the entrained air that forms boundaries and in the center of the charge
into bubbles and floats out of the charge. On that usually solidifies last. The most serious
the other hand, these conditions maximize production problem of this kind is the settling
cavitation due to shrinkage. The most serious of aluminum in larger charges of aluminized
effect of shrinkage is that known to metal explosives. The use of aluminum and other
founders as "piping". The casting solidifies additives in very fine particle sizes can help to
from the outside and consequent shrinkage is alleviate this problem but also tends to
that of an isolated mass at the center where increase pouring difficulties because of the
no additional material is available to fill the higher viscosities of the melts.
volume left by the shrinkage. The result is a
single large void at the center of the casting. 10-2.3 STANDARD CASTING PROCE-
DURE
In a cast charge (unlike in a pressed
charge), both density and pore or cavity size The most common procedure for filling a
are determined by the casting procedure. projectile or bomb case is to do so in a single
Both of these factors must be considered by pouring2. In loading projectiles, a funnel or
the designer in terms of their effects upon sprue provides a reservoir of molten explosive
safety, reliability, and performance. to fill the volume left by the shrinkage. The
explosive in the funnel must, of course,
10-2.2.2 CRYSTAL SIZE remain liquid and in communication with the
center of the charge. When the filling hole is
The crystals of TNT in cast explosives may large enough, convective heat transfer main-

10-2
 AMCP 708-179

tains such conditions. In other instances, 10-2.4 SOME SPECIAL CASTING TECH-
however, such conditions can be maintained NIQUES
only by means of steam heated funnels, steam
finger, or hot probes. 10-2.4.1 PELLET CASTING

For very large charges, cooling time is

Where the maintenance of a clear channel
reduced and shrinkage minimized by use of
between sprue and the slowest freezing part
precast pellets. The best pellet casting tech-
of a charge is impractical, cavitation is
nique is that of pouring a quantity of molten
avoided by casting charges in layers, each of
explosive into the case, and then pouring'in
which is allowed to "crust over" before
pellets, slowly enough so that they are not in
pouring the next.
contact with one another to avoid entrapping
interstitial air2. Although pellet casting re-
TNT melts at 81°C. It forms eutectics with duces the total amount of shrinkage voids, it
RDX, tetryl (68°C), PETN (76°C), and other makes it nearly impossible to maintain chan-
"impurities" in the mix and makes these nels to the pockets of molten material. The
materials more soluble at higher tempera- most important advantages of pellet casting is
tures. Thus, there is a general tendency for the reduction of cooling time and minimizing
the solid content and, hence, the apparent of shrinkage in large charges. Pellet casting is
viscosity of most castable mixtures to de- not used in loading artillery projectiles be-
crease as the temperature is increased. How- cause of the development of cavities.
ever, a reversal of the tendency toward the
reduction in viscosity has been noted in
Composition B when it heated above 100°C.
10-2.4.2 VACUUM MELTING AND CAST-
ING
From the eutectic or melting point, the
composition of the liquid portion and its
Entrainment of air may be avoided by
viscosity vary as heat is removed. It has been
melting and casting under a vacuum. Vacuum
recommended that the heat content of any
explosive be reduced, before pouring, to the melting is a fairly straight-forward procedure
minimum compatible with the avoidance of in the vacuum kettles that are maintained by
air entrainment. This practice can be followed many loading facilities (see Fig. 10-1).
when an experienced operator is available. Vacuum casting requires specially designed
molds or a vacuum chamber large enough to
contain both kettle and mold. The definite
TNT may be cast after it has cooled to a increase in the cast density should indicate
point where a fairly large fraction of it has without question the advantage of vacuum
solidified to form a slurry of very small melting, namely, an increase in viscosity of
crystals. Such a slurry is obtained by stirring the vacuum melted material. Nevertheless, a
it as it cools, as in the making of chocolate divergence of opinion exists regarding the
fudge. TNT cast in this manner is labeled by value of vacuum melting followed by pouring
some as creamed TNT. Some have applied the in air. Some investigators report results nearly
term creamed to all explosives that are cast as good as those obtained with complete
after stirring until the last possible instant. vaccum melting and casting. Others maintain
Extreme caution must be taken to avoid air that so much air is entrained in the casting
entrapment during stirring. This technique has process that the value of vacuum melting is
the advantage of resulting in less shrinkage on negligible. A possible explanation for this
cooling and solidification because a large difference of opinion is the difference in
portion of the TNT is already solid before techniques that can be applied in various
casting. types of operation.

10-3
AMCP 706-179

10-2.3.3 CONTROLLED COOLING

If an explosive charge can be induced to

cool from the bottom up, maintaining a
nearly plane interface between liquid and
solid, densities well in excess of 99% of
maximum theoretical are attainable. In a
complicated programmed cooling, the thermal
cycle of preheating the mold, pouring, and
cooling takes over forty hours4. At the other
extreme is the use of strategically placed in-
sulation to cause a charge to cool in the
approximate desired pattern.

10-2.4.5 EXTRUSION

Extrusion may be considered a form of

casting under pressure. In applications where
cylindrical charges are required, some plastic
bonded explosives can be extruded into the
desired shape and then placed or pressed into
the ammunition housing. Conventional extru-
sion tools are employed for this process.

10-2.4.6 LIQUID EXPLOSIVES

From the standpoint of casting, the pouring

of liquid or slurry explosives is handled in the
same manner as that of molten explosives.
The process is simpler in that pouring takes
Figure 10-1. Vacuum Casting Kettle place at ambient temperature. However, care
must still be taken to avoid entrapment of air.
Liquid filling can be speeded up by pumping.
10-2.4.3 VIBRATION, JOLTING, AND If slurries are to be gelled in the ammunition,
CENTRIFUGAL CASTING the gelling agent is introduced just ahead of
the cavity5.

Accelerating of a cast charge after pouring 10-3 PRESSING

but before solidification will often expedite
the movement of air bubbles to the surface3. 10-3.1 STANDARD PROCEDURES
Vibration and jolting often break the surface
tension that causes bubbles to cling to sur- 10-3.1.1 MEASUREMENT OF EXPLOSIVE
faces2 . Centrifugal acceleration, of course, CHARGES
also accelerates the settling of denser compo-
nents of mixtures2. This has been used to For small test quantities or for some pre-
advantage in loading HEAT ammunition mium quality production, direct reading one-
where it is desirable to have a richer composi- pan balances are used. They are faster than
tion of the more energetic compounds (RDX analytical balances and provide an accuracy
and HMX) around the cone in cyclotol or within one percent. Automatic weighing
octols. machines are also available.

104
 AMCP 706-179

CUP OF
CONDUCTING
HARD RUBBER
-MEASURING SCOOP-
AVAILABLE INA SERIES OF
SIZES. FINE ADJUSTMENTS
ARE MADE BY FILING TOP
SURFACE.
XXS
(A) VOLUMETRIC FILLING OF TOP PLATE

-FLAT RUBBER BAND

Figure 10-2. Scoop Loading

The desire is always to load a specific

weight of explosive. This objective can be (B) CONSOLIDATION OF CHARGE

achieved to a sufficient degree of accuracy for

many purposes by volumetric, control, as in
commerical blasting caps and squibs. The two Figure 10-3. Charging Plate Loading
most common volumetric measuring devices
are scoops and charging plates. Scoops (Fig.
10-2) are filled and leveled against a rubber tional resistance to ram movement, and sub-
band. Careful scooping is accurate within 4%. stantially decrease real loading pressure.
Charging plates (Fig. 10-3) lend themselves to
production rates. After filling holes in the top 3. Interference between ram and case re-
plate and scraping off the excess, plates are sults in binding (which may be so severe as to
aligned with cup holes. Since explosive prevent any pressing of the explosive),
quantities are usually specified by weight, it is damage to the case, inclusion of chips of case
left to the loading plant to adjust the volume material in the explosive, or all of these.
measured so as to take into account bulk
density. There are now several automatic The cost of a set of loading tools may be
volumetric loading devices for production distributed over a large number of items. For
loading of primer mixes and lead azide used in this reason, they are often made to fits and
initiators. tolerances similar to those used for gages6.
Where cases are made by processes such as
10-3.1.2 DIRECT PRESSING IN CASE forging, drawing, and extrusion, which use
most of the tolerance in lot-to-lot variation,
A large proportion of explosive charges are some loading activities have found it worth-
loaded by direct pressing of explosive charges while to maintain a series of loading tools of
in cases (Fig. 10-4)a. Fits and tolerances of graduated dimension, using those giving the,
explosive charge cases and loading tools are best fit possible with each lot of cases.
determined by reconciliation of three oppos-
ing factors: Production loading tools should be
hardened (60 Rockwell C is common). The
1. Production costs of components rise die should be ground, honed, and lapped or
sharply as tolerances are reduced. polished to an 8 or 16 rms micro-inch finish.
Some claim better results if the final opera-
2. Powdered explosives tend to flow into tion involves longitudinal rather than rotary
the clearance between ram and case. In motion.
addition to creating a hazard, the explosives
wedged in this space can increase the fric- The friction between the explosive and the

10-5
AMCP 708-179

it is pushed out of the tool. For this reason,

^O loading tools should be made to fit the
maximum outside diameter of the cup, within
a few ten-thousandths of an inch. Standard
LOADING RAM
dimensions and tolerances of cups are listed in
MIL-STD-320h. Bore finish and hardness of
FUNNEL- RAM
GUIDE the bushing are important factors in trouble-
free ejection of finished cups. Lapped or
honed bores are often specified. Where cases
are heavier or where explosives are to be
loaded directly into fuze cavities, the inter-
actions of case and tool tolerances, which
may be sufficient to cause interference
between the ram and any of the bores
DETONATOfl
through which it passes, should be considered
CAPSULE
SUPPORT carefully. In some situations, where explosives
are to be loaded directly into fuze holes, the
most practical way to attain alignment is to
use a pin or dowel, similar to the loading ram,
ANVIL
to hold the component in alignment with the
ram guide while it is being clamped in place.
It is best to use an alignment pin a thousandth
of an inch or so larger than the loading ram.
Fig. 10-5a shows a set-up for hand loading of
leads making use of an alignment ram and a
mandrel.

walls causes a gradient of pressure, and hence 10-3.1.3 STOPVS PRESSURE LOADING
density, decreasing from the face of the ram.
The slope of this pressure gradient, of course, In production, it is possible either to press
is proportional to the coefficient of friction a controlled quantity of explosive to a con-
between the explosive and the walls, which trolled height (called stop loading) or to apply
varies with both explosive and case material a given load to a loading ram of a given
and also with the interior finish of the case4 . diameter (called pressure loading). The in-
As a general rule, the density variations due to herent variations in production material intro-
these gradients are kept within reasonable duce a certain amount of error in the density
bounds by adherence to the general rule-of- obtained by either method.
thumb that the length of an increment after
consolidation should not exceed the diameter The relationship between loading pressure
of the cavity. and charge density for commonly pressed
explosives is given in Table 10- la. An approxi-
The usual loading pressure of about 10,000 mation of the loading densities of six com-
psi is well beyond the bursting strength of monly used explosives is shown in the
charge cups of any material that can be nomograph, Fig. 10-67 . The pressure-density
economically deep drawn. Hence, cups are relationship varies somewhat from lot to lot.
supported by close fitting loading tools while In addition, loading density is affected by
being pressed. Most of the difference between such factors as ram clearance and increment
the cup diameter before and after loading is length.
accounted for by the expansion of the explo-
sive component, relieving residual stresses, as From the usual cup tolerances, it has been

10-6
 AMCP 706-179

TABLE 10-1

LOADING DENSITY OF VARIOUS EXPLOSIVES

Pressed (pressure kpsi) Crystal

Explosive 3 5 10 12 15 20 Cast Density

Composition A-3 1.47 - 1.61 1.65 - - -

Composition B 1.59 1.67
Cyclonite(RDX) 1.46 1.52 1.60 1.63 1.65 1.68 1.82
EDNA (Haleite) 1.39 1.46 1.51 1.55 : 1.71
Explosive D 1.33 1.41 1.47 1.49 1.61 1.64 — 1.72

Lead Azide 2.46 2.69 2.98 3.05 3.16 3.28 — 4.68

(2 specimens) 2.62 2.71 2.96 3.07
Lead Styphnate (Norm.) 2.12 2.23 2.43 2.47 2.57 2.63 3.1
Pentolite, 50-50 1.59 1.65
PETN - 1.48 1.61 - - - - 1.76

Picric Acid 1.4 1.5 1.57 1.59 1.61 1.64 1.71 1.76
Picratol, 52/48 1.62
Tetracene 1.05 1.22 1.33 1.37 1.41 1.48 - 4.72
Tetryl 1.40 1.47 1.57 1.60 1.63 1.67 1.73
TNT 1.34 1.40 1.47 1.49 1.52 1.55 1.59 1.65

(Densitiesare ing/cm3.)

calculated that the cross-sectional area of the When density is determined by pressure
explosive column of a detonator may vary by loading, variation in pressure, cross-sectional
two or three percent. In normal production, a area, and charge weight each have an effect
reasonable weighting tolerance for initiator upon the column height. Usually, the length
charges is three or four percent. Thus, in stop tolerances specified cannot be held merely by
loading, assuming that the height of an holding the various quantities mentioned
increment is exactly reproduced, the density within their tolerances. The weight of explo-
may vary as much as seven percent.

The implication of the foregoing, that den-

sities are more readily controlled by the
control of loading pressure than by stop
loading, has been borne out by experience.
However, the production advantages of stop
loading are sufficient to outweigh any theo-
retical disadvantages. It is important for stop
loading to specify dimensions, quantities, and
tolerances such that the maximum pressure is
within limits imposed by tool strength. When
items so loaded are used, safety and reliability RAM
(USED HERE
determinations should take the effects of AS MANDREL)

variable charge density into account. In either PRESS

type of loading, a check of the loading PLATEN

density for each production lot is highly Figure 70-5. Tool for Direct Loading
desirable. of Component

10-7
AMCP 706-179

50,000
40,000
30,000
25,000

20,000

1.5 — TETRYL- 15,000

X
T 10,000

. 20

LEAD STYPHNATE 5,000 to

10
4,000

LEAD AZIDE 3,000

2.5
O
2,500
2,000

- 1,500

1,000

A STRAIGHT LINE THROUGH THE POINT SHOWN FOR

A PARTICULAR EXPLOSIVE WILL INTERSECT THE TWO SCALES TO
SHOW THE LOADING DENSITY RESULTING FROM ANY GIVEN LOADING
3.5 PRESSURE. 500
EXAMPLE •■ THE DENSITY OF LEAD AZIDE PRESSED AT
lOflOOpsi is ABOUT 2.9 g/cm2

USE WITH CAUTION AT HIGH PRESSURES

Figure 10-6. Nomograph of Loading Pressure and Density

sive must be adjusted to compensate for the The first effect may be very serious. Where
other variables. Commonly, the last charge a balance or dead weight is used to determine
loaded is adjusted to fit the space remaining the loading pressure, a rapid ram movement
for it and the weight is specified as "approxi- can result in a force due to acceleration of the
mate". masses moved which may vary from a sub-
stantial fraction to several times the force due
to gravity. Analyses of some loading opera-
In addition to the pressing properties of the tions have revealed that the true loading
explosive as such, the relationship between pressure was three or four times that
loading pressure and density is affected by intended.
such factors as ram movement, clearances,
increment size, and the coefficient of friction The second effect of ram movement usual-
between explosive and case. The movement of ly works in the opposite direction (slower ram
the ram affects the relationship in two ways. speeds plus a dwell at the peak pressure may

10-8
 AMCP 708-179

cause an increase in density). This effect is

due to the-fact that, at loading pressures
usually used, explosives are stressed beyond
their yield points and creep or flow plastical-
ly. This effect, of course, becomes more
important at very high pressures, such as
those used for delays. In addition to increas-
ing the density, slower speeds plus dwell of
the ram result in a more uniform density.

10-3.1.4PELLETIZING

Most powdered explosives that are to be

pressed are prepressed into pellets. The die of SINGLE PUNCH ROTARY
the loading tool permits closer tolerances and
better finishes than are reasonable for cases
that are loaded by direct pressing. Exceptions
are primer mixes, PETN, and lead azide, Figure 10-7. Pelleting Presses
although lead azide is pelleted in Canada on a
production basis.
general superiority of the finishes of pelleting
Although pellets for experimental use are molds over those of charge cases and the use
loaded by single operation methods in which of double acting loading equipment result in
weighed charges are pressed either by stop somewhat smaller density gradients in pellets
loading or by controlled pressure techniques, than in direct loaded explosives. The result of
quantity production of pellets is accom- these counterbalancing trends is that the
plished in automatic pelleting machinery, in one-to-one limiting ratio of length to diameter
which the explosive is metered volumetrically which applies to increment loading also
by the controlled movements of punches (Fig. applies to pellets. For some materials, some-
10-7). Single stroke presses of the types used what shorter pellets are desirable, particularly
for explosives produce about 90 pellets per in larger sizes.
minute while rotary presses have rates of
about 700 pellets per minute. The diameter of a pelleting die may be
maintained to almost any tolerance specified.
The density gradient resulting from wall Similarly, the distance between the top and
friction, in addition to its effects on explosive bottom punches of an automatic pelleting
performance, may adversely affect the machine, or the punch-to-heel distance in a
handling properties of pellets. Pellets con- stop pressing tool, can be held to any desired
solidated from powders at low densities tend , tolerance. Thus, the dimensional variations
to be weak in two ways; their resistance to are essentially the variations in expansion of
body fractures is often less than desirable, and the material, during and after ejection from
they may crumble at corners and chalk off at the die. The immediate expansion upon ejec-
surfaces. On the other hand, some materials tion for a typical explosive used for pressed
become brittle and develop residual strains at pellets is about 0.3%. Pellet-to-pellet varia-
high densities. tions are usually less than 0.1% but the
expansion continues with storage at a rate
The effect of density variation on mechani- that varies appreciably with conditions as well
cal properties of pellets may cause difficulties as with the composition of the explosive.
even though the variation in explosive prop- Pellets of an explosive of known expansion
erties is tolerable. On the other hand, the characteristics, which are to be inserted into

10-9
AMCP 706-'179

cups within a few hours after pelleting, may removed, if it has not already leaked through
be held to dimensional tolerances of the order the clearance between ram and cavity during
of 0.1% or less. However, tolerances of 0.3 to pressing.
0.5% are more practical.
When densities reach 99% of crystal den-
Variations in density reflect variations in sity, the calculated pressure of the interstitial
dimensions with those of the bulk density and gases rises rapidly, limiting attainable
flow characteristics of the explosive, and densities. When under conditions of pressing,
those of the measured volume. With frequent the explosive or some component of it is
pellet density determinations and occasional caused to flow plastically, the pores may be
adjustment of the pelleting press, explosives closed into individual bubbles in which the
with good flow properties can be pressed into compressed gases are retained to cause exces-
pellets reproducible in density to 1% in an sive growth after pressure removal or pellets
automatic pelleting press. that pop open like muffins when ejected from
the die. In an open pore material, the relative-
10-3.1.5 RECONSOLIDATION ly mobile gases tend to increase density
gradients by distributing pressure without a
Frequently, when it is desirable to attain correspondingly even distribution of the solid
the close confinement and continuity charac- explosive. For these three reasons, vacuum
teristic of explosives loaded directly into their pressing is used where very high or uniform
cases, it is difficult or inconvenient to do so. densities are required, or where significant
In such instances, pellets are inserted into the plastic flow is anticipated during pressing.
cavities and reconsolidated by pressing. In
designing for reconsolidation, consideration Fig. 10-84 is a diagram of a vacuum loading
must be given to the tolerances and variations tool. First, lower and top punches are ad-
of hole dimensions, pellet weight, and pres- vanced to a prepress position to compact the
suredensity relationship that enter into the powder slightly. After evacuating to 1 mm
determination of the relative location of the Hg, full pressure is applied. Production of
surface through which the reconsolidation extremely high quality charges of TNT
pressure is applied. Where this dimension is (pressed at elevated temperature) and Com-
critical, the reconsolidation is done to a stop position A-3 (both at elevated and room
so ,that the tolerances appear in the density of temperature) has been reported4. Density
the reconsolidated pellet. When reconsolida- spreads within 6-in. diameter charges are
tion is specified, the effects of these variations 0.005 g/cm3.
upon performance should be considered.
10-3.2.2 HOT PRESSING
10-3.2 SPECIAL PROCEDURES
The unique properties of plastic bonded
10-3.2.1 VACUUM PRESSING explosives are realized most fully if they are
pressed at elevated temperatures. Appropriate
In the usual pressing operation, in which a temperatures of course, are determined by the
granular explosive is pressed from a bulk properties of the plastic bonding agents used
density of about half the crystal density to and limited by the thermal instability of the
about 95% of the crystal density, the pressure explosives. Temperatures as high as 130°C
rise in the interstitial gases (assuming iso- have been used'. When heated to tempera-
thermal compression and no leakage) may be tures approaching their melting points, explo-
in the neighborhood of 200 psi. The air may sives and additives used in explosives, like
be presumed to diffuse out of the pellet, most solids, are more prone to plastic flow.
through the continuous pores, quite rapidly Equipment required for hot pressing of PBX
after the pellet is ejected or the ram is has been found useful in the production of

10-10
 AMCP 706-179

high density charges of conventional explo- VALVE ACTUATOR.

sives. TNT is pressed routinely to a density of

1.62 g/cm3 at 70°C in the vacuum pressing
process previously described, whereas cast
densities this high are unusual4. Preheating of
the explosive is more efficient than waiting
for it to heat in the mold but cannot be used
when thermosetting resins serve as binder.

10-3.2.3 HYDROSTATIC AND ISOSTATIC

PRESSING
-O-RING

When an explosive is pressed in a die by

means of a ram, the friction of the walls tends
to cause pressure and density gradients. In
addition, the onedimensional compression
can result in an anisotropic structure and
produce pellets with residual strains. Where
dimensional stability, uniformity and high -VACUUM POPPET
TOP PUNCH- VALVE
density are essential to performance, hydro-
static pressing and isostatic pressing have been
used. In both cf these processes, the explosive
is compressed by the action of a fluid, from
which it is separated by a rubber (or other
elastomer) film.

In hydrostatic pressing, the explosive is

placed on a solid surface and covered with a
rubber diaphragm (Fig. 10-9). Although this
process eliminates the gradients which result
from wall friction, some directionality of
compression remains which can result in
anisotropic structure and residual strains. In
isostatic pressing, the explosive is placed in a
rubber bag (Fig. 10-10) that is surrounded by
the pressurizing fluid so that the compression
is essentially three dimensional. Figure 10-8. Vacuum Pressing Apparatus

In addition to the production of high

quality charges, hydrostatic pressing and iso- been evacuated, frequently at elevated tem-
static pressing can be used to consolidate peratures. Temperatures up to 130°C and
explosives which are so sensitive that fric- pressures up to 30,000 psi have been used.
tional contact with the walls of a conven- The surfaces where pressure is applied
tional mold creates a hazard. Materials like through elastic membranes are, of course, of
pure RDX, of which it is difficult to make relatively poorly defined form and dimen-
firm pellets except in small sizes, can often be sions. Hence, these pressing processes must
pressed hydrostatically or isostatically' . almost invariably be followed by machining.
10-3.2.4 PULSATING PRESSURES
Hydrostatic pressing and isostatic pressing
are usually applied to explosives that have Experiments have shown that pressures

10-11
AMCP 706-179

///////////////, '/////////

\
/////////!///. ///////////\/
Figure 10-9. Hydrostatic Press Principle LIQUID AT-
HIGH PRESSURE

which pulsate with an amplitude of a few Figure 10- 10. Isostatic Press Principle
percent of the static pressure and at a
frequency of about 60 Hz, when used with
conventional molding tools, make it possible surface and, generally, the cavity is not as
to produce pellets four or five diameters long deep as desired. The boring of fuze cavities to
with negligible density gradients. The interest- the specified depth and surface finish is a
ing possibilities of this technique in produc- routine operation of production.
tion , of explosive charges have not yet been
exploited. Profile lathes and forming tools may be
used to form almost any desired surface of
10-4 FINISHING OPERATIONS revolution. The special forms required for
detonation wave shaping and other specialized
10-4.1 MACHINING output are often generated by such means.
Explosives may be machined to the same
It has been found that the most uniform tolerances as metals. Turning and milling to a
densities and compositions are attained by thousandth of an inch is not difficult with a
pressing or casting relatively large charges, and good machine. However, the practical appli-
machining the charges needed from selected cability of such precision is limited by the
segments. Similarly, high quality charges can dimensional instability of most explosive
be made by isostatic or hydrostatic pressing, materials.
which also must be followed by machining
operations. All standard machine shop opera- Safety is an important aspect in machining
tions-including milling, drilling, sawing, explosives. Since, as pointed out in par. 2-3.1,
boring, and turning—are applied in this work. the sensitivity of an explosive has meaning
only in terms of the specific initiating im-
Many cast loaded items are filled through pulse, the practice mentioned of machining
the same hole as that into which the fuze is to each explosive material by remote control is
be inserted. After casting, the sprue is broken most desirable4. On the basis of test data it is
off. Although it is a good plan to design the considered safe to machine Composition A-3,
funnel to form a core for the fuze cavity, the Composition B, and TNT at 200 ft/min
problem of funnel extraction limits this prac- surface speed.
tice to some extent. At best, then, the bottom
of the fuze cavity is a rough, broken off Cut-off tools and small drills are more

10-12
 AMCP 706-179

hazardous because of the poor cooling condi- 10-5 SUITABILITY

tions. These operations, if necessary, should
be performed at low speeds with intermittent
cutting and frequent flushing. Water should 10-5.1 AVAILABILITY
be used wherever practical as a coolant,
although tests at high speed under dry condi- The criteria upon which explosive materials
tions are considered justification for dry and fabrication processes must be chosen are
machining where needed. The water keeps suitability for use in military materiel, avail-
explosive dust out of the air and cools the ability, and suitability for a particular applica-
cutting operation. tion.

Some materials and techniques are in-

herently more expensive than others and
should be applied only where the advantages
10-4.2 CEMENTING OF COMPOUND to be gained are clearly worth the added cost.
CHARGES In this respect, it is well to remember that
such costs are reflections of demands on
Explosives charges made of more than one specialized manpower and strategic materials
explosive, in which the contour of the so that, in a total war, they represent propor-
boundary is an important design parameter, tional fractions of the total available military
often are fabricated from cast, pressed, or potential. In other cases, the most suitable
machined components that are cemented materials and techniques are so new as to be
together. available only for laboratory quantities of
items.
Cements that harden by the loss of solvent
generally are to be avoided because the Availability of an explosive involves more
solvent can be lost only by diffusion through than the existence of plant capacity and raw
the explosive. Diffusion may be slow and the materials suitable for economical production.
solvent may modify the properties of the The material must have been approved for
explosive. Two types of cement that have military use and quality control criteria must
been used for this purpose are catalytic exist. Government policy discourages the use
setting cements, like epoxy resins, and con- of proprietary materials, especially those pro-
tact cements. Compatibility of the materials tected by trade secrets.
[Link] used should be checked. Compatibility
of epoxy resins with most explosives depends The explosives of military interest, with
upon the catalyst or hardener used9. Data their properties and other details, are listed in
regarding bond strengths and other pertinent Ref. d. The existence of a Purchase Descrip-
properties also have been compiled' °''' . tion .or Specification may be taken as evi-
dence of the general availability of amaterial
Both; surfaces to be cemented should be for military use. These purchase documents
clean and fit accurately to one another. A contain many details about the explosive
minimum continuous layer of cement should including quality assurance criteria.
be applied to each surface to be joined. Where
catalytic resins are used, provision should be The production of a high explosive com-
made to hold the members in firm contact for pound usually requires a specialized and often
the curing period. When contact cements are elaborate plant. Before specifying a com-
used, mechanical means are desirable to assure pound or a mixture, the designer should
that the elements are in the proper position assure himself that the necessary plants exist
and orientation when they make the first or will exist at the time the item he is
contact. designing reaches the production stage.

10-13
AMCP 706-179

Mixtures are more easily made and general- applications is difficult and often impossible.
ly require only the simplest apparatus. In a Some of the quantities are directly deter-
sense, the availability of a mixture may be mined by composition. Others are affected by
considered that of its ingredients. The pre- the state of aggregation of the explosive
valence of this viewpoint is the reason many which, in turn, is determined partly by
mixtures have been specified only by notes on loading techniques and conditions.
drawings giving their compositions. Mixtures
so,specified usually perform satisfactorily. The aspect of the state of aggregation
However, the properties of mixtures, particu- which has the most effect upon output is
larly their sensitivities, may be affected by the loading density (see pars. 3-2.2.1 and
mixing procedures. Also, in the absence of 10-3.1.3). In general, the effects of density
specified procedures and quality assurance are greatest in applications such as fragmenta-
mixtures may be less uniform than desirable. tion and, in particular, shaped charges where
For this reason, some take the view that each the detonation pressure is an important
mixture is a unique explosive. Whenever factor.
possible, it is wise to use mixtures that have
been standardized11. The most common mix- 10-5.3 SENSITIVITY
tures are listed in Table 10-3 while priming
composition are shown in Table 5-1. The term sensitivity is often applied as if it
were some fundamental property of an explo-
Pars. 10-2 to 10-4 describe casting, press- sive like its melting point. The fact is that
ing, and finishing operations and, hence, sensitivity test results are meaningful only in
indicate the kind of facility that must be terms of the test method employed (see par.
available for fabrication. 3-2.1.1). If one considers the complex series
of events and the many factors involved in the
10-5.2 OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS initiation process, this is hardly surprising.

Explosives differ from other forms of Sensitivity tests that are of interest to the
stored energy in that the rates at which they designer are of two types: (1) general labora-
liberate energy as well as the forms in which it tory tests, chosen for convenience, repro-
is liberated are less subject to control by duciblity, and correlation with experience
design and more uniquely by properties of the whereby the sensitivity of various explosives
materials in which the energy is stored. For to such stimuli as impact, friction, and static
this reason, the total amounts of energy electricity may be evaluated, compared, and
liberated in their reaction, although of ordered, and (2) tests that are designed to
importance in evaluating explosives, is not simulate a specific hazard to which the
necessarily a final criterion of relative effec- explosives may be exposed. The results ob-
tiveness in any particular application. Other tained in the two types of tests are tabulated
properties, such as the detonation velocity or in Tables 4-2 and 4-3. The various tests are
detonation pressure, combine with energy to described in par. 12-2.1.2.
define the effectiveness of an explosive. A
number of these properties are tabulated in Some of the tabular data are directly
Table 10-2 for explosive compounds and in applicable to the design of safe and reliable
Table 10-3 for explosive mixtures. materiel. Other aspects of safety are not
subject to quantitative evaluation or predic-
Although the effectiveness of an explosive tion. Predicting the abuse to which ammuni-
material in any particular application is the tion may be subjected under extreme condi-
result of the interaction of quantities such as tions of stress is a difficult task.
those listed in Tables 10-2 and 10-3, quantita-
tive calculation of effectiveness in various Even the more obvious data in the tables

10-14
 AMCP 708-179

TABLE 10-2

FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPLOSIVE COMPOUNDS

B o
(0 O OS

.E- E Es C 3
O M
O
3 E
Q)

3
S E (O p
IS c
O £ Q> a» ~ (0
öS il 18 » X
X tu o> u. □
Explosive g/cm 3
°c cal/g cal/g cc/g m/sec g/cm3 Mbar in.

Ammonium Nitrate 1.73 170 346 346 980 1000 0.9 _ —

Cyclonite(RDX) 1.82 204 2285 1280 908 8780 1.65 0.255' -
Diazodinitrophenol 1.63 157 3243 820 865 - - - -
Explosive D (Ammonium Picrate) 1.72 265a 2890 800 — 6850 1.55 0.145' -
Haleite(EDNA) 1.71 175+a 2477 1276 - 7570 1.49 0.173' —
Lead Azide 4.80 a 630 367 308 4600 3.0 0.922' _
Lead Dinitroresorcinate(LDNR) 3.2 265b — 270 _ — — — —
Lead Styphnate 3.02 260-310
b
1251 457 368 5200 2.9 0.126 -
Nitroglycerin (Liquid)
e
1.59 2.2&13.2 1616 1600 715 8000' 1.6' 0.241' -
Nitroguanidine 1.72 232 1995 721 1077 7650 1.55 0.160' -
PETN (Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate) 1.77 141 1960 1385 790 8300 1.70 0.253' -
Picric Acid 1.76 122 2672 1000 - 7350 1.71 0.187 —
Tetryl 1.73 130 2925 1080-1 130 760 7170 1.53 0.196c <0.5
TNT (Trinitroluene) (Cast) 1.65 81 3620 1080 730 6825 1.56 0.170' 1

a
Decomposes
b
Explodes
'From Ref. 12 by interpolation
d
From Ref. 13
e
Density of liquid at 25°C

should be applied with caution. For example, stitutes for, judgment of the designer in the
given the maximum setback acceleration, it is choice of explosives that will result in safe
possible to compute the maximum setback and reliable military materiel.
pressure by assuming the explosive to behave
as a liquid and applying Pascal's Law. Com- 10-5.4 CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROP-
parison of this pressure with the setback ERTIES
sensitivity data of Table 4-3 might be ex-
pected to give some measure of the safety of The fundamental chemical and physical
the weapons against bore prematures. How- properties of explosives are, of course, im-
ever as pointed out in pars. 4-2 and 4-3, the portant in determining explosive charac-
probability of such prematures is a function teristics. They are listed in Ref. d. Aside from
of a number of aspects of weapon design and these, the most important chemical charac-
loading procedure as well as the choice of teristics to the designer are the reactions of
explosive, condition of the explosive charge as explosives with other materials with which
a result of environmental conditioning, and they may come into contact. For a condensa-
existing ambient temperature. tion of compatibility data, including the more
usual combinations, see Table 4-5.
Hence, the data presented in Tables 4-2 and
4-3 are offered as aids to, rather than sub- An example of a compatibility problem is

10-15
AMCP 708-179

TABLE 10-3

FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HIGH EXPLOSIVE MIXTURES

e 5 e o ut-
a
c w °i
* 3 a
E
iC 3E Sa
S

i w — S3 °E 3 E
& fl
So.
S E
9 o
IU ffa. So
3
■3 a
u. a

Explosive Composition Ratio a/cm5 "C cal/g cal/g cc/g m/s« g/cm3 Mbar in.

Amatol NH, NO, /TNT 80120 1.46 a 1002 490 930 4500 1.46 0.074
1.59 a 1990 703 855 6420 1.55 0.160
Amatol NH, NO, /TNT 50150
Baratol BaN03/TNT 2.55 a 1.5
64/33

Composition A-3 RDX/Wax 91/9 1.65 1210 8100 1.59

Composition B RDX/TNT/Wax 60/40/1 1.65 2790 1240 7840 1.68 0.243b <0.5
Composition C-3 RDX/... 77/... 1.6 - - 7626 1.6
Composition C-4 RDX/... 91/... 1.5 8040 1.59

Cyclotol RDX/TNT 75/25 1.71

a 2625 1225 862 8030 1.70 —
Cyclotol RDX/TNT 70130 1.71 a 2685 1213 854 8060 1.73 -
RDX/TNT 60/40 1.68 a 2820 1195 845 7900 1.72
Cyclotol

Minol-2d NH4 N03/TNT/AI 40/40/20 - 81 3160 1620 - 5820 1.68 - -

b
Pentolite PETN/TNT 50150 1.65 76 1220 7465 1.66 0.233
Pentolite PETN/TNT 10190 1.60 76
a
- -:
Picratol Expl. D/TNT 52148 1.62 6970 1.63

Tetrytol Tetryl/TNT 75/25 1.59 68 — 7385 1.60 —

1.79 a
Torpex RDX/TNT/AI 42140118 3780 1800 7495 1.81
1.79 a
Tritonal TNT/AI 80120 4480 1770 6475 1.71 1

Essentially the melting point of the TNT component (81°C(

b
From Ref. 12 by interpolation
c
Ref. 13
'Ref. 14

lead azide that is subject to a certain amount Physical properties pertain to the structural
of hydrolysis in the presence of moisture. The strength of the explosive. Plastic bonded
hydrazoic acid formed reacts with most explosives were developed for their physical
metals to form metallic azides. The safest properties that are far superior to those of
practice is to avoid contact of azide with any cast or pressed nonplastic bonded explosives.
metal except the preferred stainless steel and
aluminum alloys. 10-6 QUALITY ASSURANCE

Exudation is a phenomenon related to the 10-6.1 BASES FOR TOLERANCES

chemical characteristics of TNT bearing ex-
plosives against which safeguards must be Safety, reliability, and performance of an
taken (see par. 4-2.1.4). Because of the explosive charge are determined by such
similarity of many of the impurities to the design quantities as dimensions, composition,
parent explosive, multiple component and loading density. Limits or tolerances must
eutectics are formed which melt at ordinary be stated for each quantity specified. The
storage temperatures and exude from the designer's responsibility with respect to toler-
charge in an oily form. ances does not stop with the assurance that

10-16
 AMCP 708-179

the specified tolerance will be satisfactory. It used. Both of these methods are somewhat
includes determinations of the maximum slow for repetitive operations, such as those
limits or tolerances compatible with require- of quality assurance. For impermeable
ments for safety, reliability, and performance. charges, one of the most convenient means of
The tolerance specified should be determined checking density is the preparation of two
in the light of the following considerations: solutions of a dense salt, one of density equal
to the upper limit and the other at the lower
1. Production costs are inversely related to limiting density. If a pellet floats in the
tolerance limits. The form of this relationship former and sinks in the latter, its density is
varies with quantity specified, complexity of within the specified tolerance.
the item, process used, and equipment avail-
able. Small tolerances should be specified
The density of a cased charge may be
only on the basis that the benefits which
determined by weighing the case empty, filled
accrue are worth the cost.
with water, and after loading. The density in
g/cm3 is then the ratio of the net explosive
2. Where compliance with tolerances re-
weight to the net water weight. This method
quired for satisfactory performance is too
becomes impractical for small cased charges
expensive in terms of the cost and value of
like those of leads and detonators. Here, the
the item, an investigation should be made of
density may be determined from the weight
possible design modifications to permit
as determined by weighing the case before
greater variations in the quantity considered.
and after loading, and from the volume as
calculated from the dimensions.
3. The measurement of quantities which
may be specified in a design is limited in
precision. A scheme for continuous quality assurance
is that of pressing at some constant pressure
The designer will often be called upon to or dead load and measuring the intrusion of
classify defects as critical, major, or minor, the ram in each item. Variations in cavity
and to specify AQL levels for various defects. dimensions, charge weight, or pressure-density
The basis and procedure for suc^h classifica- relationship can be detected by this method.
tion and specification, as well as the sampling Of course, the method is incapable of distin-
procedures that are used in inspection, are guishing among these variations, and errors of
given in MIL-STD-41415. In essence, as one kind can compensate for errors of
applied to most explosive charges, critical another. However, in a well-controlled
defects are those that result in hazards to process, the probability of each type of error
users, major defects are those that cause is low enough that the probability of simul-
failure, and minor defects are those that do taneous occurrence, either compensating or
not materially affect usability. not, is negligible. The type of data to be
collected in each instance, to avoid erroneous
10-6.2 FACTORS AFFECTING QUALITY conclusions, can usually be determined by
OF EXPLOSIVE CHARGES study of the problem.
10-6.2.1 DENSITY
A relatively new nondestructive den-
The density of a pellet may be determined sitometer makes use of a radioactive source. A
by measuring its dimensions with a microm- scanning system moves a detonator or other
eter and its weight with an analytical balance, explosive device through a collimated
and calculating its weight-to-volume ratio. If gamma-ray beam while the intensity of radia-
it is impervious to wauer, the chemist's tion is being measured. Accuracies of ± 5%
method of weighing in air and in water can be have been achieved'6.

10-17
AMCP 708-179

10-6.2.2 CRACKS AND CAVITIES X-rays should be made in at least two charge
orientations.
10-6.2.3 COMPOSITION VARIATION
In cast charges, the possible presence of
cracks, cavities, and base separations cannot When homogeneity is critical, determina-
be ruled out. Such defects can be detected by tions of density and composition from point
means of X-ray or neutron radiation photo- to point within a charge are made from
graphs. When such inspection is called for, as samples obtained by sectioning the item'7.
it should be in most cases, a defect classifica- This is a destructive test, at least for the
tion chart should be prepared, including full explosive charge itself, and can be done only
scaled illustrations of minor, major, and criti- on a sampling basis. Variations in aluminum
cal defects. Such classification should be content of aluminized explosives may be
based on quantitative determinations of the detected in the X-rays that are made to detect
effects of defects on safety and performance. cracks and cavities.

REFERENCES

a-k Lettered references are listed in the 6. AMCP 706-248, Engineering Design
General References at the end of this Handbook, Ammunition Series, Section
handbook. 5, Inspection. Aspects of Artillery Ammu-
nition Design. (OBSOLETE)
1. D. Kite, Jr., A. K. Behlert, and E.
Jercerzewski, Plastic Bonded Explosives 7. Explosion Effects Data Sheets, NAVORD
for Use in Ammunition (U), Technical Report 2986, Naval Ordnance Labora-
Memorandum 2-2-62, Picatinny Arsenal, tory, Silver Spring, Md., June 1955.
Dover, N.J., March 1962 (Confidential
report). 8. C. C. Misener, Capabilities of Explosive
Loading Group of the Chemical Engineer-
2. M. J. Margolin and E. A. Skettim,Ammu- ing Division (W.E.), NAVORD Report
nition Loading Techniques, Report 43, 6873, Naval Ordnance Laboratory, Silver
Explosives Development Section, Spring, Md., 27 April 1960.
Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J., December
1958. 9. M. C. St. Cyr, Compatibility of Explo-
sives with Polymers Report TR 2595,
3. G. D. Clift, Centrifugal Casting ofExplo- Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J., March
sive Charges for HEAT Shell, Report TR 1959.
2381 Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J.,
November 1956. 10. M. J. Bodnar, Bonding of Explosives to
Metal with Adhesive, Report TR 2412,
4. E. James, Jr., "Charge Preparation for Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J., June
Precise Detonation Velocity Studies", 1957.
Second ONR Symposium on Detonation,
Office of Naval Research, Navy Dept., 11. M. J. Bodnar, E. R. Kelly, and W. J.
February 9-1 1, 1955,pp. 1-17. Powers, Adhesive Bonding ofHigh Explo-
sives to Metals, Report TR 2538,
5. Shepherd Levmore, Principal Charac- Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J., August
teristics of the Gelled Slurry Explosive 1958.
DBA-22M, Report TR 4237, Picatinny
Arsenal, Dover, N.J., July 1971. 12. E. A. Christian and H. G. Snay, Analysis

10-18
 AMCP 708-179

of Experimental Data on Detonation 15. MIL-STD-414, Sampling Procedures and

Velocities, NAVORD Report 1508, Naval Tables for Inspection by Variables far
Ordnance Laboratory, Silver Spring, Md., Percent Defective, Dept. of Defense.
February 1951.
16. W. E. Voreck and J. W. McCahill,
13. G. V. Horvat and E. J. Murray, Propaga-
Scanning Gamma Ray Densitometer
tion of Detonation in Long Narrow
System for Detonators, Report TR 4239,
Cylinders of Explosives at Ambient
Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J., Septem-
Temperature and at —65°F., Report TR
ber 1971.
2389, Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J.,
January 1957.
17. L. Jablansky and S. D. Stein, Specific
14. S. J. Lowell, M. E. Pollack, R. T. Gravity Study and Composition Analysis
Schimmel, Evaluation of Minol-2 as a of Composition B-Loaded 77mm T50E2
Bomb Filler, Report TR 3830, Picatinny Shell, Report TR 2338, Picatinny Arse-
Arsenal, Dover, N.J., December 1968. nal, Dover, N.J., February 1957.

10-19/10-20
 AMCP 706-179

CHAPTER 11

PACKING, STORING, AND SHIPPING

11-1 PACKING Before materiel is packaged, it must first be

cleaned, dried, and preserved. It is then ready
11-1.1 GENERAL for the unit pack which may 'be wrapping
paper or a cardboard carton depending on the
Military materiel is packaged to insure that
size and complexity of the item. Additional
items are in a condition to perform their
packaging consists of wooden boxes, crates,
intended functions when the time comes for
metal drums, and waterproof wrapping-
their use. Packaging must protect an item
depending again on the item and on fhe
from the time of production, through trans-
protection level required. Each package must
port and storage, until delivery to its ultimate
be properly marked or labeled. Three military
user. During transportation, which includes
protection levels have been established:
both handling and carriage, the Department
of Tranportation (DoT) regulations must be
1. Level A. Preservation and packaging
strictly observed for movement within the
that will afford adequate protection against
U.S. Items may be stored for indefinite
corrosion, deterioration, and damage during
periods of time'in both protected and unpro-
world-wide shipping, handling, and open
tected storage. During this period, the pack-
storage.
age must protect the item against physical
damage and environmentally induced deteri- 2. Level B. Preservation and packaging that
oration. In some instances, provisions must be
will provide adequate protection against
incorporated for inspecting and performing
known conditions that are less hazardous than
maintenance on stored materiel.
Level A is designed to meet but provides a
The most damaging environments during higher degree of protection than Level C. The
transportation by truck, rail, ship, or aircraft design of Level B is based on firmly estab-
are shock and vibration. The package must lished knowledge of the shipping, handling,
protect the materiel against these forces. and storage conditions to be encountered and
Package design is in the purview of the on the determination that the costs of prepa-
packaging engineer. ration are less than Level A.

It is the aim of military packaging to 3. Level C. Preservation and packaging that

achieve a high degree of protection in a will afford adequate protection against corro-
uniform, efficient, and economic manner. In sion, deterioration, and damage during
general, this requires that similar items be shipping from the source of supply to the first
preserved, packaged, and marked in a similar receiving activity for immediate use or for
way; and that the number and type of storage under controlled humidity.
packaging requirements and packaging mate-
rials used be kept to the minimum consistent The topics of package design, limits im-
with the desired protection. The resulting posed by the distribution system, transporta-
uniformity facilitates efficient procurement, tion environments, cleaning, preservation,
receipt, storage, inventory, shipment, and container, cushioning and barrier materials,
issue of supplies and equipment. and fasteners are treated in detail in Ref. 1.

11-1
AMCP 706-179

11-1.2 PACKING OF EXPLOSIVE TRAIN The basic reference for safety is the Safety
COMPONENTS Manual3. It contains detailed discussions of
the established safety practices for packing as
11 -1.2.1 HAZARD CLASSIFICATION well as shipping and storing. The safety
regulations have been slightly abbreviated and
Hazardous materials are arranged into eight rearranged in two volumes for Department of
levels according to their storage hazard (see Defense agencies4 and their contractors5 for
par. 11-2.1), and explosives are divided into convenient reference.
three levels according to their shipping hazard
(see par. 11-3.1). The proper hazard classifica- The wide range in the sensitivity stability,
tion of each item must be known before it and hyroscopicity of explosive components
can be packed because affixing the correct has required the development of appro-
shipping label is a part of the packaging priately varied types of packing. At times, the
process. It must be known before a package packing must be very complex and costly. On
can be designed because the package affects the other hand, the relative insensitivity of
the hazard level. If the package is capable of some devices permits the use of reusable
containing a portion of the explosive output cardboard cartons for interplant shipment of
in the event of inadvertent detonation, the short-term storage.
hazard class may well be lower than without
such protection. Packing drawings and specifications have
been prepared for essentially all military items
Item hazard classes are contained in pack- containing hazardous materials. The drawings
ing drawings and specifications. If the hazard and specifications cover all applicable details
level of a particular explosive component has of wrapping, boxing, bracing, palleting, and
not been established, it must be obtained by handling. If such drawings and specifications
means of standard test devised for this pur- are not available for a particular item, Depart-
pose2 . ment of Transportation regulations apply and
they specify minimum requirements. Packing
11-1.2.2 PACKING CONSIDERATIONS for different levels of protection are discussed
in par. 11-1.1. Like all military materiel,
Explosive components like other military packages containing explosive components
materiel also must be suitably packaged at must be marked as to contents (item,
minimum cost. These components, as well as quantity, lot, date). In addition, containers of
the munitions of which they are a part, are hazardous materials must be conspicuously
subject to another important requirement: marked and labeled to indicate the hazard.
they must be safe during packing, storing, and
shipping. 11-1.2.3 PACKING OF SMALL EXPLOSIVE
COMPONENTS
Explosive devices can be shipped and
stored safely if they are handled correctly and Many explosive components are cylinders
carefully, and with all of the necessary pre- of relatively small size and light weight.
cautions. The excellent safety record of both Included in this group are such items as
the military and the explosives industry is a primers, squibs, detonators, and delays. They
result of careful preparation, not chance. contain a sufficiently small amount of explo-
Explosives are set off by energy concentra- sive that packages have been designed to
tions such as sparks, friction, impact, hot contain their explosive output. This means
objects, flame, chemical reactions, and ex- that if a component were to be initiated while
cessive pressure. Established safety practices in its package, little damage would result
will avoid these conditions in order to mini- apart from the destruction of a part of the
mize hazards. package. Since the items are small,' it is

11-2
 AMCP 706-179

shipments, up to twenty boxes are placed into

a cardboard box, the number depending on
the size of the detonators. Ten cardboard
boxes are packed into a wooden box. Addi-
tional safety is obtained by alternating the
packing box direction in each layer, one layer
with the red-black marking in front, the next
with the red-black marking in the rear. This
arrangement assures that two adjacent deto-
nators are not directly in line. This feature is
achieved by the way the holes are arranged in
the spacer. The first row is near the red-black
end but there is a wider space at the other
end. Detonators packaged in this manner are
accepted for shipping Class C.
11-1.3 PACKING OF RELATED
MATERIAL

11-1.3.1 BULK EXPLOSIVES

RED BLACK
The sensitivity of bulk explosive material
varies even more widely than that of explosive
Figure 11-1. Packing Box for Small components. Some initiating explosives are so
Explosive Components sensitive to initiation that they can only be
shipped in quantity in a wet condition. On
the other extreme are insensitive main burst-
desirable to pack many units in one box. To ing charges that are poured into 50-lb kegs.
contain the output within the package, it is For details of packing explosive materials, see
important that the detonation of one compo- Ref. b.
nent not be propagated to any other device in
the same package. 11-1.3.2 ASSEMBLED AMMUNITION

Fig. 11-1 shows the packing box in current Explosive components are often assembled
use for most Army detonators. The box, of into fuzes and sometimes into other ammuni-
Kraft paper board, contains fifty items and tion assemblies. The assembly then defines
varies in size depending on the size of the the hazard class and the method of packing. It
detonators. Components are held in a spacer is not possible here to specify the packing for
in ten rows of five units each, the spacer being all the assemblies containing explosive compo-
from 1/8 to 3/4 in. thick to match the length nents. This information is tabulated in the
of the detonator. After the detonators are AMC Safety Manual3, which lists fuze and
placed .in the spacer holes, they are covered ammunition hazard classes, and in the Navy
by a filler/cushion, about 3/16 in. thick. The Safety Handbook6, which lists transportation
assembly is completed by sliding the cover data for all fuzes and munitions by Federal
over the body. The cover has a3/16-in. thick Stock Number.
stiffener fastened to its bottom. Thus each
11-2 STORING
detonator is surrounded by a substantial
thickness of Kraft board on all sides. 11-2.1 HAZARD CLASSIFICATION

The packing box itself serves for interplant For the purpose of storage, hazardous
and other Level C shipment. For higher level materials are arranged into eight classes

11-3
AMCP 706-179

TABLE 11-1

EXCERPT FROM QUANTITY-DISTANCE TABLES

(Distance in feet)

Inhabited Highway &or Above Ground

Building Railway Intraline Magazine

Explosive, lb bar. unbar. bar. unbar. bar. unbar. bar. unbar.

Class 1

No limit 100 100i 100 80

Class 7

1 40 80 25 50
10 90 180 55 110 30 40
100 190 380 115 230 40 80 28 51
1,000 400 800 240 480 95 190 60 110
10,000 865 1730 520 1040 200 400 130 235
100,000 1855 3630 1115 2180 415 830 280 510
500,000 4510 4510 3245 3245 715 1430 475 875

according to their level of hazard. Explosive tabulated in the appropriate quantitydistance

components are divided into classes 1 and 7 tables. Separation distances are not absolute
depending on whether they merely burn or safe distances but are relative protective or
whether they can detonate. Class 1 items are safe distances"4.
those that have a high fire hazard but no blast
hazard and for which virtually no fragmenta- Quantitydistance tables are contained in
tion or toxic hazard exists beyond the fire the safety manuals3"5; a typical excerpt is
hazard clearance distance ordinarily specified shown in Table 11-13. The largest minimum
for high-risk materials. In contrast, class 7 distances are required where a hazard exists to
items are those for which most items of a lot personnel, i.e., inhabited buildings. Intra-line
will explode virtually instantaneously when a refers to the minimum distance between any
small portion is subjected to fire, severe two buildings within one operating line or
concussion, impact, the impulse of an initiat- assembly operation. The magazine distances
ing agent, or considerable discharge of energy given in the excerpt are for above-ground
from an external source5. storage, which is the least desirable. Earth-
covered, arch type magazines are preferred
11-2.2 STORAGE CONSIDERATIONS because they are safer; their required separa-
tion distances are much less than those of
Hazardous materials are stored in accord- above-ground magazines. Note that separation
ance with quantity-distance requirements. distance is roughly proportional to the
These requirements are defined as "the quantity of explosive, and that a barricade of
quantity of explosives material and distance proper construction cuts in half the distance
separation relationships which provide de- used for unbarricaded storage.
fined types of protection. These relationships
are based on levels of risk considered ac- To determine distances between different
ceptable for the stipulated exposures and are types of magazines Ref. 4 is the easiest to use.

11-4
 AMCP 706-179

It contains a group of diagrams, like Fig. 11-2, initiated, or shock sensitive) with maximum
which states that the minimum distance from shipping hazard. Examples are black powder,
a barricaded above-ground magazine to the PETN, and explosive ammunition.
door and of an earth-covered, arch, type
magazine is found in Table 5-6.3, column 5 in 2. Class B. Explosives that function by
the reference: rapid combustion rather than detonation.
Examples are gun propellants and certain
rocket motors.

Oß , ^rgs* 3. Class C. Devices that may contain Class

A or Class B explosives or both, but in
restricted quantities, and certain types of
Figure 11-2. Illustration of Data in fireworks. Examples are electric squibs, explo-
Ref. 4 sive bolts, and small arms ammunition.

11-3.2 SHIPPING CONSIDERATIONS

In addition to quantity-distance, com-
patibility must also be considered in storage. The safe transport of hazardous materials is
Only compatible hazardous items may be the responsibility of the shipper. .It has
stored together in one magazine. Com- become expedient to pack and label hazard-
patibility is established by consideration of ous cargo to meet requirements for all kinds
the following factors3 : of transportation. The Navy is the largest
shipper of military cargo because most of it
1. Effects of explosion of the item ultimately ends up aboard ship. If a commer-
cial shipper is used, he should be properly
2. Rate of deterioration licensed in all' states and countries involved.
Shipping regulations are complex, and a
3. Sensitivity of initiation qualified shipper is needed to cope with them.

4. Type of packing All safety regulations are enforced in the

shipment of hazardous materials to protect
5. Effects of fire involving the item life, property, and the cargo itself. All cargo
must be properly blocked and braced during
6. Quantity of explosive per unit. shipment. For some hazard classes, the vehicle
must be placarded and inspected. Mixed
Storage regulations for specific explosive shipments in the same vehicle must be com-
components are contained in the item specifi- patible. In case of an accident on any mode of
cation. For detailed storage information, see shipping, Form F5800 must be filed with the
Ref. 3. Department of Transportation when the
incident involves death or serious injury,
11-3 SHIPPING $50,000 property damage, or continuing
danger.
11-3.1 HAZARD CLASSIFICATION
Shipping regulations for specific explosive
For the purpose of shipping, explosives are components are contained in the item specifi-
.divided into three classes according to their cation. General regulations are covered by the
level of hazard6 : Department of Transportation, Code of
Federal Regulations, Title 49, Parts 170-9.
1. Class A. Chemical compounds, mix- For detailed information of shipping explo-
tures, or devices (mass detonating, spark sives, see Ref. b and on shipping ammunition

11-5
AMCP 706-179

containing explosive components, see Ref. 6. For these reasons, drivers of hazardous
In addition to these regulations, state and materials are given careful training and de-
municipal laws, local ordinances, and harbor tailed instructions (e.g., Ref. 9), and the
regulations must be observed where they vehicle is carefully inspected for safety (e.g.,
apply. lights and brakes) and compliance with local
laws (e.g., weight limit).
11-3.3 CONSIDERATIONS FOR SPECIFIC
MODES OF SHIPPING
11-3.3.3 SHIP TRANSPORT
11-3.3.1 RAIL TRANSPORT
All water shipment is regulated by the
Coast Guard10. There are many restrictions
Railroad shipment of hazardous materials is
to the transport of hazardous materials by
covered in Department of Transportation
ship that must be taken into account. Some
Tariff No. 237.
dangerous articles are not permitted on pas-
senger carrying vessels. Also, many ports do
11-3.3.2 TRUCK TRANSPORT
not permit the anchorage of vessels carrying
dangerous articles. The Army Corps of
Motor vehicle shipment of hazardous mate-
Engineers therefore has established suitably
rials is covered in Department of Transporta-
isolated explosives anchorages at various
tion Tariff No. II8. Motor vehicle shipment is
ports.
more complex than rail shipment. A train is
made up of many cars watched over by the
engineer in front and caboose personnel 11-3.3.4 AIR TRANSPORT
behind. The engineer is in voice communica-
tion with the tower. The railroad controls Aircraft shipment of hazardous materials is
traffic flow over its route. It provides trained covered by Department of Transportation
inspectors. In contrast, each truck solos. It Tariff No. 6-D' '. As in ship transportation,
has no control over traffic on the public dangerous cargo is prohibited on passenger
highway and the driver must cope with any carrying craft. For considerations when
situation that may arise. materiel is to be airdropped, see Ref. 12.

REFERENCES

1. AMCP 706-121, Engineering Design Safety Manual for Ammunition, Explo-

Handbook, Packaging and Pack Engineer- sives and Related Dangerous Material,
ing Dept. of Defense, October 1968.

2. TB 700-2, Explosives Hazard Classifica- 6. OP 2165, Navy Transportation Safety

tion Procedures, Dept. of Army, 19 May Handbook, Naval Ordnance Systems
1967. Command.

3. AMCR 385-100, Safety Manual, Army Tariff No. 23, Regulations for Trans-
Materiel Command, April 1970. portation of Explosives and Other Dan-
gerous Articles by Land and Water in Rail
4. DOD 4145.27M DOD Ammunition and Freight Service and by Motor Vehicle
Explosives Safety Standard, Dept. of (Highway) and Water, Including Specifi-
Defense, March 1969. cations for Shipping Containers, pub-
lished by Agent T. C. George, 2 Penn.
5. DOD 4145.26M, DOD Contractors' Plaza, New York, N.Y. 10001.

11-6
 AMCP 708-179

Tariff No. 11, Regulations for Trans- 10. CG 108, Rules and Regulations for Mili-
portation of Explosives and Other Dan- tary Explosives and Hazardous Muni-
gerous Articles by Motor, Rails, and tions, U.S. Coast Guard.
Water, Including Specifications for
Shipping Containers, published by Agent 11. Tariff No. 6-D, Official Air Transport
F. G. Freund, American Trucking Assoc, Restricted Articles Tariff, published by
Inc., 1616 P St., N. W, Washington, D.C., C. C. Squire, Airline Tariff Publishers,
20036. Inc. Agent, 1825 K St., N. W.,
Washington, D.C. 20006.
OP 2239, Drivers Handbook-Ammuni-
tion, Explosives, and Other Dangerous 12. AMCP706-130,Engineering Design Hand-
Articles, Naval Ordnance Systems Com- book, Design for Air Transport and Air-
mand. drop of Materiel.

11-7/11-
 AMCP 706-179

CHAPTER 12

EVALUATION PROCEDURES

12-1 CONSIDERATIONS IN one explosion or less in a million exposures,

EVALUATIONS 2,300,000 trials would be needed.

12-1.1 SAFETY AND RELIABILITY PRO- The designer's task, however, is to provide
CEDURES sound estimates of what can be expected in
terms of safety and reliability with relatively
12-1.1.1 STATISTICAL INFERENCES few samples. To do so he must be able to
recognize the significant parameters and treat
If each type of materiel could be perfectly the measurements on a sound statistical basis.
made, its properties could be accurately de- Hence, the discussion that follows should be
scribed by measuring one of each type. Since considered as a general guide. It should not be
this ideal can never be realized in practice, followed slavishly at the expense of sound
one can measure the properties of either every engineering practice. It is strongly recom-
item or a sample that is truly representative of mended that the reader supplement his back-
that type. The simplest, most direct, and least ground by studying the referenced texts' "6 . A
questionable way to demonstrate the safety review of the normal, binomial, and Poisson
or reliability of an explosive charge is to test distributions would be particularly helpful. It
enough items under actual service conditions. is important to realize, on the other hand,
This will enable one to determine the reli- that correct design of experiment and per-
ability or safety of the charge under actual formance of statistically significant tests is a
conditions. specialty that calls for the services of a
qualified expert.
Absolute assurance can never be given
unless all of the units are tested. A quantita-
When computing safety and reliability by
tive measure, however, can be obtained in
statistical extrapolations of sensitivity data,
terms of a probability that can be qualified
the following points will serve as a general
with a confidence level. As an example, with a
guide:
low failure rate, the number of trials without
a failure to establish (with 95% confidence)
1. All safety and reliability determinations
any specified reliability or safety level is
are estimates. As such, they should be accom-
n = 2.3/T (12-1) panied by assessments of their accuracy and
confidence levels.
where
2. Safety and reliability determinations
n = number of trials apply specifically to the conditions for which
they were determined. It is part of the
7 = failure rate function of a designer to determine, as com-
pletely as possible, the range of conditions
Thus, to establish 99.9% reliability at 95% which may be expected to prevail in service
confidence, it is necessary to test 2300 items and to assure himself of safety and reliability
without a failure, and to establish a safety of over the whole range.

12-1
AMCP 706-179

3. The surest way to establish safety and sensitivity of most explosive charges is due
reliability is to test a large enough quantity mainly to variations in such quantities as
under the exact conditions of use. The dimensions, density, and confinement. Thus,
quantities necessary for such tests are, how- the standard deviation of the sensitivity can
ever, prohibitive, particularly in the design usually be substantially reduced by improved
and development phase. control of these quantities.

4. All fire points are not what their name

implies. The only way to be sure that all 12-1.1.2 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS
charges of a kind will fire under any given set
of conditions is to fire them all under these Observations will usually take the form of
conditions. When this is done, none will be variables or attributes. Data consisting of
left to .use in ammunition. If all fire data are measured characteristics are said to be ex-
accompanied by a 50% point or a no fire pressed by variables. Attributes are specific
point, and the numbers of trials involved in all qualities possessed by the item, such as color,
fire and no fire determination are specified, cracked, fired, or not fired. Hence, in general,
they may be used with a statistical lever the item examined either conforms or does
technique to compute safety and reliability not conform to some quality, standard, or
levels. specification. Attributes in the form of go and
no-go data, such as fired and not-fired, are
5. All extrapolations are based on assump- often referred to as quantal response data; the
tions, depending on the nature of the under- event either occurs or does not occur upon
lying distribution. Hence, predicted values the application of a stimulus. It is often
should be accompanied by a clear statement advantageous to express the latter as a per-
of the assumptions made and, whenever pos- centage of occurrence for a given stimulus. In
sible, a justification for their use. effect, this is a means of transforming quantal
data to a variable form.
6. The sensitivity of a charge is determined
by its design and that of its surroundings, as One of the methods that can be used to
well as by the explosive materials of which it present the results of a series of observations
is composed. Thus, safety and reliability must is a graphical plot of the frequency of each
be re-evaluated when the design of either occurrence with respect to the independent
explosive charges or inert parts is altered. variable. This plot is a visual display of the
Seemingly small changes are sometimes pattern of variation for the observations. With
important. a graphical technique it is usually more
convenient to plot the cumulative frequency
7. Both safety and reliability are related to as a function of the independent variable. An
the ratio of the difference between the example of cumulative frequency distribu-
expected service condition and the mean tion, the probability of functioning of an
sensitivity to the standard deviation of the electric initiator, is shown in Fig. 12-1(A). So
sensitivity. Either may be improved by in- many types of experimental data fit a pattern
creasing this difference or by reducing the of this type (also known as a normal distribu-
standard deviation. tion) that a special graph paper (probability
paper) is made on which this function will
8. Although, as shown in par. 2-3.1, the plot as a straight line (Fig. 12-1(B)). When a
initiation process often depends upon the distribution of observations fits such a pat-
nonhomogeneity of explosives, so that sensi- tern, it can be described by its mean (the
tivity is perhaps more inherently statistical in average or 50% value) and a standard devia-
nature than most quantitative properties, it tion (the root mean square of the deviation
has been found that the variability of the from the mean).

12-2
 AMCP 706-179

STANDARD DEVIATIONS 99.9

jj 0 «I +2 *3
99.5 /
y

1.5 2.0
VOLTAGE APPLIED, V
(Al DATA PLOTTED ON RECTANGULAR COORDINATES

5 IO 15 20
DROP HEIGHT, cm
(A) DATAPLOTTED ON PROBABILITY PAPER

50
t

VOLTAQE APPLIED, V

( B) DATA PLOTTED ON PROBABILITY PAPER /

/
DROP HEIGHT, l<3m

Figure 12-1. Cumulative Frequency (Bl DATA PLOTTED ON LOG-PROBABILITY PAPER

Distribution for a Normally
Distributed Population

There are cases when the data will yield a Figure 12-2. Skewed Frequency Distribution
curve on probability paper as shown in Fig. Typical of Impact Sensitivity Data
12-2(A). It is wise in cases of this type to find
a suitable mathematical transform for the
independent variable which will give a straight the logarithm of drop height that is related to
line to take advantage of the properties of the the energy required for functioning. The
normal distribution which are well defined. analogy applies as well to initiation by
The transform (or normalizing function) that another explosive charge, the probability of
has been successfully applied to input sensi- which is related to the logarithm of gap
tivity is the logarithm of firing stimulus, Fig. length. The logarithmic relationship has also
12-2(B). The probability that mechanical been found to be useful for wirebridge elec-
detonators will fire has been found to be tric initiators with respect to such energy
nearly normally distributed with respect to parameters as current or voltage.

12-3
AMCP 706-179

The assumption that statistical quantities of that group of 25. It is also obvious that, if
are normally distributed, or may be made that this group were drawn from a lot of 1000,the
way by the choice of a normalizing function fact that 92% of the sample fired does not
of the physical variable, has formed the basis establish 92% as the reliability of the whole
for most statistical methods and treatments. lot at this level. There is a possibility that by a
Most quantitative statements of the variability remote coincidence of selection, either the
of experimentally determined quantities are only 23 in the lot which would have fired or
in these terms. For this reason, we discuss the the only two that would have failed were
variables in terms of this assumption even those used in the test. Thus, the only state-
though recent experiments have cast some ment that can be made with absolute cer-
doubt on its applicability to safety and tainty (100% confidence level) is that some-
reliability problems. where between 2.3 and 99.8% of the lot fired
at this level. To assess the effect of reliability
Probability paper may be used to extrapo- of the initiator upon that of the system, the
late from experimental data to predictions of reliability must be quoted as a confidence
safety and reliability. Consider, for example, level somewhere between the 50% level
that 23 of 25 electric detonators of a given (which states that 92%, more or less) will fire
design fire when subjected to the discharge of and the 100% level, which gives limits so
a 1-MF capacitor charged to 50 V and only broad as to be useless. Statisticians generally
one in 25 fires when the potential is reduced settle for 95% confidence level (19/1 odds
to 25 V. Suppose that the firing circuit to be that the statement is correct).
used in service uses a 1-MF capacitor that will
be charged to at least 65 V. Assuming that the 12-1.1.4 RELIABILITY DETERMINATION
firing probability of the initiator is normally FROM MEAN AND DEVIATION
distributed with respect to the logarithm of
the firing voltage, the noted frequencies (92 The standard statistical techniques used in
and 4%) are plotted on log-probability paper the conduct and analysis of many sensitivity
versus the voltages at which they occurred (50 tests yield data expressed in terms of a mean
and 25 V). A straight line plotted through and standard deviation. The mean is the point
these points gives the most probable relation- at' which 50% explosions are observed or
ship between firing voltage and reliability. anticipated. The deviation(s) of the sensitivity
When extrapolating this line to 65 V, the of an individual charge is the difference
most probable reliability is found to be between the magnitude of the initiating
99.45%. impulse that is just sufficient to initiate it and
the mean for the population from which it is
12-1.1.3 CONFIDENCE LEVELS drawn. The standard deviation of the popula-
tion is the root of the mean square of the
Although the most probable reliability, as deviations of the whole population.
indicated by constructions such as in Fig.
12-2, is a vahd estimate of the performance Where the correct normalizing function and
that may be anticipated, the true reliability the true standard deviation of the sensitivity
has as much chance of being lower as it has of of a charge, as well as the magnitude of the
being higher. For purposes of system evalua- initiating impulse to be expected in use, are
tion or operations analysis, it is necessary to known, safety or reliability calculations are
quote reliabilities with confidence levels. Con- quite simple. A graphical method, as shown in
fidence levels are quantitative statements of Figs. 12-1 and 12-2, can be used but is not
the reliance that may be placed upon the usually needed. It is only necessary to divide
statement of a statistical quantity. In the the difference between mean and anticipated
foregoing example, it is certainly true that the operating condition to obtain the deviation is
23 out of 25 that fired at 50 V is exactly 92% standard deviation units and interpolate on a

12-4
 AMCP 706-179

TABLE 12-1 firing impulse from the mean sensitivity is 6

in.-oz. This is three standard deviations above
SAFETY AND RELIABILITY RELATED TO the mean and the predicted reliability is
DEVIATIONS FROM THE MEAN 99.87%.
Probability of Occurrence, %
No. of Std.
It is well to note that the statement of this
Deviations For Positive* For Negative* example starts with the qualifying phrase I it
From Mean Deviation Deviation is known. Many reported sensitivity data are
obtained by the use of experimental and
0.253 60 40 analytical techniques whose validity rests
0.524 70 30 upon that of a series of assumptions which
0.842 80 20 may or may not apply to the situation under
1.000 84.13 15.87 consideration. In some cases, careful investiga-
tions have been made to validate these
1.282 90.0 10.0 assumptions. Usually not. The fact that the
1.500 93.32 6.68 standard deviation is quoted in inch-ounces
1.645 95.0 5.0
implies that the probability of firing is nor-
2.000 97.73 2.27
mally distributed with respect to the energy
2.054 98.0 2.0
of impact. Suppose that the true distribution
2.327 99.0 1.0 is normal with respect to the logarithm of the
2.500 99.38 0.62 energy. The log of the mean sensitivity is
2.575 99.5 0.5 0.903 with a standard deviation of about 0.1
log units, while the log of the expected firing
2.875 99.8 0.2 energy is 1.146, or 0.243 log units above the
3.000 99.87 0.13 mean. The expected firing condition, assum-
3.09 99.9 0.1 ing the log-normal distribution, is 2.43
3.29 99.95 0.05 standard deviations above the mean. Inter-
polating on Table 12-1, the predicted reli-
3.50 99.98 0.02
ability is only 99.23%. This one change in
3.73 99.99 0.01
4.00 99.997 0.00317
assumptions changes the expected failure rate
5.00 2.87 X 10s significantly. Further, it is not correct to
assume that a 14 in.-oz energy obtained by
6.00 1.0 X 10"7 dropping a 7-oz ball 2 in. is equivalent to the
7.00 1.3 X 10~10 example.
8.00 6.4 X 10"14
9.00 1.2 X 10"17 The determination of the statistical dis-
tribution function of the sensitivity of a given
10.00 8.0 X 10"' type .of charge to a given type of initiating
impulse obviously requires the test firing of
'Positive and negative are meant to imply deviations
large numbers of charges, each under closely
toward and away from more probable occurrence.
controlled conditions. For some relatively
inexpensive and easily tested items, such
programs have been carried out.
table (see Table 12-16) to find the reliability.
For example, if it is known that the mean In view of the high costs of many items and
sensitivity of a stab initiator is 4 in. when the relatively low rate at which they can be
dropping a 2-oz ball (in this example, 8 in.-oz) tested, it is too much to hope that all aspects
with a standard deviation of 1 in. (2 in.-oz) of the sensitivity of all types of charge will
and if the expected firing impulse is at least 7 ever by characterized in this respect. Where
in. (14 in.-oz) the deviation of the expected the designer is faced with the necessity of

12-5
AMCP 708-179

predicting safety or reliability of an item for variables that yield optimum effectiveness. In
which the distribution function is not known, this step, optimization theory is applied to
the most prudent approach is to assume the rational decision making.
function that gives the most pessimistic pre-
diction (in the case of the last mentioned A comprehension of optimization theory in
example, the log-normal distribution). idealized, quantitative situations not only will
determine optima but also furnish insight into
12-1.1.5 OPTIMIZATION the underlying structure of rational decisions.
This understanding helps in those instances
Optimization theory encompasses the where problems are not entirely mathemati-
quantitative study of optima and methods for cally describable. While optimization plays a
finding them. Although many phases of definite role in the design of explosive trains,
optimization theory have been known to a description of the mathematics is beyond
mathematicians since ancient times, the the scope of this handbook. See Ref. 7 for the
tedious and voluminous computations re- basic mathematics or, for more information, a
quired prevented their practical application. bibliography'.
The recent development of high-speed com-
puters not only has made older methods 12-1.2 STATISTICAL TEST METHODS
attractive but also resulted in new advances in
optimization methods. Since optimization 12-1.2.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
involves finding the best way to do things, it
has obvious applications in military design The sensitivity of an explosive charge is the
where sometimes small changes in efficiency magnitude of the minimum stimulus which
spell the difference between success and will result in its initiation. Stimuli too weak
failure. to initiate charges can still alter them, some-
times quite obviously, at other times in ways
The application of optimization theory that can only be detected in terms of changed
involves three distinct steps' : sensitivity. Hence, subjecting each charge to
gradually increasing stimuli until it fires is not
1. Complete, accurate, and quantitative a satisfactory means for determining sensi-
understanding of how the system variables tivity .
interact. This step is most important because
there is obviously little point in optimizing a In recognition of this variability, a number
model that does not truly represent the of statistical plans have been devised for
system. sensitivity studies. Some of these plans are
designed to characterize the entire distribution,
2. Selection of the single measure of sys- others to characterize it in terms of an
tem effectiveness that can be expressed in assumed normal distribution, and still others
terms of system variables. This step involves to determine some point in the distribution
value judgment and can be most difficult to which was felt to be of particular interest.
accomplish. A goal of minimum total cost, for Before these plans may be applied, sampling
example, canbe clearly defined to include the procedure and criteria of acceptance must be
costs of production, packing, shipping, established.
storage, maintenance, and delivery to the
target. However, some goals can be conflicting It is a basic assumption regarding any test
and some, such as reliability, require a great of a limited sample that the sample is repre-
deal of judgment to pinpoint their precise sentative of the population from which it is
meaning in a particular application. drawn. Unless some effort is made at
randomization, this may not be the case.
3. Selection of those values of the system Many of the variables that affect sensitivity

12-6
 AMCP 708-179

may vary progressively or periodically as lished before starting and in which the magni-
production,proceeds. Selection of a sample tude used for each trial is determined by
for test by any systematic means might results of previous trials. A number of stair-
conceivably produce a biased sample, one in case techniques have been proposed. Of these,
which all items are more similar in some the simplest and most used is the Bruceton
respect than is the whole batch or lot. A test'. In the Bruceton test, the magnitude of
positive plan of randomization should be stimulus used in each trial is determined by
adopted, such as use of a table of random the result obtained in the immediately preced-
numbers. ing trial. If the preceding trial resulted in a
misfire, the stimulus to be used in the present
While most explosive charges used by the trial is one step higher than that in the
military function with nearly maximum vigor, previous trial. If it fired, the stimulus of the
some vary appreciably in output as the vigor present trial should be of a magnitude one
of initiation is varied. Even within groups of step lower. The test is continued in this
items for which output is usually independent manner for a predetermined number of trials.
of input, an occasional [Link], when For maximum likelihood equations and
initiated marginally, will explode with signifi- FORTRAN program, see Ref. 10.
cantly less than its maximum vigor. For these
reasons, it is necessary to prescribe in advance The validity of the results of this procedure
the criterion of fire. Both the quantity asso- depends on whether the assumption is valid
ciated with output and its magnitude should that the steps are of uniform size in a system
be specified. A shift of criterion part way in which the frequency of explosions is
through a test reduces the data to uselessness. normally distributed. The Bruceton test is
Sometimes such shifts are inadvertent. For most applicable to systems for which exten-
example, when plate dent output is used as a sive tests have established the nature of a
criterion, the supply of plates may be ex- generic normalizing function. Unfortunately,
hausted »before completion. The replenished it is often applied to systems for which it is
supply may come from a different heat of not economically feasible to carry on such a
metal with a different response in terms of program. The logarithm of the initiating
the dent it sustains. stimulus has frequently been assumed as a
normalizing function (giving a geometric
The criterion of fire generally will depend progression of step sizes) on the logical basis
upon the purpose of the test. If it is a that this distribution predicts zero probability
reliability test, the charge should be con- of functioning at zero input and that a
sidered to have fired only if it detonated high positive stimulus is required for any finite
order in the sense that its output cannot be probability of firing. This choice has been
distinguished from the maximum of which a supported by such observations as the relative
charge of its type is capable (due allowance constancy of standard deviations of similar
having been made for statistical fluctuations systems over large ranges of sensitivity. In
in this quantity). For safety tests, on the some cases, rundown tests have also sup-
other hand, any evidence of burning, scorch- ported this choice.
ing, or melting of the explosive should be
considered to be the criterion of fire. It should be noted that the analytical
technique for Bruceton data was originally
12-1.2.2 STAIRCASE METHOD, THE devised with much larger tests in mind (100
BRUCETONTEST trials or more) than those which have been
used in most safety and reliability investiga-
A staircase testing technique is one in tions. It seems to have been grasped as a straw
which a predetermined set of steps in the by evaluators drowning in the impossible
magnitude of, the initiating stimulus is estab- problem of predicting reliabilities to the

12-7
AMCP 708-179

99.9+% level from samples as small as 12-1.2.4 PROBIT, NORMIT, AND LOGIT
twenty-five samples. It is probable that those PROCEDURES
who have so little appreciation of the impos-
sibility as to assign such a problem will accept These procedures are not data collecting
solutions that depend on so many untenable schemes but rather analytical procedures for
assumptions. the estimation of distribution. They can use
data collected by any of a number of
schemes. They may be used with data col-
The Bruceton experimental technique is lected by the Bruceton experimental tech-
often used as a convenient means for the nique using nonuniform steps or with incom-
collection of data in situations where the plete or abbreviated versions of the rundown
assumption of normality is known to be false method' 2 .
and where it is intended to use other methods
of analysis. An objection which has been Each of these procedures is based upon the
raised to this practice is that the strong transformation of the observed frequency of
tendency of the Bruceton technique to con- fire or misfire into a number related to the
centrate testing near the 50 percent point deviation in terms of an assumed distribution
reduces the value of the data in estimating the function. In the probit, for example, the
nature and deviation of the distribution. In mean is assigned a probit value of five, the
answer, it may be pointed out that the sample 15.87% level (the mean minus one standard
sizes available when this technique is used are deviation) a value of four, the 84.13%point a
usually so small that a reasonable estimate of value of six, and so forth'3.
the mean and a rough guess of the deviation is
the most that can be expected. The normit differs from the probit proce-
dure only in that a value of zero is assigned to
the mean. This necessitates the use of negative
12-1.2.3 FRANKFORD RUN-DOWN values but frequently simplifies both thinking
METHOD and arithmetic.

The logit system is similar but assumes the

A run-down method has been developed at logit distribution function' 4. In addition to
Frankford Arsenal, which, at the expenditure fitting certain data better than the normal
of a much larger sample, makes possible a curve, this function has the advantages of
much better assessment of the distribution of being somewhat more conservative in its
the underlying population' ' . Beginning at predictions and of being simple enough to
any convenient level of the independent apply without special tables.
variable (drop height, voltage, barrier thick-
ness or the like) between 0%and 100%of the 12-2 TESTING TECHNIQUES
expected functioning level, a minimum of 25
12-2.1 EXPLOSIVE MATERIALS
trials is made at each of several levels above
and below the starting level, using increments
12-2.1.1 GENERAL
equal to or less than the expected standard
deviation. The test is continued in both Explosive compounds or mixtures are
directions in this manner until the 0%and evaluated for acceptance as standard materials
100% functioning levels are reached as in- on the basis of programs in which their
dicated by 0% and 100% functioning in 25 explosive properties are determined. Many
consecutive trials. A cumulative probability tests have been standardized to describe these
plot is then drawn from the results of the test explosive properties. In addition, special tests
which is considered to be the frequency have been developed to take care of unusual
distribution of the parent population. conditions or to simulate a particular use.

12-8
 AMCP 708-179

This paragraph describes the purpose,

nature, and key features of the tests on
explosive materials. For a detailed discussion
of the tests, the explosive charge designer
should consult one of the handbooks on
explosivesbd'15'16. The tests covered here
are included partly for general information
and partly because some of the tests have
been applied to explosive charges. It is impor- ■ 2 KILOGRAM WEIGHT
tant to realize, however, that the performance
of a loose explosive sample may differ greatly
from that of the same explosive when pressed
or cast into its end item.

Tests of explosive materials are con-

veniently placed into four groups. Descrip-
tions of tests pertaining to sensitivity, output,
and stability follow. Test sequence sometimes
is specified'6. The fourth group is made up of
chemical tests designed primarily to verify (DIE CUP ASSEMBLY
composition and state of aggregation. As /(CONTAINING TEST EXPLOSIVE

such, these tests are not included in this

volume but can be found in handbooks on
explosives13'd''s . Included in this group are
such tests as flammability, hygroscopicity,
volatility, molecular weight, and oxygen
balance.

12-2.1.2 SENSITIVITY
Figure 12-3. Picatinny Arsenal Impact
The tests grouped under sensitivity measure TestApparatus
how easily explosive materials are initiated.
They simulate the various stimuli that are
capable of setting off the explosive. The subjected to the action of a falling weight,
stimulus used most widely is that of impact usually 2 kg. A 20-mg sample is always used
sensitivity. In addition to the tests that in the HVI apparatus while the PA sample
follow, the sand bomb test, listed under weight is stated for each case. The minimum
brisance output, is also a measure of sensi- height at which at least one of 10 trials results
tivity to initiation. in explosion is the impact test value. For the
PA apparatus, the unit of height is the inch;
12-[Link] IMPACT TEST for the BM apparatus, it is the centimeter.

The impact test consists of dropping a In the PA apparatus, the sample is placed in
weight on a sample of explosive. The two the depression of a small steel die cup, capped
most prevalent impact tests are those by by a thin brass cover in the center of which is
Picatinny Arsenal (PA) and by the Bureau of placed a slot-vented cylindrical steel plug,
Mines (BM)' 6 ■'7. The PA apparatus is shown slotted side down. In the BM apparatus, the
in Fig. 12-3b . explosive is held between two flat and parallel
hardened steel surfaces. In the. PA apparatus
In the test, a sample of explosive is the impact is transmitted to the sample by the

12-9
AMCP 706-179

vented plug, in the BM case by the upper flat a Bruceton type test. Results therefore are
plate. The main differences between the two quantitative as compared with the go/no-go
tests are that the PA test (1) involves greater nature of the rifle bullet.
confinement, (2) distributes the translational
impulse over a smaller area, and (3) involves a 12-[Link] EXPLOSION TEMPERATURE
frictional component. Hence, PA test values TEST
are greatly affected by sample density.
A 20-mg sample of secondary explosive or
Some additional impact tests differ pri- a 10-mg sample of primary explosive, loose
marily in the construction of the sample loaded in a No. 8 blasting cap cup, is
holder. The tests also have been modified to immersed in a Wood's metal bath. The tem-
accommodate cast and liquid explosives'7 .A perature determined is that which produces
new tester has been developed for small stab explosion, ignition, or decomposition of the
detonators in which the firing pin is attached sample in 5 sec1 7 . The DTA test gradually is
to the falling weight' 8 . replacing this test. See par. 12-[Link].

12-[Link] FRICTION PENDULUM TEST 12-[Link] GAP TESTS

To measure the sensitivity to friction, a 7 g The sensitivity -of explosives to initiation

sample, 50-100 mesh, is exposed to the action by a booster is characterized in terms of the
of a steel or fiber shoe swinging as a pendu- thickness of a gap introduced into the test
lum at the end of a long steel rod . The set-up, see Fig. 12-4. There are two gap tests
behavior of the sample is described qualita- both using standard components' 6 :
tively to indicate its reaction to this experi-
ence, i.e., the most energetic reaction is 1. Small Scale Gap Test. The gap consists
explosion and—in decreasing order of of an 0.005-in. air space.
severity—snaps, cracks, and unaffected.
2. Large Scale Gap Test. Lucite sheets are
Friction is difficult to measure quantita- used here to attenuate the shock wave. (At
tively. Additional methods have been used, one time the gap was filled with wax rather
such as the disk test' 5'19.'The rifle bullet than Lucite.)
impact test (see par. 12-[Link]) is also a
measure of sensitivity to frictional impact. 12-[Link] SETBACK PRESSURE TEST

12-[Link] RIFLE BULLET IMPACT TEST To simulate the conditions experienced by

the filler of a projectile during acceleration in
The traditional bullet sensitivity test con- a gun, the apparatus shown in Fig. 12-5 2 ' was
sists of firing a cal .30 rifle into the side of a developed. By the action of the propellant, a
3-in. pipe nipple, loaded with approximately pressure pulse is transmitted to an explosive
0.5 lb of the explosive being tested, and specimen through the piston system that
capped at both endsk. Because of the curved closely resembles setback. The criterion for
surface presented as a target, the angle of each explosive tested is the maximum pres-
incidence, and consequently the test results, sure at which the explosive cannot be
can be greatly affected by the condition of initiated, when at an initial temperature of
the weapon and characteristics of the ammu- 125°F, in 25 or more trials.
nition. An improved test with a flat target
plate was devised at Picatinny Arsenal20. 12-[Link] IMPACT VULNERABILITY TEST
Projectile impact could be substituted for the
rifle bullet. Here the velocity of the projectile A 2-in. diameter by 0.75-in. thick steel
that is shot out of a small bore gun is varied in plate is assembled at the bottom of an 8-in.

12-10
 AMCP 706-179

Na 8 DETONATOR called the minimum cook-off temperature. It

has significance because it sets the limits of
safety.
BOOSTER , I00 G
I 5/e [Link].,2 IN. IlKill
GAP In the constant heating rate test, the
explosive sample or component is heated at a
constant rate from a selected initial tempera-
ture. The cook-off temperature, in this case, is
TEST CHARGE reported as that environmental temperature at
which ignition occurs. Cook-off temperature
as defined in this manner depends chiefly on
STEEL the initial temperature level, and increases as
TEST
PLATE the heating rate increases. While this method
is widely used, it has obvious disadvantages.
Cook-off temperatures obtained are some-
what higher than the minimum cook-off
4 IN. SQUARE
temperature. Constant heating rate test results
Figure 12-4. Gap Test Set-up are not easily correlated with actual condi-
tions. Rate of heating, location of thermo-
couple, and simulation of heat transfer to
long sleeve that is filled with a propelling other charges and weapon parts all affect the
charge. When the charge is ignited, it drives cook-off temperature so that results vary with
the plate at a velocity of 400 ft/sec across an different apparatus. The various means of
1-in. air gap against a sample of explosive that determining cook-off temperatures are dis-
rests on a witness plate. The test is passed cussed in Ref. 22.
when there is no damage to the witness plate.
For obvious reasons this test is also called the 12-[Link] ELECTROSTATIC SENSI-
flying plate test16 . TIVITY TEST

12-[Link] BOMB DROP TEST To determine the sensitivity to electrostatic

discharge, a 15-mg sample of the explosive is
Bomb drops are usually made with bombs placed into a phenolic holder positioned on
assembled in the conventional manner, but an electrode. It is subjected to 8 voltage levels
containing either inert or simulated fuzes. The up to 7500 V discharged from capacitors of
target is usually reinforced concretek. four different sizes. These data may be related
to hazards by keeping in mind that the human
12-[Link] COOK-OFF TEMPERATURE body, on a dry winter day, may store as much
TESTS as 0.05 J of static electrical energy' 6 >' i.

Cook-off data generally are obtained by 12-[Link] DIFFERENTIAL THERMAL

one of two methods: (1) the minimum ANALYSIS
cook-off temperature test or (2) the constant
heating rate test. In the minimum cook-off Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA) is a
temperature test, an explosive sample or technique by which the reaction of a material
component is submerged into a constant to temperature can be followed by observing
temperature environment, and time-to-explo- the heat absorbed or liberated. While this
sion , versus environmental temperature is analytical method has been known for many
recorded and plotted. At some minimum years, it has been applied only recently when
critical temperature, the relationship becomes improved instrumentation has become avail-
asymptotic. This asymptotic temperature is able. DTA is especially suited to studies of

12-11
AMCP 706-179

-NEEDLE VALVE ASSEMBLY

PROPELLANT CHAMBER- -PROPELLANT

CARTRIDGE

TEST EXPLOSIVE

-POWDER BAG

BALDWIN GAOE-

Figure 12-5. Apparatus Which Simulates Setback Pressure

structural changes within a solid at elevated 175°C. The series of exotherms beginning,
temperatures where few other methods are near 250°C represents decomposition of the
available23. Heat effects, associated with sample. Actually, the first strong exotherm is
chemical or physical changes, are measured as caused by decomposition of an organic con-
a function temperature as the material is taminate in this sample. Samples of pure
heated or cooled at a uniform rate. As the ammonium nitrate do not show this exotherm
sample temperature is varied, it will undergo a in DTA examinations.
variety of changes, each being accompanied
by the release or absorption of energy. Melt- 12-[Link] THERMOGRAVIMETRIC
ing, sublimation, phase changes, dehydration, ANALYSIS
and boiling generally produce endothermic
effects while crystallization, oxidation, and Another approach to the study of phase
decomposition produce exothermic reactions. transitions is provided by the instrument
known as a thermobalance that permits con-
In a typical apparatus, one set of thermo- tinuous recording of the weight of a sample
couple junctions is inserted into an inert while it is being heated in a furnace at a
material that does not change over the tem- constant, linear rate. The weight change vs
perature range to;be tested. The other set is temperature curve obtained provides informa-
placed in the sample. With constant heating, tion about the thermal stability and composi-
any transition or thermally induced reaction tion of the original sample, of intermediate
in the sample will be recorded as a change in compounds formed, and of the residue. Like
an otherwise straight line. DTA records, called DTA, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
thermograms, have been collected for primary recently has been refined with modern instru-
explosives24 and high explosives25 . mentation2 3.

Fig. 12-6 shows a thermogram of ammo- TGA is extensively used to determine

nium nitrate. Peaks A, B, and C are due to changes in composition due to dehydration,
transitions in the crystal lattice. Peak A is the decomposition, and reaction with the experi-
transition from Rhombic I to Rhombic II mental atmosphere. It also has been employed
form; Peak B, from Rhombic II to Tetragonal; for the determination of reaction kinetics.
and Peak C, from Tetragonal to Cubic. Peak D Records for high explosives are collected in
represents the melting of the material at Ref. 25.

12-12
 AMCP 706-179

EXOTHERMIC

SAMPLE SIZE"3mg
HEATING RATE-20°C/min

ENDOTHERMIC

_L _L _L J_ _L _L
50 I0O I50 200 250 300 350
TEMPERATURE, °C
Figure 12-6. Thermogram of Ammonium Nitrate

12-[Link] HOTWIRE IGNITION TEST 12-[Link] DETONATION VELOCITY

The explosive charge is loaded into a squib Of the fundamental quantities associated
against a tungsten bridgewire and placed with detonation, the propagation velocity is
explosive side down on an aluminum witness the most readily and directly measurablek'16 .
plate. Twelve volts are applied from an While it is not a complete characterization of
automotive battery of 45 A-hr capacity. The the output properties of an explosive, it is a
test is passed when the wire burns out but good criterion of performance in many appli-
does not ignite the sample' 6. cations. Since the detonation velocity varies
with both density and charge dimensions,
12-[Link] THERMAL DETONABILITY results must be accompanied by accurate data
TEST regarding these quantities. Detonation veloc-
ity may be measured by optical techniques,
An explosive sample is loaded into a 2-in. by electrical measurements, and by compari-
black pipe nipple below a thermite charge. son with the known velocity of detonating
The test is passed when the burning thermite cord.
fails to detonate the sample16. This is also
called the bonfire test. The optical technique involves the use of a
high speed camera. Streak cameras that have
12-2.1.3 OUTPUT been used in detonation velocity measure-
ments include rotating mirror cameras, rotat-
The tests grouped under output measure ing drum cameras, high-speed roll film
the effect that an explosive produces. As do cameras, and electronic image converter tube
the sensitivity tests, output tests measure a cameras2 6. Fig. 3-1 is a record obtained by a
particular result that is judged to simulate streak camera. A high speed framing camera
performance. has also been developed which will take full

12-13
AMCP 706-179

-MIDPOINT Of STEEL WITNESS PLATE -

OETONATINQ CORD

Figure 12-7. Method of d'Autriche for the Measurement of Detonation Velocity

image pictures at rates higher than four improved the precision of the results. Detona-
million frames per second. tion velocity is computed by (see Fig. 12-7)

The material within a detonation zone is L, 2LtDc

D -- — = ——- , ft/sec (12-2)
highly ionized and, hence, an excellent electri-
t
cal conductor. Thus a pair of electrical
probes, placed in or close to an explosive where
charge, become electrically connected when a
detonation, or the shock emitted by a detona- Dt = detonation velocity of test specimen,
tion, engulfs them. Time intervals between ft/sec
such signals are measured with oscilloscopes
and any of several types of interval timers27. Dc = detonation velocity of reference cord,
Another technique developed by the Bureau ft/sec
of Mines involves a continuous electrical
recording of the detonation progress by use of I = active length 'of test specimen, ft
a resistance wire embedded parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the explosive charge. As Lm = measured length from midpoint of
detonation proceeds, the resistance wire is cord to point of converging detona-
shorted out, resulting in a dynamic resistance tion, ft
proportional to the rate of detonation.
t = time, sec
The d'Autriche method (Fig. 12-7) depends
upon the augmentation of radial output at the 12-[Link] DETONATION PRESSURE
point where two waves in a cylindrical charge
converge. The method is attractive in that it Detonation pressures are too high to
uses inexpensive instrumentation and has the measure directly with any ordinary pressure
reliability inherent in its extreme simplicity. gages. The pressures of shocks induced by
The recent use of mild detonating fuse28 has detonations in metals may be determined

12-14
 AMCP 708-179

from measurements of the movement of the presently used for characterizing the frag-
metal and of shock velocity in the metal. menting ability of an explosive.
From such data and the laws of shock
interaction, it is possible to deduce detona- 12-[Link] BLAST
tion pressurek'26'29 . Detonation pressure
may also be determined from detonation Blast pressures and impulses are determined
velocity and the density within the detona- almost exclusively with piezoelectric gages
tion zone, which may be measured by means and the necessary specialized electrical cir-
of flash X rays. cuits. Results are obtained by an analysis of
oscillograms2 9.

12-[Link] BRISANCE 12-[Link] BALLISTIC MORTAR

The shattering power of an explosive, as A number of tests compare the effective-

distinguished from its total work capacity, is ness of explosives as propellants'5. In general,
termed brisance. Brisance is measured in sand, to preserve the mortars used, the charges are
plate dent, or fragmentation tests. relatively quite small (for example, 10 g in a
10-in. bore mortar). The quantity of the
In the sand test, a 0.4-g sample of the explosive being tested which gives the same
explosive under test pressed at 3000 psi into a recoil as 10 g of TNT is used as the basis for
No. 6 cap, is initiated by lead azide in a sand expressing the relative output of the explo-
test bomb containing 200 g of "on 30 mesh" sive. Although ballistic mortar test data tend
Ottawa sand". The sand is resieved and is to correlate with usable output for many
considered to have been crushed if it passes a explosives, there are enough inversions to
No. 30 sieve. The significance of the sand test inspire serious questioning of the meaning and
is difficult to state in physical terms. How- validity of this type of data. Ballistic mortars
ever, it does correlate, generally, with overall have not been used extensively in recent
performance characteristics. years.

Plate dent tests, as used in brisance mea- 12-[Link] TRAUZLTEST

surements are made with charges long enough
compared with their diameters that the deto- In a Trauzl block test, a sample of explo-
nation head can reach a stable configuration. sive (on the order of 10 g) is exploded in a
The standard specimen is 1-5/8 in. in diameter cavity in a lead block. The increase in volume
by 5 in. long. The depth of dent produced in of the hole is the criterion of output' 5. It
the steel plate is compared with that pro- usually is related to TNT. The Trauzl test is a
duced by TNT. Plate dent brisance for bare direct measure of the mechanical work per-
charges correlate rather well with detonation formed by the explosive. It tends to correlate
pressure. with the heat of explosion, although the small
sample size is rather small for complete
The fragmentation test is the most direct reaction of TNT. More sensitive materials,
measure of the brisance of explosives. It which react more completely, tend to have
consists of loading a projectile with the larger Trauzl block values than might be
sample explosive, detonating the charge, and expected.
recovering the fragments. The projectile is
placed in a wooden box that is buried in sand 12-[Link] UNDERWATER SHOCK
and fired electrically. Recovery of fragments
and their classification into weight groups Underwater explosive effects are more
permit evaluation of the charge's . A new test complicated than those in air. The energy
titled the "expanding cylinder test" is released by detonation is partitioned into that

12-15
AMCP 708-179

in the Shockwave, that dissipated in the water for even intervals of height (usually fractions
during travel of the Shockwave from the of an inch or centimeter). In others a dial,
charge to the gage, and that remaining in the counter, or scale is provided for rapid reading
oscillating bubble formed by the detonation of the drop height. The latter have the
products. Shockwave energy is calculated advantage, in Bruceton type testing, that the
from the deflection of a diaphragm gage step intervals may be varied to suit the
placed 3.5 ft away and facing the side of the appropriate normalizing function.
charge. Relative bubble energy is the ratio of
the period constants cubed; period constants The drop test is performed in a manner
are determined by measuring the bubble similar to that used for explosive materials
period29.' (par. 12-[Link]). A given weight (perhaps 2
oz) is dropped from various heights on the
12-2.1.4 STABILITY firing pin and the results noted. Height steps
are varied by the Bruceton technique (par.
The vacuum stability test is the most 12-1.2.2).
widely used stability test for explosives. A 5-g
sample (I g in the case of primary high 12-2.2.2 ELECTRIC INITIATORS
explosives), after having been thoroughly
dried, is heated for 40 hr in vacuum at the Depending upon the application, the sensi-
desired temperature (100° or 120°C). Tem- tivity of electric initiators is characterized in
peratures and the volume of gas evolved (in terms of the. threshold current, voltage,
cm3) are quoted16''7 '3 ° . power, energy, or some combination of
these3'. A specification in terms of only one
Other tests are the heat tests in which of them may be misleading. However, in
samples are heated for 48 hr and the effects many applications, one or another of these
noted. Actually, stability of explosives under quantities' is so much more significant than
conditions of service is too complex to be the others that it is appropriate to charac-
characterized completely on the basis of terize the sensitivity of the initiator in its
standardized laboratory tests. Tests like that terms. The sensitivity response can be defined
for cook-off, which are tailored to simulate more rigorously in most cases by controlling
conditions of use, are often necessary. the time as well as the magnitude of the
applied stimulus.
12-2.2 INPUT
12-[Link] CONDENSER DISCHARGE
12-2.2.1 MECHANICAL INITIATORS TEST

Most mechanical sensitivity tests, whether The sources used to fire electric initiators
for stab or percussion items, consist of in many military applications emit pulses in
dropping weights from various heights onto which both current and voltage exceed, by
the appropriate firing pins. The most common many times, the threshold conditions for
means to this end is to release a weight from a firing the initiator but for a very short
magnet. The weights used in the testing of duration. In many instances, the quantity that
stab and percussion initiators are usually steel expresses limitation of output is the available
balls that are dropped free from the points of energy. For this reason, it is a common
conical magnets. Impact machines include practice to express the sensitivity of an
convenient means of adjusting the height of electric initiator in terms of its energy require-
the magnet between drops and means for ment. The energy that is stored in a charged
rapid and precise determination of the free capacitor can be conveniently expressed by a
fall distance (Fig. 12-3). In some machines, simple equation that works only with the
the height adjustment includes indexing stops particular units given

12-16
 AMCP 708-179

w = 5C£2,erg (12-3) compared with that of the initiator but not so

low as to overtax the battery. Aside from this,
where the circuit should provide for switching and
connecting with a minimum of resistance.
w = energy, erg Contact potentials and inductive surges have
been misleading in such circuits. As for
C = capacitance, juF capacitor discharge, a test set is also available
for both constant voltage and constant cur-
E = voltage, V rent tests.

This total energy stored on a capacitor is 12-[Link] STEADY CURRENT

frequently used to characterize the sensitivity FUNCTIONING
of initiators. However, only in very specific
instances would all of this energy be required Where the firing source is of high imped-
to produce initiation. On the other hand, ance and limited current capacity, such as the
many initiators are fired from a charged high voltage supply of an electronic device,
capacitor in actual systems. In these instances, the firing current may ,be the most significant
capacitor discharge data can be applied direct- aspect of the sensitivity of an electric
ly. It is not a valid procedure to use known initiator. A test circuit for the determination
sensitivity data at one voltage and capacitance of threshold firing current of an electric
and extrapolate to a different combination of initiator should have an impedance that is
voltage and capacitance on the basis of equal high compared with the maximum resistance
stored energy. of the initiator at least up to the time of
initiation. A high voltage supply with a
The energy sensitivities of most of the dropping resistor (a ratio of 10 to 1 desirable)
electric initiators now in military use were meets these requirements. The current may be
determined by using circuits similar to that varied from trial to trial by varying either the
shown in Fig. 12-8. Either voltage or capaci- voltage or the resistance. In such circuits, if
tance may be varied to vary the energy. In the switch is in series with the dropping
many cases, convenience has been the basis resistance and the initiator in the wrong
for the choice. However, where a particular order, the distributed capacitance of the
application is under consideration, the choice circuit can get charged to the supply voltage
might be made on the basis of the limitations and discharged with an initial surge sufficient
of the firing circuit in the fuze. to fire the initiator. One means of insuring
against such spurious effects is that of shunt-
12-[Link] VOLTAGE SENSITIVITY ing the initiator with a switch that is opened
to fire the initiator.
Where the firing circuit is a very low-
voltage source, the impedance of which is low ■12-2.2.3 GAPS AND BARRIERS
compared with that of the initiator (as for
example in some types of battery), the The relative sensitivity of various explosives
threshold voltage for firing may be the most to initiation by detonation of nearby charges
important criterion of sensitivity. Test firing can be determined from the results of trials
circuits for the determination of threshold with varying gaps or barriers interposed32. In
firing voltage, similarly, should be very low such evaluations, determinations are made of
impedance circuits. A type of variable source the mean and deviation of the gap or barrier
that has proven useful in this respect is a high using data collection schemes and statistical
capacity storage battery shunted by a relative- procedures similar to those described in par.
ly low resistance potentiometer. The resis- 12-1.2. The result is a threshold value of gap
tance of the potentiometer should be low or barrier which will result in detonation.

12-17
AMCP70G-179

DETONATOR
-o—MA»—o-

rm VOLTMETER

1X
FIRING SWITCH
: CAPACITOR

© POWER •
SUPPLY:

I20V AC
60 CYCLE
I I CHARGE SWITCH
MERCURY
CONTACT
SWITCH

Figure 12-8. Typical Condenser Discharge Firing Circuit for Testing

Electric Initiators

It must be remembered, however, that the 12-2.3 OUTPUT

use of gap or barrier tests to evaluate the
reliability of systems in which gaps or barriers 12-2.3.1 DETONATION
are not part of the intended design is dubious
at best. As pointed out in pars. 3-2.2.5 and The output of detonators, leads, and
7-2.2.1 gaps and barriers, particularly when boosters consists of a shock wave and high
combined, may actually improve a system. velocity hot particles. A number of indirect
output tests are in use which are designed to
The Varicomp technique has been devised give a quantitative measure of the ability of
for this reason3 3. Here, construction, mate- the test component to propagate the detona-
rials, and spatial configuration of a system tion in the next component. In addition to
under investigation are as nearly identical the tests listed, gaps and barrier tests (par.
with those of the intended design as it is 12-2.2.3) may be used for this purpose.
practical to make them. The probability of
transmission between two consecutive compo- 12-[Link] SANDTEST
nents is reduced by the substitution of a less
sensitive material in the acceptor element in The sand test, in which the output is
the transfer under investigation. By the use of characterized in terms of the amount of sand
a series of explosives of graded sensitivity, which is crushed by a detonator, gives a
using the sensitivity or composition as the quantitative result for each trial. Early investi-
independent variable in a data gathering sys- gator--found good correlation between
tem like the Bruceton technique, data may be sand test results for blasting caps and their
obtained from which it is possible to deter- effectiveness in initiating dynamite. More
mine the sensitivity or composition for 50% recently, it has been found that detonators
functioning and its standard deviation. that give good sand test results may fail to
initiate booster charges. The trend is away
Performance of explosives subjected to from sand tests for evaluation of explosive
large scale gap tests has been compiled34. components.
Explosives of varying sensitivity also have
been used to estimate the reliability with 12-[Link] LEAD DISK TEST
which main charges may be expected to be
initiated by means of boosters (see par. This test consists of firing a detonator in
12-[Link]). direct end-on contact with a lead disk, in

12-18
 AMCP 708-179

accordance with test 302 of MIL-STD-331J. 12-[Link] ALUMINUM'DENT TEST

The size of the hole produced in the disk is a
measure of the output. Hole sizes are The output test using an aluminum block is
measured by means of taper gages. In general, performed in accordance with Test 303 of
the lead disk test is a reasonably useful MIL-STD-331J. This test is identical in all
quality control test that correlates with the respects with the steel dent test except that
effectiveness of detonators. Significance in the dent block is made of aluminum. Substi-
terms of physical quantities is difficult to tution of the softer metal allows testing of
assess. At least one situation has been experi- components whose output is insufficient to
enced in which modifications in loading pro- dent steel.
cedure which increased output according to
the lead disk test decreased effectiveness in 12-[Link] HOPKINSON BAR TEST
initiating subsequent charges.
In this test, the output of a detonator is
characterized, in terms of the velocity im-
12-[Link] STEEL DENT TEST parted to a steel time piece that is in intimate
contact with one end of a steel bar when the
The steel dent test consists of firing a detonator is fired at the other end (see Fig.
detonator in direct end-on contact with a 12-9). The velocity of the time piece is a
steel block in accordance with Test 301.1 of measure of the average pressure over the time
MIL-STD-331J. The depth of dent, deter- it takes for the shock to traverse its length
mined by a dial indicator, is a measure of and the tension wave to return'5 . For steel,
output. Explosive components may be either this time in microseconds is almost exactly
unconfined or confined in polystyrene, brass, equal, numerically, to the length of the time
aluminum, or steel. The depth of dent cor- piece in centimeters (since both shock and
relates well with initiating effectiveness. The tension waves propagate at 0.5 cm/jusec).
low rate detonation, which crushes nearly as
much sand as high order detonation, means Although the velocity of the time piece is a
no dent whatever in a steel plate. It has been precise and rigorous measure of the momen-
shown that the depth of dent is proportional tum of the shock in the bar, the relationship
to the excess of pressure over the yield between this shock and the output of the
strength of the steel of the dent block, explosive charge which induced it is less clear.
integrated over the volume of the detonation The coupling between the output of the
head. detonator and the input end of the bar is
necessarily quite poor. Direct exposure of the
It has been found that a detonator of bar to the action of the detonator results in
0.190-in. diameter or larger, which produces a damage with each shot and progressively
dent 0.010 in. deep in a mild steel block, will changing characteristics. The effect of at-
initiate a lead of tetryl or RDX under tenuators (to protect the bar) on output has
favorable conditions. Specification dent re- not been established. Hence, the test is only
quirements for detonators to be used in fuzes in experimental use. However, it is used
are usually at least 0.015 to 0.020-in. deep extensively in the U.K.
and many produce dents up to 0.060 in. deep.
12-[Link] VELOCITY OF THE AIR SHOCK
Dent tests also are used to measure the
output of leads and boosters, and to deter- Since the velocity of an air shock is a direct
mine whether token main charges have been measure of its strength, measurements of air
caused to detonate high order. Plates used for shock velocity may seem to be an attractive
this purpose are sometimes referred to as means of measuring detonator output. How-
witness plates. ever, at the short range over which the blast

12-19
AMCP 708-179

SHOCK WAVE REFLECTED

techniques from those of detonating charges.
7
FROM FREE SURFACE AS
TENSION WAVE
ATTENUATOR-
t-t
On the one hand, detonating output is more

3T difficult to measure but on the other hand

more work has been done with detonators
DETONATOR
X
STEEL TIME PIECE IN
WRING FIT CONTACT
and more tests have been standardized. Non-
detonating output includes the output of
WITH BAR
flames and other parameters (primers, squibs,
Figure 12-9. Principle of Hopkinson Bar delay columns) and mechanical output (ex-
Measurement of Detonator Output plosive actuators).

output of a detonator is effective, a larger 12-[Link] PRIMER OUTPUT

part of the effectiveness is attributable to the
kinetic energy of the reaction products which An experimental setup used for the testing
support the shock than to the shock itself. In of primer output is a manometer connected
this respect, an inversion results from the to a closed chamber into which the primer
nonideality of the reaction product gases. fires. The output pulse of the primer imparts
Hence, velocity of the air shock is not a momentum to the liquid (Hg) in the
suitable output measure. manometer, causing it to displace to a maxi-
mum and recede. The maximum displacement
12-[Link] DETONATION PRESSURE MEA- is proportional to the momentum and is
SURED BY MEANS OF SHOCK referred to as the impulse of the primer. The
TRANSDUCERS volume of gas emitted may, of course, be
measured afterthe manometer reaches equilib-
The output of detonators may be deter-
rium.
mined by measuring detonation pressure
waves36. Two types of solid state transducers
A thermocouple placed in the flame gives
are used to record the intense stress waves
some measure of temperature although the
involved. One, based upon changes in electri-
question may be-raised as to whether it ever
cal conductivity of materials normally con-
reaches equilibrium. Perhaps, in many applica-
sidered as insulators, provides not only a
tions, the temperature reached by such a
reading of the peak intensity of the wave but
thermocouple, which is proportional to the
also a record of pressure variation with time.
quantity of heat transferred to a solid by the
The second transducer utilizes the polariza-
flame, is more pertinent than the actual flame
tion of molecular solids to provide a device
temperature.
more capable of resolving the very steep
shock fronts often produced by explosives of
Light output, as measured by a photocell,
highbrisance.
has also been used as a measure of primer
The explosive item to be tested is placed output. If the light is mainly blackbody
with its output end on the transducer and radiation, it may be quite significant. How-
initiated in the normal manner. When the ever, the presence of some elements such as
detonation wave passes through the trans- sodium, which have strong spectral output,
ducer, a signal proportional to the magnitude might bias such results unduly.
of the pressure is produced which is recorded
on an oscilloscope or other electronic device The lead disk test, employed for detonating
thus indicating the output of the explosive. output has been used for primers.' Primer
output does not puncture the disk; rather the
12-2.3.2 NONDETONATING ITEMS volume of the dent becomes the measure of
output. Softer materials, such as styrofoam,
The output of nondetonating explosive also have bedn used experimentally for this
charges requires entirely different measuring purpose to achieve a larger volume.

12-20
 AMCP 708-179

12-[Link] SPECIAL PRIMER OUTPUT having the actuator push against a spring.
PARAMETERS Since the spring force is not constant, it is
important to specify in this case whether the
The pressure-time output of primers pro- given force is measured at the start or end of
vides a quantitative measure of total energy. the stroke. In the case of switches, it has been
A test fixture has been designed which has the suggested that the initial hump in the load
ability to integrate this output3 7 . curve of a switch can be simulated by having a
pin rupture a metal foil.
A series of experimental primer output
measurements included a unique test to deter- 12-2.4 ENVIRONMENT
mine the effect of primer output on an inert
propellant (acrylic polymer) in a cased round. Explosive charges must not only perform as
A noticeable weight loss occurred after firing intended; they also must be safe and operable
the primer that was associated with "unzip- in the environment in which they are ex-
pering" of the inert polymer into a gasous pected to perform. Encompassing deep water
manometer. The amount of polymer gasified to outer space, the range of military environ-
was considered to be a function of such ments is indeed formidable. A series of tests
parameters as available chemical energy and has been developed to simulate the various
rate of gas production38. conditions to which ammunition may be
subjected.
Primer times have been measured in at-
tempts to characterize primer lots and assess Most of the tests have been standardized to
deviations of individual primer samples from assure uniform conditions. The bulk of the
other members of a lot. Primer time has been tests of interest to the explosive charge
defined as the interval between primer initia- designer are contained in MIL-STD-331]. A
tion (as recorded by impacting of a firing pin convenient summary of descriptions and use
or delivery of the required input energy pulse) of these tests has been compiled for fuze
and the occurrence of some measurable event components8 .
(such as the ionization of primer reaction
products or the severing of electrically con- The explosive charge designer faces more
ductive pencil lead). severe testing problems than the fuze designer
because of the relative smallness of his
Photographic measurements of the extent components in the system. For some of the
(length, width, and height) of the primer components, the MIL-STD tests are frankly
flame have also been employed in attempts to meaningless. There is no reason, for example,
assess ignition capabilities of primers. How- to subject a booster charge pellet to the
ever, no direct correlations have been re- jumble test. On the other hand, it is danger-
ported to date. ous to introduce an untested component,
particularly a new concept, into the military
[Link].3 MECHANICAL OUTPUT environment. In some instances, other system
components may help (confinement, struc-
The series of mechanical actuators includes tural strength, sealing, cushioning); in other
dimple motors, bellows motors, piston instances, they may hinder (incompatible
motors, and switches. The output of these materials, unplanned electric paths, stress
devices is usually specified in terms of pushing concentrations). This problem must be re-
a given weight through a given distance. Use solved by sound engineering judgment. If, for
of a test fixture employing dead weights is example, detonators are to be subjected to a
therefore best. drop test, they can be placed within ajig that
permits positioning and introduces confine-
Output tests have often been performed by ment39 .

12-21
AMCP 706-179

TEST FIRING PIN number of tests that apply only to special

conditions, such as the jettison tests.

Four tests in MIL-STD-331 apply specifi-

cally to explosive components. The Static
Detonator Safety test (Test 115) determines
whether the rest of the train will be set off
when the detonator is initiated in the un-
armed position. The fuze or test fixture must
be modified so that the detonator may be
-TETRYL
initiated in the safe position. A typical modi-
BOOSTER fication is shown in Fig. 12-10. The test is
successful if no explosive charge beyond the
Figure 12-10. Arrangement for Detonator arming device functions, chars, or deforms.
Safety Test The detonator output tests by lead disk, steel
dent, and aluminum dent are discussed in par.
The chief purpose of environment tests is 12-2.3.1.
to insure safety during rough handling and
surveillance. The safety tests are of two types, As in performance tests, programming is
destructive and nondestructive. Operability is important in the environmental series. It may
not required after destructive tests, such as be desirable to combine several tests sequen-
jolt; while operability is required after non- tially or to add tests to introduce such special
destructive tests, such as transportation-vibra- conditions as acceleration that can be per-
tion. All surveillance tests are nondestructive. formed in air gun or centrifuge. Sufficient
samples must be tested to assure significant
It is important to ;understand that MIL- results. As a rule of thumb, no fewer than five
STD tests are never specified unless they serve samples should ever be tested. The quantity
a definite purpose. The selection of tests for depends on the criteria for test acceptance,
application in a particular case requires engi- the destructive test (criterion: did this item
neering judgment. Tests must not be applied explode?) requiring fewer samples than the
indiscriminately. On the other hand, once a nondestructive test (criterion: is performance
standard test is prescribed, it is mandatory affected?). For electric initiators, specific
that it be performed precisely as specified guidance for test selection js given in MIL-
without deviation. MIL-STD-33 1 includes a STD-322' and MIL-I-236593 .

REFERENCES

a-k Lettered references are listed in the 3. AMCP 706-111, Engineering Design
General References at the end of this Handbook, Experimental Statistics, Sec-
handbook. tion 2, Analysis of Enumerative and
Classificatory Data.
1. G. W. Snedecor and William G. Cochram,
4. AMCP 706-112, Engineering Design
Statistical Methods, Iowa State Univer-
Handbook, Experimental Statistics, Sec-
sity Press, Ames, 1967.
tion 3, Planning and Analysis of Com-
2. AMCP 706-110, Engineering Design parative Experiments.
Handbook, Experimental Statistics, Sec- 5. AMCP 706-113, Engineering Design
tion I, Basic Concepts and Analysis of Handbook, Experimental Statistics, Sec-
Measurement Data. tion 4, Special Topics.

12-22
 AMCP 708-179

6. AMCP 706-1 14, Engineering Design Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J., 1960,
Handbook, Experimental Statistics, Sec- "Physical Tests Used to Determine Ex-
tion 5, Tables. plosive Properties", pp. VII-XXVI
(AD-257 189).
7. D. J. Wilde and C. S. Beightler, Founda-
tions of Optimization, Psentice Hall, Inc., 16. Safety and Performance Tests for Qualifi-
Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1967. cation of Explosives, Report NAVORD
OD 44811, Vol. 1, Naval Weapons
8. A. Leon, "A Classified Bibliography on Center, China Lake, Calif., 1 January
Optimization", in A. Lavi and T. Vogl, 1972.
Eds., Recent Advances in Optimization
Techniques, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 17 A. J. Clear, Standard Laboratory Proce-
New York, 1966, pp. 599-649. dures for Determining Sensitivity,
Brisance, and Stability of Explosives,
9. Statistical Analysis for a New Procedure Report TR 3278 Rev. 1, Picatinny
in Sensitivity Experiment, AMP Report. Arsenal, Dover, N.J., April 1970.
101.1R SRG-P No. 40, Statistical Re-
search Group, Princeton University, 18. V. E. Voreck and E. W. Dalrymple,
Princeton, N.J., July 1944 (ATI- Development of an Improved Stab
034-558). Sensitivity Test and Factors Affecting
Stab Sensitivity of M-55 Detonators, Re-
10. L. Shainheit, Estimating the Mean and port TR 4263, Picatinny Arsenal, Dover,
Standard Deviation from a Bruceton Sta- N.J., June 1972.
tistical Analysis, Report TR 3413,
Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J., August 19. Manual of Sensitiveness Tests, Canadian
1966. Armament R&D Establishment, Val
Cartier, Quebec, 1967 (AD-824 359L).
11. C. W. Churchman, Statistical Manual,
Methods of Making Experimental Infer- 20. S. D. Stein, Quantitative Study of Param-
ences. Pitman-Dunn Laboratories, Frank- eters Affecting Bullet Sensitivity of Ex-
ford Arsenal, Philadelphia, Pa., 1951. plosives, Report TR 2636, Picatinny
Arsenal, Dover, N.J., September 1959.
12. D. E. Hartvigsen and J. P. Vanderbeck,
Sensitivity Tests for Fuzes, NAVORD 21. Louis Jablansky, Laboratory Scale Test
Report 3496, Naval Weapons Center, Device to Determine Sensitivity of Explo-
China Lake, Calif, March 1955. sives to Initiation by Setback Pressure,
Report TR 2235, Picatinny Arsenal,
13. D. J. Finney Probit Analysis, A Statistical Dover, N.J., September 1955.
Treatment of the Sigmoid Response
Wave, Cambridge University Press, Mass., 22. Determination of Cook-Off Tempera-
1952. tures, Journal Article 43.0 of the JANAF
Fuze Committee, 3 May 1967 (AD-816
14. J. Berkson "A Statistically Precise and 238).
Relatively Simple Method Estimating the
Bio-Assay with Quantal Response", J. 23. W. W. Wendlandt, Thermal Methods of
Am. Statistical Assoc, 48, 263, 565-99 Analysis, Vol. 19, Chemical Analysis
(1953). Series, Interscience Publishers, New-
York, N.Y. 1964.
15. Basil T. Fedoroff, et al., Encyclopedia of
Explosives and Related Items, Vol. I, 24. E. E. Mason and D. H. Zehner, The

12-23
AMCP 708-179

Development of Techniques to Detect Institute, Philadelphia, Pa., September

and Determine the Effects of Heat on 11-12, 1957, papers XXIII and XXXIII
Selected Primary Explosives, R&D Re- (AD-153 579) (Confidential report).
port 81, Naval Weapons Station, York-
town, Va., 22 January 1962. 33. J. N. Ayers, et al., Varicomp,A Method
for Determining Detonation-Transfer
25. E. E. Mason and H. A. Davis, Application Probabilities, NAVWEPS Report 7411,
of Differential Thermal and Thermo- Naval Ordnance Laboratory, Silver
gravimetric Analyses to Military High Spring, Md., July 1961.
Explosives, NAVORD Report 5802,
Naval Weapons Station, Yorktown, Va., 34. I. Jaffe, et al., The NOL Large Scale Gap
22 January 1962 (AD-232 625). Test, Compilation ofDataforPropellants
and Explosives, II (U), Repbrt NOLTR
26. Second ONR Symposium on Detonation, 65-177, Naval Ordnance Laboratory, Sil-
Office of Naval Research, Navy Dept., ver Spring, Md., 15 November, 1965
February 9-11, 1955, papers 15-17, pp. (Confidential report).
209-64.
35. C. G. Storm and W. C. Cope, The Sand
27. L. D. Hampton and R. H. Stresau, Small Test for Determining the Strength of
Scale Technique for Measurement of Detonators, Technical Paper 125, Bureau
Detonation Velocities, NAVORD Report of Mines, Dept. of Interior, 1916.
2282, Naval Ordnance Laboratory, Silver
Spring, Md., 27 December 1951. 36. R. J. Eichelberger and G. E. Hauver,
"Solid State Transducers for Recording
28. U.S. Patent-3,528,280, T. Q. Ciccone and of Intense Pressure Pulses", Les Ondes de
J. F. Kowalick, Apparatus and Method Detonation, Editions du Centre National
for Measuring Detonation Velocity in de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, 1962.
Explosives, 15 September 1970.
37. M. L. Schimmel and V. W. Drexelius,
29 Donna Price, "Dependance of Damage "Measurement of Explosive Output", in
Effects Upon Detonation Parameters or Proceedings of the Fifth Symposium on
Organic High Explosives", Chemical Re- Electroexplosive Series, held at The
views, 59,801-25 (1959). Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, Pa., June
13-14, 1967,pp. 1-5.1-.20 (AD-720 454).
30. H. T. Simmons, Sr., The Vacuum Ther-
mal Stability Test for Explosives, Report
38. M. P. Devine, et al., A Comparison of
NOLTR 70-142, Naval Ordnance Labora-
Several Types of 5.56mm and 7.62mm
tory. Silver Spring, Md., 28 October
Primers, Report R1932, Frankford
1970.
Arsenal, Philadelphia, Pa., July 1969.
31. MIL-1-23659 (WEP), Initiators, Electric,
Design and Evaluation of, Dept. of De- 39. R. E. Trezona and E. L. Miller, Forty-
fense, 18 March 1963. Foot Drop Test for Detonators (U),
Report 28, Explosives Development Sec-
32. Proceedings of the Electric Initiator tion, Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J., May
Symposium (U), held at The Franklin 1958 (Confidential report).

12-24
 AMCP 708-179

GLOSSARY

This Glossary is an excerpt from Nomenclature and Definitions in the Ammunition Area,
MIL-STD-444, 9 July 1964. Definitions are often abbreviated and only terms pertaining to
explosive charge design are included.

Actuator. An explosive device that produces Deflagration. A very rapid combustion some-
gas at high pressure in short periods of time times accompanied by flame, sparks, or
into a confined volume for the purpose of spattering of burning particles. A deflagration,
doing work. Dimple motors, bellows motors, although classed as an explosion, generally
and switches are examples of actuators. implies the burning of a substance with
self-contained oxygen so that the reaction
Booster. An assembly of metal parts and zone advances into the unreacted material at
explosive charge provided to augment the less than the velocity of sound in the unre-
explosive components of a fuze to cause acted materials.
detonation of the main explosive charge of
the ammunition. It may be an integral part of Delay. An explosive train component that
the fuze. (This term is often used as an introduces a controlled time delay in the
abbreviation for booster charge). functioning process.

Booster Charge. 1. The explosive charge con- Detonation. An exothermic chemical reaction
tained in a booster. It must be sufficiently that propagates with such rapidity that the
sensitive to be actuated by the small explosive rate of advance of the reaction zone into the
elements in the fuze and powerful enough to unreacted material exceeds the velocity of
cause detonation of the main explosive filling. sound in the unreacted material. The rate of
2. The amount or type of explosive used to advance of the reaction zone is termed deto-
reliably detonate the bursting charge of am- nation velocity. When this rate of advance
munition. attains such a value that it will continue
without diminution through the unreacted
Brisance. The ability of an explosive to material, it is termed the stable detonation
shatter the medium which confines it; the velocity. When the detonation velocity is
shattering effect shown by an explosive. equal to or greater than the stable detonation
velocity of the explosive, the reaction is
Combustion. The continuous rapid combina- termed a high order detonation. When it is
tion of a substance with various elements such lower, the reaction is termed a low order
as oxygen or chlorine or with various oxygen detonation.
bearing compounds, accompanied by the
generation of light and heat. Detonator. An explosive train component
which can be activated by either a nonexplo-
Cook-Off. The deflagration or detonation of sive impulse or the action of a primer and is
ammunition by the absorption of heat from capable of reliably initiating high order deto-
its environment. Usually it consists of the nation in a subsequent high explosive compo-
accidental and spontaneous discharge of, or nent of train. When activated by a nonexplo-
explosion in, a gun or firearm caused by an sive impulse, a detonator includes the func-
overheated chamber or barrel igniting a fuze, tion of a primer. In general detonators are
propellant charge, or bursting charge. classified in accordance with the method of

G-1
AMCP 708-179

initiation; such as percussion, stab, electric, contains a small quantity of a sensitive ex-
flash, etc. plosive.

Explosion. A chemical reaction or change of Lead. (Rhymes with "feed") An explosive

state which is effected in an exceedingly short train component which consists of a column
time with the generation of a high tempera- of high explosive, usually small in diameter,
ture and generally a large quantity of gas. An used to transmit detonation from a detonator
explosion produces a shock wave in the to booster charge.
surrounding medium. The term includes both
detonation and deflagration. Low Explosive (LE). An explosive which
when used in its normal manner deflagrates or
Explosive. A substance or mixture of sub- burns rather than detonates; i.e., the rate of
stances which may be made to undergo a advance of the reaction zone into the unre-
rapid chemical change, without an outside acted material is less than the velocity of
supply of oxygen, with the liberation of large sound in the unreacted material. Low explo-
quantities of energy generally accompanied sives include propellants, certain primer mix-
by the evolution of hot gases. tures, black powder, and delay compositions.

Explosive Train. A train of combustible and Primary High Explosive. An explosive that is
explosive elements arranged in an order of extremely sensitive to heat and shock and is
decreasing sensitivity. Its function is to normally used to initiate a secondary high
accomplish the controlled augmentation of a explosive. A primary explosive is capable of
small impulse into one of suitable energy to building up from a deflagration to detonation
cause the main charge of the munition to in an extremely short distance and time; it
function. It may consist of primer, detonator, can also propagate a detonation wave in an
delay, relay, lead, and booster charge, one or extremely small diameter column.
more of which may be either omitted or
combined. Primer. A relatively small and sensitive initial
explosive train component which on being
Firing Pin. An item in a firing mechanism of a actuated initiates functioning of the explosive
fuze which strikes and detonates a sensitive train and will not reliably initiate high explo-
explosive to initiate an explosive train. sive charges. In general, primers are classified
in accordance with the methods of initiation;
High Explosive (HE). An explosive which such as percussion or stab.
when used in its normal manner detonates
rather than deflagrates or burns; i.e., the rate Relay. An explosive train component that
of advance of the reaction zone into the provides the required explosive energy to
unreacted material exceeds the velocity of cause the next element in the train to
sound in the unreacted material. function reliably. It is especially applied to
small charges that are initiated by a delay
Igniter. A device containing a specially ar- element and, in turn, cause the functioning of
ranged charge of a ready burning composi- a detonator.
tion, usually black powder, used to amplify
the initiation of a primer. Secondary High Explosive. A high explosive
which is relatively insensitive to heat and
Initiator. A device used as the first element of shock and is usually initiated by a primary
an explosive train, such as a detonator or high explosive. It requires a relatively long
squib, which upon receipt of the proper distance and time to build up from a de-
mechanical or electrical impulse produces a flagration to detonation and will not propa-
burning or detonating action. It generally gate in extremely small diameter columns.

G-2
 AMCP 708-179

Secondary high explosives are used for appearance to a detonator, but loaded with
boosters and bursting charges. Sometimes low explosive, so that its output is primarily
called noninitiating high explosives. heat (flash). Usually electrically initiated, it is
provided to initiate action of pyrotechnic
Squib. A small explosive device, similar in devices.

G-3/G-4
 AMCP 708-179

GENERAL REFERENCES

R-1 INTRODUCTION Ordnance Laboratory, White Oak, Md.,

April 1952(AD-029 151).
A number of general references on the A handbook of research results, data,
subject of explosive trains are here combined and tests on explosives and explosive
for the convenience of handbook users. components.
Specifically listed are (1) general references
consisting of handbooks, manuals, and com- b. TM 9-1300-2 14Military Explosives, Dept.
pilations, (2) JANAF Journal articles, and (3) of Army, November 1967.
Military Specifications. The general references A manual about the common military
are identified by letter to make multiple explosives, covering descriptions, prop-
referral simpler. Note that specific references erties, tests, and handling methods.
used for the material discussed in this hand-
book are listed at the end of each chapter. c. AMCP 706-106, Engineering Design Hand-
book, Elements of Armament Engineering,
Much of the information for this handbook Part One Sources of Energy.
was obtained from an earlier handbook, Ref. A handbook on fundamental facts
a, par. R-2. about chemical energy including theory
of explosive reactions and properties of
It is an underlying assumption that the explosives.
reader has some knowledge of military explo-,
sives. For this reason, details of explosive d. AMCP 706-177, Engineering Design Hand-
materials are not treated in this handbook. book, Explosive Series, Properties of Ex-
Such data are contained in Refs. b, c, and d. plosives ofMilitary Interest.
Ref. d contains the most up-to-date collection Lists the properties and characteristics
of physical properties. Refs. e and f contain of over 100 explosive compounds and
design data for specific explosive components, mixtures.
and Ref. g treats the design of fuzes of which
explosive components are a part. Ref. h e. Electrical Initiator Handbook (U), 3rd Ed.,
covers dimensioning while Refs. i and j are The Franklin Institute, April 1960
test procedures. Ref. k is the encyclopedia (AD-3 19 980) (Confidential report).
volume dealing with detonations and deto- Has performance characteristics of 25
nators. electric initiators, with curves of input
sensitivity and functioning time.
The JANAF Fuze Committee wrote a series
of 53 Journal articles of which a dozen f. MIL-HDBK-137,FMze Catalog, Volume 3,
pertain to explosive components. These are Explosive Components (U), Dept. of De-
listed in par. R-3. Finally, in par. R-4 there fense, 20 February 1970 (Confidential
are listed the Military Specifications covering report).
explosives and explosive compositions. A compilation of military and technical
data on all standard and developmnetal
R-2 GENERAL REFERENCES fuze explosive components.

a. Ordnance Explosive Train Designers 'Hand- g. AMCP 706-2 10, Engineering Design Hand-
book, Report NOLR 1111, U.S. Naval book, Ammunition Series, Fuzes.

R-I
AMCP 706-179

A handbook for the designer of fuzes 17.0 The Physical Properties of Explosives
and fuze components. and Inert Materials Whose Physical
Properties Resemble Those of Explo-
h. MIL-STD-320, Terminology, Dimensions sives, 1 March 1960,AD-468070.
and Materials of Explosive Components
for Use in Fuzes, Dept. of Defense, July 20.0 A Survey of Explosively Actuated De-
1962. vices Used in Fuzes, September 1960,
Establishes terminology, dimensions, AD-222 604.
and preferred structural materials for
explosive components.
21.0 Some Aspects of the Design of Boosters,
Richard Stresau and Milton Lipnick,
i. MIL-STD-322, Basic Evaluation Test far
Diamond Ordnance Fuze Laboratories,
Use in Development of Electrically
(now U.S. Army Harry Diamond Lab-
Initiated Explosive Components far Use in
oratories), Washington, D.C., 20 June
Fuzes, Dept. of Defense, 15 October 1962.
1961, AD-270 275.
Provides a uniform evaluation of input,
output, and environmental response of
initiated explosive elements prior to 22.0 Some Aspects of Pyrotechnic Delays, 5
their use in military items. December 1961, AD-270 444.

j. MIL-STD-331, Fuze and Fuze Compo- 30.0 Exploding Bridgewire Surveys, Explo-
nents, Environmental and Performance sives Component Subcommittee, 23
Tests For, Dept. of Defense, 1 June 1971. October 1963,AD-83 1 83 1.
Specifies the development and produc-
tion of fuzes and fuze components.
31.0 A Compendium of Pyrotechnic Delay
Devices, Explosives Components Sub-
k. B.T. Federoff and O.E. Sheffield,Encyclo-
committee, 23 October 1963, AD-474
pedia of Explosives and Related Items,
Vol. 4, Detonation to Detonators, Report 833.
TR 2270, Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N.J.
1969(AD-795 472). 43.0 Determination of Cook-Off Tempera-
Contains more than 1000 pages of tures, Explosive Components Subcom-
detailed entries pertaining to all aspects mittee, 3 May 1967,AD-816 238.
of detonations and detonators.
44.0 Mild Detonating Cord, Explosive Com-
R-3 JOURNAL ARTICLES OF THE JANAF ponents Subcommittee, 3 May 1967,
FUZE COMMITTEE PERTAINING TO AD-816 229.
EXPLOSIVE TRAINS

13.0 The Sensitivity of Explosive Initiators, 46.0 RFAttenuation of Initiators, Explosive

13 February 1958, AD-2.08 252. Committee, 3 May 1967,AD-828 308.

14.0 A Discussion of the Need for Study of 48.0 The Use of Conductive Mixes in Elec-
the Causes of Unintentional Initiations tro-Explosive Devices, H.S. Leopold,
of Explosive Devices Such as Are Used Naval Ordnance Laboratory, White Oak,
in Fuze Explosive Trains, 13 February Md., Explosive Components Subcom-
1958, AD-210 743. mittee, 3 May 1967,AD-829 731.

R-2
 AMCP 708-179

R-4 MILITARY SPECIFICATIONS ON MIL SPEC NO. TITLE

EXPLOSIVESAND EXPLOSIVE
COMPOSITIONS M-14745 (Mu) Minol-2 Composition

MIL SPEC NO. TITLE E-14970A(Mu) Explosive Composition

A-5
A-159C Antimony Sulfide
P-14999 Powder, Molding Com-
B-162D Barium Nitrate pound Explosive (PBX)

D-204A Dinitrotoluene for Use in L-16355C Lead Styphnate, Basic

Explosives
R-2 1723 RDX Composition CH6
P-223B (Mu) Powder, Black
E-22267A Explosive Compositions,
N-244A (Mu) Nitrocellulose
HBX type
N-246 Nitroglycerin
C-45010A Composition C-4
T-248A (Mu) TNT
C-45113A(Mu) Composition B-3
T-339B Tetryl
D-45413A Dynamite, Military
P-387B PETN
H-45444A (Ord) HMX
R-398C RDX
0-45 445 A (Ord) Octol
C-40 ID Composition B
P-45447 (Ord) Powder, Molding, PBX
C-427A Composition C-3 9010

C-440B Compositions A-3 and P-45486A (Mu) Pellets, RDX

A-4
L-46225C (Mu) Lead Azide, RD-1333
N-494 Nitrogoanadine (Picrite)
P-46464A (Mu) Pellets, Tetryl
A-5 12A (Mu) Aluminum Powder,
Flaked, Graded, E-46495 Explosive Composition,
Atomized HTA-3

L-757A Lead Styphnate, Normal L-46496 (Ord) LMNR

L-3055A Lead Azide C-46652 (Mu) Composition B4

C-13477B (Mu) CyclotOl T-46938(Mu) Tetracene

T-13723 Tetranitrocarbazole E-81111 PBXN-5

R-3/R-4
 AMCP 708-179

INDEX

Acceleration, 1 -9, 4-2, 4-14, 6-9 Bureau of Mines impact test, 12—9
Acoustic wave, 2— 10 Burning, 2-1,2-5,4-6, 6-7
Activation energy, 2—2 Burning rate, 2—6, 6—7
Actuator, 9-1, 12-21
Additive effect on sensitivity, 3 — 6 Carbonbridge, 2-19,5-14, 5-25
Adiabatic compression, 2 — 20, 4— 15 Casting, 10-1
Aerodynamic heating, 1—7, 4—8 Cavity, 4-15
Air Cementing, 10—13
gap test, 3-4, 3-8 Centrifugal casting, 10 — 4
shock velocity, 12 — 19 Chapman-Jouguet condition, 2- 12
transport, 11 — 6 Characteristics of explosives, 10—15
Aluminum dent test, 12—19 Charge configuration effect, 3—10
Ammunition, 8—1, 11—3 Chemical
Arming, 1-12, 1-15 ammunition, 8—1
Arrhenius equation, 2—2 decomposition, 4—2
Auxiliary booster, 8—7 interaction, 4-11, 10-15
Availability, 10-13 Cluster ammunition, 8—2
Column diameter, 3—1
Ballistic mortar, 12 — 15 Compatibility, 4-11, 10-15
Barrier, 3-4, 3-6,7-6, 12-17 Condenser discharge test, 12-16
Base charge, 5 — 20 Conductive explosive mix electric initiator,
Bases for explosive charge selection, 1—4, 2-19,5 15
5-4,6-10 Conductive film electric initiator, 2- 18,
Bellows motor, 9-1, 12-21 5-15,5 26
Blast, 3-13, 12-15 Confidence level, 12—4
Blasting cap, 9—6 Confinement. 1-11,3-3,3-6,5-21,6-10,
Bolt, 9-2 7-5,7-11,8-7
Bomb, 8-1 Considerations in design, 1— 13
Bomb drop test, 4-13, 12-11 Construction. See: specific explosive charge
Bonfire test, 12-13 Continuity equation, 2—9
Boosted surround, 8—7 Controlled fragmentation, 3 — 16
Booster Cook-off, 4-6, 12-11
auxiliary, 8—7 Cost effectiveness, 1 — 15
charge, 7— 1 Cost factor, 10-13
construction, 7—11 Cup, 5-6,5-22, 6-10
description, 7— 1
design, 7—6 d'Autriche method, 12-14
explosive, 7—2 Decibangtest, 3—5
function, 7—1 Decomposition of explosive, 2— 1
loading, 7—9 Definitions, 1—1,G—1
output, 7—8 Deflagration, 2-1,2-5,4-6, 6-7
position, 8—7 Delay charge
sensitivity test, 3—3, 12 — 10 composition, 6—3
Bridgewire, 2-17,4-5,5-10, 5-14,5-25, description, 6—1
5-26. See also: EBW design, 6 — 10
Brisance, 12—15 loading, 6—9
Bruceton technique, 12—7 output, 6—3
Bullet impact test, 4-4,4-12, 12-10 Demolition block, 9—6

1-1
AMCP 706-179

INDEX (Con't.)

Demolition device, 9—4 Environment

Density, 10—15, 10—17. Sec also: Loading electrical, 1—13
density military requirements, 4—1, 12—21
Design considerations, 1—1, 1—13,5—1, response, 4- 1, 12—21
5-16, 6-10, 7-4, 7-6, 8-1, 9-1 Equation of state, 2—11
Destructor, 9—4 Evaluation procedure, 3 — 3, 4— 12, 12—1
Detonating cord, 3—12, 9-5 Exploding bridgewire, 2—24, 5—13, 5 — 26
Detonation Explosion temperature, 2 — 2, 2—21,4-2,
actual, 2-13,3-10 12-10
detonator output, 5—18 Explosive
front, 3-1,3 -10 bolt, 9-2
growth, 2—7 characteristics, 10 — 15
ideal, 2-5,3-9 cord, 9-5
pressure, 2-9, 5-21, 10-15, 12-14 material, 1-4,2-7,2-13,2-24,3-6,
spontaneous, 2—26 4-2, 4-11,5-14, 5-19, 6-3, 7-2,
transfer to another charge, 3—1, 12—18 8-6, 12-8
transition from deflagration, 2— 1,2—6 nut, 9-4
velocity, 2-7, 2-9,2-12, 2-14,3-10, sheet, 9—6
10-15, 12-13 train, 1 — 1
wave, 2-11,7-8, 12-18 Explosive charge. See also: specific explosive
Detonator charge (actuator, booster, delay, detonator,
construction and fabrication, 5— 1, 5 —22 lead, main bursting charge, primer, relay,
design problem, 5—12 squib)
function, 5 — 1 bases for selection, 1—4,5 — 4,6—10
output, 5-18, 12-13 design considerations, 1 —1, 1 — 13, 5 — 1
packing, 11—2 fabrication, 10—1
selection, 5 — 4 general description, 1—1, 5—1, 6- 1,7—1,
Dextrinated lead azide, 2—7 8-1,9-1
Differential thermal analysis, 12 — 11 location with respect to target, 1—12
Dimensional change, 4—4 packing, 11—3
Dimensional interaction, 3—1 purpose, 1 — 1
Dimple motor, 9— 1, 12—21 shipping, 11 —5
Disk thickness, 5—6 storing, 11 -3
Driver, 9-1 system approach aspects, 1—7
Drop test, 2-21,4-4 testing, 12—8
Dual arming safety, 1— 12, 1—14 Extrusion, 10—4
Exudation, 4-5, 10-16

EBW, 2-24, 5 13,5 -26 Fabrication, 10—1. See also: specific

Economics, 1—15 explosive charge
Electric Failure diameter, 6—10,7 — 6, 10—15
aspects, 1-13,4 16, 12-11 Failure rate, 12—1
initiation, 1-13,2-17,5-2,6-1 Film bridge electric initiator, 2—1 8, 5— 14,
initiator, 5 — 2,5 — 9, 12 — 16. See also: 5-26
specific explosive charge Finishing operation, 10—12
spark initiation, 2—24, 4— 16 Firing energy and power, 5—10
Electrostatic sensitivity, 1—13, 12 — 11 Firing pin, 2—21, 2—23, 5—7
Energy-power relationship of initiators, 2— 10 Firing time, 5—12

1-2
 AMCP 708-179

INDEX (Con't.)

Flame output, 5— 16, 12-20 Hot wire electric initiator, 2—17, 5-2,5-9
Flash charge, 5-9, 5-26 Hot wire ignition test, 12 — 13
Flash detonator, 5-2,5-8, 5-24, 12-16 Hugoniot curve, 2—10
Flexible linear shaped charge, 9-6 Human factors engineering, 1—16
Flying plate test, 12—10 Humidity environment, 4-2
Fragmentation, 1-11, 3- 14, 12-15 Hydrostatic pressing, 10-11
Frankford run-down method, 12-8
Frequency distribution, 12-2 Ignition. See also: Initiation
Friction, initiation, 2-23,4-3, 4- 16, 12-10 energy, 2-24
Functioning, 1—11,5—1,6-1 powder, 6-6
Functioning time of initiators, J— 11 temperature, 2-2,2—18
Fundamental principles, 1 — 1 Illustrations, list, xiii
Gamma radiation, 4-18 Impact
Gap and barrier, 3-4,3-6,7-5, 12-10, initiation, 2-21,4- 12
12-17 sensitivity, 2-2 1, 3-4, 4-3, 4-9
Gas simulation, 4-1,4-12, 12-9
law, 2-12 values of explosives, 4-3
transmission, 2- 19 vulnerability test, 12-10
volume, 10-15 Inert simulant, 8—6
Gasless delay compositions, 6-5 Initiation
Glossary, G— 1 by cook-off, 4-6
Graphite film bridge, 2- 18, 5- 15, 5-26 by heat, 2-3,2-17,5-8
Grouping of initiator types, 5-3 by impact, 2-21,4-12
Growth of detonation, 2-7 by other means, 2-23
Gurney constant, 3-14 by stray energy, 1 — 13
effectiveness, 3- 1
Hazard classification, 11-2, 11—3, 11-5 electric, 2—17
HEAT ammunition, 8-2 general, 2-15, 3-1
Heat propagation, 3 - 1
initiation, 2-3, 2— 15, 2— 17 sensitivity, 2- 18, 2- 22, 3-3,4-3, 4-9,
of combustion, 10-15 5-6, 6-4, 7-4, 8-6, 10- 14, 12-9
of explosion, 5-2 1, 10-15 threshold conditions, 2—15
transfer, 2—5 Initiator. See: specific explosive charge
HEP ammunition, 8-2 Input characteristics, 2-3, 5-6, 12- 16
High explosive Irradiation, 4- 17
ammunition, 8- 1 Isostatic pressing, 10-11
material, 1-4,2-7, 2 13,2-24, 3-6,
4-2, 4-11, 5-14, 5-19, 7-2, 8-6, Journal articles of the JANAF Fuze
9-2, 12-8, 12-20 Committee, R—2
train, 1—2
High order detonation, 2-6 Laser initiation, 2-26
High temperature effect, 4-2 Large-scale gap test, 3-4, 12-10
High temperature explosive, 4-4 Lead
Hopkinson bar test, 12—19 construction, 7—10
Hot gas transmission, 2-19 description, 7-1
Hot particle transmission, 2-20 design, 7-4
Hot pressing, 10-10 explosive, 7-2
Hot spot theory of initiation, 2-3 function, 7—1

1-3
AMCP 706-179

INDEX (Con't.)

Lead (continued) Munroe effect, 3 — 17

loading, 7 — 9
output, 7—8 Normit procedure, 12—8
Lead azide, 2-7, 2-26, 4-1 1, 5-19,5-21,
10-15 Obturated delay, 6-1,6- 10
Lead disk test, 12-18 Optimization, 12—6
Lead styphnate, 2—7 Out-of-line safety, 1-12, 1-14
Lethality of fragments, 3-15 Output, 3-8, 5-1 6, 6-3, 7-8, 8-4, 9-2,
Lightning, 1 — 13 10-14, 12-13, 12-18
Line wave generator, 3—12
Liquid explosive, 10—4 Packing, 11—1
Loading Particle
density, 2-8, 2-14, 2-22, 3-5, 5-7, size, 2—7, 6—9
'5-23, 6-3, 6-9, 7-7, 10-7 transmission, 2—20
operation, 5-23,6-9,7-9,8-5, 10-1 velocity, 2— 13
process selection, 10—1 Pellet casting, 10—3
Location-of explosive with respect to target, Pelletizing, 10-9
1-12 Percussion initiation, 2—22, 5 — 7, 6— 1
Logit procedure, 12—8 Percussion primer, 5-2,5—7, 5 — 24, 12—16
Lot-to-lot variation, 3 — 5 Picatinny Arsenal impact test, 12—9
Low explosive Piston motor, 9-1, 12-21
ammunition, 8 — 1 Plastic-bonded explosive,7—2, 8—5
material, 1-4,6-3,9-2, 12-20 Plate dent test, 12-15
order detonation, 2—6 Plug for electric initiator, 5 — 25
train, 1—2 Porosity of cast charge, 10—2
Low temperature effect, 4—10 Press blow, 5 — 23
Lucite gap test, 3—8 Pressing, 5-23, 10-4
Pressure, 2 — 6, 6 — 5. See also: Detonation
Mach number, 1—8 pressure
Machining, 10-12 Primary high explosive, 1—4,2 7, 4-5, 4- 12
Main bursting charge, 1—13,8—1 Primer
MDC, 3-12,9-5 construction and fabrication, 5—1, 5 —22
Mechanical aspects, 1—11 design problem, 5 — 12
Mechanical output, 12—21 function, 5—1
Mechanical initiator. See: specific explosive output, 5-16, 12-20
charge packing, 11 — 2
Melting, 4-8 pellet, 4-16
Melting point, 10-15 selection, 5—4
Mild detonating cord, 3— 12, 9—5 Priming composition, 5—7
Military Principles, 1—1
environment, 4—2 Probit procedure, 12 — 8
requirements, 4— 1 Projectile, 8—1
Specifications, R—3 Projectile preparation, 10 — 1
Standard tests, 12—21 Propagation of detonation, 3 — 1
Mine, 8-1 Punching and trimming of cups, 5 — 22
Mini-detonator, 5 — 3,5 — 22 Purpose, 1—1
Misaligned charge, 3 —7, 7— 10 Pyroswitch, 9—1
Moisture effect, 6-4,6- 10 Pyrotechnic ammunition, 8—2

1-4
 AMCP 708-179

INDEX (CorTt.)

Quality assurance, 10—16 Sideways acceleration, 4- 14

Quantity-distance table, 11—4 Simulation of aerodynamic heating, 4-8
Simulation of impact, 4—12
Rail transport, 11—6 Slurry, 8-5, 10 4
Ramming, 4—14 Small-scale gap test, 3 — 4. 12—10
Reaction Smoke mixture, 8—4
establishing self-propagating rate, 2—15 Sound velocity, 2— 10
kinetics, 2—2 Spark gap electric initiator, 5—15, 5 —26
rate, 2—2 Spit-back system, 7—9
Reconsolidation, 10-10 Spontaneous detonation, 2—26
References, 1-16,2-27,3-18,4-17,5 -27, Spotting charge, 5 — 26
6-1 1,7-13,8-8,9-7, 10-18, 11-6, Spurious electrical signal, 1-13,4—16
12-22,R-1 Squib, 5-3, 5-15
Relay, 5-2 Stab initiation, 2-21, 5—6, 6—1
Reliability, 1-14, 12-1, 12-4 Stab initiator, 4-8, 5-2, 5 -6, 5-24, 12- 16
Resistivity of wire bridge, 5—10 Stability, 12-16
Response time, 5—11 Stagnation temperature, 1 — 8,2—10
RF energy, 1-13,4-16,5-25 Staircase technique, 12-7
Rifle bullet test, 4-4, 4-12 Standardization, 1—15
Ring delay, 6—2 Static detonator safety test, 12—22
Rocket propellant, 2—6, 4— 1 Static electricity, 1- 13,2-24,4-3,4-16
Statistical test method, 12—1, 12—6
Safety, 1-12, 1-14, 11-2, 12-1 Steel dent test, 12-19
Safing and arming device, 1—12 Stop and pressure loading, 10—6
Sandtest, 12-18 Storage at high temperature, 4- 2
Sealed delay, 6-1,6-10 Storing, 11-3
Sealing disk, 5—6 Streak camera record, 3-1
Secondary high explosive, 1-4, 2-7, 2 13, Strength of explosive, 1—10
2-24, 3-6, 4-2, 4-1 1, 5--14, 5-19, 7-2, Structural aspects, 1—10
8-4, 9 2, 12-20 Suitability, 10-13
Seismic wave, 3—17 Surveillance environment, 4—2
Sensitivity test, 2-21,3-3, 10-14, 12-9 Switch, 9-1
Sensitivity to initiation, 2-18, 2-22, 3-3, Symbols, list, xviii
4-3,4-9, 5-6, 6-4,7 4, 8-6, 10-14, Systems approach to ammunition, 1—7
12-9
Sensitization, 4—9 Tables, list, xvi
Setback acceleration, 1 -9, 4-4, 4- 14, 12-10 TBI, 2-26, 5-16
Setforward acceleration, 4—14 Temperature
Shaped charge, 3-17, 7—8 adiabatic compression, 2—20, 4—15
Sheet explosive, 9—6 cook-off, 4-6, 12-11
Shipping, 11-5,11-6 decomposition, 2—2
Shock effect, 1-7,4-2,4-9,6-4,6-8
temperature, 2—10 explosion, 2-2,2-21,4-3, 12-10
through a bulkhead, 2 — 26 high, 4-2
transducer, 12 — 20 ignition, 2-2,2-18
tube, 2-19 low, 4-10
velocity, 3-4, 3-11 military requirement, 4— 1
wave, 2-9, 3— 12 reaction rate effect, 2—2

1-5
AMCP 706-179

INDEX (Con't.)

Temperature (continued) Underground output effect, 3—17

sensitization, 4—9 Underwater output effect, 3—16, 12—15
shock,2—10
stagnation, 1 — 8,2—10
storage, 4—2 Vacuum
Test casting, 10—3
environment, 12—21 pressing, 10 — 10
evaluation considerations, 12 — 1 stability, 4-3, 12-16
explosive materials, 12—8 Varicomp technique, 12—18
input, 12—16 Vehicular aspects, 1 —7
output, 12-18 Vented delay, 6-2, 6-10
safety and reliability procedures, 12—1 Vibration, 4-16
statistical test methods, 12-6 Voltage sensitivity. 12 — 17
Thermal decomposition, 2— 1
Thermal detonability test, 12—13
Thermodynamic heat transfer, 2—5 Warhead fragmentation, 3—16
Thermogravimetric analysis, 12—12 Water detonation, 3—16
Through-bulkhead initiation, 2 — 26, 5—16 Water environment, 4—2
Transfer of detonation from one charge to Wave shaping, 3-12, 4-5, 4-9
another, 3-1, 12-18 Wax gap test, 3-12,4-3
Transition from deflagration to detonation, Wire bridge
2-1,2-6 bridging, 5 —25
Transmission of hot gas, 2—19 EBW, 2-24, 5-13,5-26
Transmission of hot particles, 2 — 20 initiation, 2—17
Trauzltest, 12-15 material, 5-10, 5-14
Truck transport, 1 1-6 separation, 4—5

1-6
(AMCRD-TV) AMT 706-179

FOR THE COMMANDER:

OFFICIAL: JOSEPH W. PEZDIRTZ

Major General, USA
Chief of Staff

JOHN LYCAS
Colonel, GS
Chief, HQ Admin Mgt Ofc

DISTRIBUTION:
Special
 ENGINEERING DESIGN HANDBOOKS
Available to AMC activities, CCD agencies, and Government agencies from Letterkenny Army Depot, Chambersburg, PA 17201.
Available to contractors and universities from National Tecrtrrrical Information Service (NTIS), Department of Coirmerce,
Springfield, VA 22151 (UNCLASSIFIED HANDBOOKS ONLY) .
No Title No.
AMCP 706- AMCP 706-
100 Design Guidance for Producibility "Helicopter Engineering, Part One, Preliminary
104 Value Engineering Desi gn
106 Elements of Armament Engineering, Part One, 202 "Helicopter Engineering Part Two, Detail Design
Sources o f Energy 203 Helicopter Engineering, Part Three, Qualifica-
107 Elements of Armament Engineering, Part Two, tion Assuracce
Ballistics 204 "Helicopter Performance Testing
108 Elements of Armament Engineering, Part Three, 205 "Timing Systems and Components
Weapon Systems and Components 210 Fuzes
109 Tables of the Cumulative Binomial Probabilities 211(C) FuZes, Proximity, Electrical, Part One (U)
110 Experimental Statistics, Section 1, Basic Con- 21Z(S) Fuzes, Proximity, Electrical, Part Two (U)
cepts and Analysis of Measurement Data 213(S) Fuzes, Proximity, Electrical, Part Three (U)
111 Experimental Statistics, Section 2, Analysis of 214{S) Fuzes, Proximity, Electrical, Part Four (U)
Enumerative and Classificatory Data 215(C) Fuzes, Proximity, Electrical, Part Five (U)
112 Experimental Statistics, Section 3, Planning 235 Hardening Weapon Systems Against RF Energy
and Analysis of Comparative Experiments 238 *Recoilless Rifle Weapon Systems
113 Experimental Statistics, Section 4, Special 239 "Small Arms Weapon Systems
Topics 240(S) Grenades (U)
114 ** Experimental Statistics, Section 5, Tables 242 Design for Control of Projectile Flight
115 Environmental Series, Part One, Basic Environ- Characteristics (REPLACES -246)
mental Concepts 244 Amnunition, Section 1, Artillery Ammunition—
116 "Environmental Series, Part Two,Natural General, with Table of Contents, Glossary,
Environmental Factors and Index f o r Series
120 Criteria for Environmental Control of Mobile 245(C) Ammunition, Section 2, Design for Terminal
Systems Effects (U)
121 Packaging and Pack Engineering 246 +Ammunition; Section 3, Design for Control of
123 Hydraulic Fluids Flight Characteristics (REPLACED BY -242)
125 ■ Electrical Wire and Cable 247 Ammunition, Section 4, Design for Projection
127 Infrared Military Systems, Part One 248 +Ammunition, Section 5, Inspection Aspects of
128(S) Infrared Military Systems, Part Two (U) Artillery Ammunition Design
130 Design for Air Transport and Airdrop of Materiel Ammunition. Section 6.. Manufacture of Metallic
132 'Maintenance Engineering Components of Artillery Ammunition
133 ♦Maintainability Enaineerina Theory and Practice 250 Guns--General
134 Maintainability Guide for Design 251 ** Muzzle Devices
135 Inventions, Patents, and Related Matters 252 Gun Tubes
136 « Servomechanisms, Section 1, Theory
Servomechanisms, Section 2, Measurement and
253
255
"Breech Mechanism Design
Spectral Characteristics of Muzzle Flash
137
Signal Converters 260 Automatic Weapons
138 ** Servomechanisms, Section 3, Amplification 270 "Propellant Actuated Devices
139 ■k-k Servomechanisms, Section 4, Power Elements and 280 Design of Aerodynamically Stabilized Free
System Design Rockets
Trajectories, Differential Effects, and Data 281 (SRD) Weapon System Effectiveness (U)
for Projectiles 282 + Propulsion and Propellants (REPLACED BY -285)
150 Interior Ballistics of Guns 283 Aerodynamics
160(S) Elements o f Terminal Ballistics, Part One, Kill 284(C) Trajectories (U)
Mechanisms and Vulnerability (U) 285 Elements of Aircraft and Missile Propulsion
161(S) Elements of Terminal Ballistics, Part Two, (REPLACES -282)
Collection and Analysis of Data Concerning 286 Structures
Targets (U) 290(C) Warheads—General (U)
162(SRD) Elements of Terminal Ballistics, Part Three, 291 Surface-to-Air Missiles. P^rt One.. System
Application to Missile and Space Targets (U) Integration
165 Liquid-Filled Projectile Design Surface-to-Air Missiles, Part Two, Weapon
170(S) Armor and Its Applications (U) Control
175 Solid Propellants. Part One 293 Surface-to-Air Missiles Part Three, Computers
176(C) Solid Propellants, Part Two (U) 294(S) Surface-to-Air Missiles, Part Four, Missile
177 Properties of Explosives of Military Interest Armament (U)
178(C) + Properties of Explosives of Military Interest, 295(S) Surface-to-Air Missiles Part Five, Counter-
Section 2 (U) (REPLACED BY -177) measures (U)
179 Explosive Trains 296 Surface-to-Air Missiles Part Six, Structures
180 Principles of Explosive Behavior and Power Sources
181 "Explosions in Air, Part One 297(S) Surface-to-Air Missiles Part Seven, Sample
1S2(S) "Explosions in Air, Part Two (U) Problem (U)
185 Military Pyrotechnics, Part One, Theory and 327 Fire Control Systems—General
Application 329 Fire Control Computing Systems
186 Military Pyrotechnics, Part Two, Safety, 331 Compensating Elements
Procedures and Glossary 335 (SRD) "Design Engineers' Nirclear Effects Manual,
187 Military Pyrotechnics, Part Three, Properties Volume I, Munitions and Weapon Systems (U)
of Materials Used in Pyrotechnic Compositions 336(5RD) "Design Engineers' Nuclear Effects Manual,
1ÖÖ "Military Pyrotechnics, Part Four, Design of Volume II, Electronic Systems and Logistical
Ammunition for Pyrotechnic Effects Systems (U)
189 Military Pyrotechnics, Part Five, Bibliography 337(SRD) "Design Engineers' Nuclear Effects Manual,
190 "Army Weapon System Analysis Volume III, Nuclear Environment (U)
191 System Analysis and Cost-Effectiveness 338(SRD) "Design Engineers' Nuclear Effects Manual,
195 "Development Guide for Reliability, Part One, Volume IV, Nuclear Effects (U)
Introduction, Background, and Planning for 340 Carriages and Mounts—General
Army Materiel Requirements 341 Cradles
196 "Development Guide for Reliability, Part Two, 342 Recoil Systems
Design for Reliability 343 Top Carriages
197 "Development Guide for Reliability, Part Three, 344 Bottom Carriages
Reliability Prediction 345 Equi 1 ibrators
198 "Development Guide for Reliability, Part Four, 346 Elevating Mechanisms
Reliability Measurement 347 Traversing Mechanisms
199 ♦Development Guide for Reliability, Part Five, 350 Wheeled Amphibians
Contracting for Reliability 355 The Automotive Assembly
2(JU "Development Guide for Reliability, Part Six, 356 Automotive Suspensions
Mathematical Appendix and Glossary 357 Automotive Bodies and Hulls
360 ♦Military Vehicle Electrical Systems
♦UNDER PREPAMTION--not available 445 Sabot Technology Engineering
**REVISION UNDER PREPARATION
+OBSOLETE—out of stock (continued)
No. Title
AMCP 706-
117 *Environmental Series, Part Three, Induced Environmental Factors
118 *Environmental Series, Part Four, Life Cycle Environments
119 *Environmental Series, Part Five, Glossary of Environmental Terms
124 ^Reliable Military Electronics
126(S) Vulnerability of Communication-Electronic (C-E) Systems to Electronic
Countermeasures (except Guided Missiles) (U)
12 9 *Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)
192 Computer Aided Design of Mechanical Systems
300 Fabric Design
361 *Military Vehicle Power Plant Cooling

ft U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1974 O - 540-808 (6929A)