Waste Water Quantity Estimation:
The flow of sanitary sewage alone in the absence of storms in dry
season is known as dry weather flow (DWF).
Quantity= Per capita sewage contributed per day x Population
Sanitary sewage is mostly the spent water of the community draining
into the sewer system. It has been observed that a small portion of
spent water is lost in evaporation, seepage in ground, leakage, etc.
Usually 80% of the water supply may be expected to reach the sewers.
Fluctuations in Dry Weather Flow
Since dry weather flow depends on the quantity of water used, and as
there are fluctuations in rate of water consumption, there will be
fluctuations in dry weather flow also. In general, it can be assumed
that (i) Maximum daily flow = 2 x average daily flow and (ii) Minimum
daily flow = 2/3 x (average daily flow).
Population Equivalent
Population equivalent is a parameter used in the conversion of
contribution of wastes from industrial establishments for accepting into
sanitary sewer systems. The strength of industrial sewage is, thus,
written as
Std. BOD5 = (Std. BOD5 of domestic sewage per person per day) x
(population equivalent)
Design Periods & Population Forecast
This quantity should be worked out with due provision for the
estimated requirements of the future . The future period for which a
provision is made in the water supply scheme is known as the des ign
period. It is suggested that the construction of sewage treatment
plant may be carried out in phases with an initial design period ranging
from 5 to 10 years excluding the construction period.
Design period is estimated based on the following:
• Useful life of the component, considering obsolescence, wear,
tear, etc.
• Expandability aspect.
• Anticipated rate of growth of population, including industrial,
commercial developments & migration-immigration.
• Available resources.
• Performance of the system during initial period.
Population forecasting methods:
The various methods adopted for estimating future populations are
Design of Sewers
The hydraulic design of sewers and drains, which means finding out their sections and
gradients, is generally carried out on the same lines as that of the water supply pipes.
However, there are two major differences between characteristics of flows in sewers and
water supply pipes. They are:
• The sewage contain particles in suspension, the heavier of which may settle down
at the bottom of the sewers, as and when the flow velocity reduces, resulting in
the clogging of sewers. To avoid silting of sewers, it is necessary that the sewer
pipes be laid at such a gradient, as to generate self cleansing velocities at
different possible discharges.
• The sewer pipes carry sewage as gravity conduits, and are therefore laid at a
continuous gradient in the downward direction upto the outfall point, from where
it will be lifted up, treated and disposed of.
Hazen-William's formula
U=0.85 C rH0.63S0.54
Manning's formula
U=1/n rH2/3S1/2
where, U= velocity, m/s; rH= hydraulic radius,m; S= slope, C= Hazen-William's
coefficient, and n = Manning's coefficient.
Darcy-Weisbach formula
hL=(fLU2)/(2gd)
Minimum Velocity
The flow velocity in the sewers should be such that the suspended materials in sewage
do not get silted up; i.e. the velocity should be such as to cause automatic self-cleansing
effect. The generation of such a minimum self cleansing velocity in the sewer, atleast
once a day, is important, because if certain deposition takes place and is not removed, it
will obstruct free flow, causing further deposition and finally leading to the complete
blocking of the sewer.
Maximum Velocity
The smooth interior surface of a sewer pipe gets scoured due to continuous abrasion
caused by the suspended solids present in sewage. It is, therefore, necessary to limit the
maximum velocity in the sewer pipe. This limiting or non-scouring velocity will mainly
depend upon the material of the sewer.
Effects of Flow Variation on Velocity in a Sewer
Due to variation in discharge, the depth of flow varies, and hence the hydraulic mean
depth (r) varies. Due to the change in the hydraulic mean depth, the flow velocity (which
depends directly on r2/3) gets affected from time to time. It is necessary to check the
sewer for maintaining a minimum velocity of about 0.45 m/s at the time of minimum
flow (assumed to be 1/3rd of average flow). The designer should also ensure that a
velocity of 0.9 m/s is developed atleast at the time of maximum flow and preferably
during the average flow periods also. Moreover, care should be taken to see that at the
time of maximum flow, the velocity generated does not exceed the scouring value.
Sewer Appurtenances
Sewer appurtenances are the various accessories on the sewerage system and are
necessary for the efficient operation of the system. They include man holes, lamp holes,
street inlets, catch basins, inverted siphons, and so on.
Man-holes: Man holes are the openings of either circular or rectangular in shape
constructed on the alignment of a sewer line to enable a person to enter the sewer for
inspection, cleaning and flushing. They serve as ventilators for sewers, by the provisions
of perforated man-hole covers. Also they facilitate the laying of sewer lines in convenient
length.
Man-holes are provided at all junctions of two or more sewers, whenever diameter of
sewer changes, whenever direction of sewer line changes and when sewers of different
elevations join together.
Special Man-holes:
Junction chambers: Man-hole constructed at the intersection of two large sewers.
Drop man-hole: When the difference in elevation of the invert levels of the incoming and
outgoing sewers of the man-hole is more than 60 cm, the interception is made by
dropping the incoming sewer vertically outside and then it is jointed to the man-hole
chamber.
Flushing man-holes: They are located at the head of a sewer to flush out the deposits in
the sewer with water.
Lamp-holes: Lamp holes are the openings constructed on the straight sewer lines
between two man-holes which are far apart and permit the insertion of a lamp into the
sewer to find out obstructions if any inside the sewers from the next man-hole.
Street inlets: Street inlets are the openings through which storm water is admitted and
conveyed to the storm sewer or combined sewer. The inlets are located by the sides of
pavement with maximum spacing of 30 m.
Catch Basins: Catch basins are small settling chambers of diameter 60 - 90 cm and 60 -
75 cm deep, which are constructed below the street inlets. They interrupt the velocity of
storm water entering through the inlets and allow grit, sand, debris and so on to settle in
the basin, instead of allowing them to enter into the sewers.
Inverted siphons: These are depressed portions of sewers, which flow full under
pressure more than the atmospheric pressure due to flow line being below the hydraulic
grade line. They are constructed when a sewer crosses a stream or deep cut or road or
railway line. To clean the siphon pipe sluice valve is opened, thus increasing the head
causing flow. Due to increased velocity deposits of siphon pipe are washed into the sump,
from where they are removed.
Pumping of Sewage
Pumping of sewage is required when it is not possible to have a gravitational flow for the
entire sewerage project.
Sufficient pumping capacity has to be provided to meet the peak flow, atleast 50% as
stand by.
Types of pumps :
1. Centrifugal pumps either axial, mixed and radial flow.
2. Pneumatic ejector pumps.
Water Treatment
The raw sewage must be treated before it is discharged into the river stream. The extent
of treatment required to be given depends not only upon the characteristics and quality of
the sewage but also upon the source of disposal, its quality and capacity to tolerate the
impurities present in the sewage effluents without itself getting potentially polluted.
Screening
A screen is a device with openings for removing bigger suspended or floating matter in
sewage which would otherwise damage equipment or interfere with satisfactory operation
of treatment units.
Types of Screens
Coarse Screens: Coarse screens also called racks, are usually bar screens, composed of
vertical or inclined bars spaced at equal intervals across a channel through which sewage
flows. Bar screens with relatively large openings of 75 to 150 mm are provided ahead of
pumps, while those ahead of sedimentation tanks have smaller openings of 50 mm. Bar
screens are usually hand cleaned and sometimes provided with mechanical devices.
These cleaning devices are rakes which periodically sweep the entire screen removing the
solids for further processing or disposal. Hand cleaned racks are set usually at an angle of
45° to the horizontal to increase the effective cleaning surface and also facilitate the
raking operations. Mechanical cleaned racks are generally erected almost vertically. Such
bar screens have openings 25% in excess of the cross section of the sewage channel.
Medium Screens: Medium screens have clear openings of 20 to 50 [Link] are usually
10 mm thick on the upstream side and taper slightly to the downstream side. The bars
used for screens are rectangular in cross section usually about 10 x 50 mm, placed with
larger dimension parallel to the flow.
Fine Screens: Fine screens are mechanically cleaned devices using perforated plates,
woven wire cloth or very closely spaced bars with clear openings of less than 20 mm.
Fine screens are not normally suitable for sewage because of clogging possibilities
Velocity
The velocity of flow ahead of and through the screen varies and affects its operation. The
lower the velocity through the screen, the greater is the amount of screenings that would
be removed from sewage. However, the lower the velocity, the greater would be the
amount of solids deposited in the channel. Hence, the design velocity should be such as
to permit 100% removal of material of certain size without undue depositions. Velocities
of 0.6 to 1.2 mps through the open area for the peak flows have been used
satisfactorily. Further, the velocity at low flows in the approach channel should not be
less than 0.3 mps to avoid deposition of solids.
Head loss
Head loss varies with the quantity and nature of screenings allowed to accumulate
between cleanings. The head loss created by a clean screen may be calculated by
considering the flow and the effective areas of screen openings, the latter being the sum
of the vertical projections of the openings. The head loss through clean flat bar screens is
calculated from the following formula:
h = 0.0729 (V2 - v2)
where, h = head loss in m
V = velocity through the screen in mps
v = velocity before the screen in mps
Another formula often used to determine the head loss through a bar rack is Kirschmer's
equation:
h =β (W/b)4/3 hv sinθ
where h = head loss,m
β = bar shape factor (2.42 for sharp edge rectangular bar, 1.83 for rectangular bar with
semicircle upstream, 1.79 for circular bar and 1.67 for rectangular bar with both u/s and
d/s face as semicircular).
W = maximum width of bar u/s of flow, m
b = minimum clear spacing between bars, m
hv = velocity head of flow approaching rack, m = v2/2g
θ = angle of inclination of rack with horizontal
The head loss through fine screen is given by
h = (1/2g) (Q/CA)
where, h = head loss, m
Q = discharge, m3/s
C = coefficient of discharge (typical value 0.6)
A = effective submerged open area, m2
The quantity of screenings depends on the nature of the wastewater and the screen
openings.
Equalization Tanks
The equalization tanks are provided (i) to balance fluctuating flows or concentrations, (ii)
to assist self neutralization, or (iii) to even out the effect of a periodic "slug" discharge
from a batch process.
Types of Equalization Tanks
Equalization tanks are generally of three types:
1. Flow through type
2. Intermittent flow type
3. Variable inflow/constant discharge type
The simple flow through type equalization tank is mainly useful in assisting self
neutralization or evening out of fluctuating concentrations, not for balancing of flows
since a flow through type tank once filled, gives output equal to input.
Flow balancing and self-neutralization are both achieved by using two tanks,
intermittently one after another. One tank is allowed to fill up after which it is checked
for pH (or any other parameter) and then allowed to empty out. The second tank goes
through a similar routine. Intermittent flow type tanks are economic for small flows
from industries.
When flows are large an equalization tank of such a size may have to be provided that
inflow can be variable while outflow is at a constant rate, generally by a [Link]
capacity required is determined from a plot of the cumulative inflow and a plot of the
constant rate outflow and measuring the gaps between the two plots. A factor of safety
may be applied if desired.
Generally, detention time vary from 2 to 8 hours but may be even 12 hours or more in
some cases. When larger detention times are required, the equalization unit is
sometimes provided in the form of facultative aerated lagoon.
Grit Chambers
Grit chambers are basin to remove the inorganic particles to prevent damage to the
pumps, and to prevent their accumulation in sludge digestors.
Types of Grit Chambers
Grit chambers are of two types: mechanically cleaned and manually cleaned. In
mechanically cleaned grit chamber, scraper blades collect the grit settled on the floor
of the grit chamber. The grit so collected is elevated to the ground level by several
mechanisms such as bucket elevators, jet pump and air lift. The grit washing
mechanisms are also of several designs most of which are agitation devices using either
water or air to produce washing action. Manually cleaned grit chambers should be
cleaned atleast once a week. The simplest method of cleaning is by means of shovel.
Aerated Grit Chamber
An aerated grit chamber consists of a standard spiral flow aeration tank provided with air
diffusion tubes placed on one side of the tank. The grit particles tend to settle down to
the bottom of the tank at rates dependant upon the particle size and the bottom velocity
of roll of the spiral flow, which in turn depends on the rate of air diffusion through
diffuser tubes and shape of aeration tank. The heavier particles settle down whereas the
lighter organic particles are carried with roll of the spiral motion.
Principle of Working of Grit Chamber
Grit chambers are nothing but like sedimentation tanks, designed to separate the
intended heavier inorganic materials (specific gravity about 2.65) and to pass forward the
lighter organic materials. Hence, the flow velocity should neither be too low as to cause
the settling of lighter organic matter, nor should it be too high as not to cause the
settlement of the silt and grit present in the sewage. This velocity is called "differential
sedimentation and differential scouring velocity". The scouring velocity determines the
optimum flow through velocity. This may be explained by the fact that the critical
velocity of flow 'vc' beyond which particles of a certain size and density once settled,
may
be again introduced into the stream of flow. It should always be less than the scouring
velocity of grit particles. The critical velocity of scour is given by Schield's formula:
V = 3 to 4.5 (g(Ss - 1)d)1/2
A horizontal velocity of flow of 15 to 30 cm/sec is used at peak flows. This same velocity
is to be maintained at all fluctuation of flow to ensure that only organic solids and not the
grit is scoured from the bottom.
adjeib
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1. A sutro weir in a channel of rectangular cross section, with free fall downstream of
the channel.
2. A parabolic shaped channel with a rectangular weir.
3. A rectangular shaped channel with a parshall flume at the end which would also
help easy flow measurement.
Design of Grit Chambers
Settling Velocity
The settling velocity of discrete particles can be determined using appropriate equation
depending upon Reynolds number.
• Stoke's law: v= g(Ss-1)d2
18υ
Stoke's law holds good for Reynolds number,Re below 1.
Re=vd/υ
For grit particles of specific gravity 2.65 and liquid temperature at 10°C,υ=1.01 x 10-
6m2/s. This corresponds to particles of size less than 0.1 mm.
• Transition law: The design of grit chamber is based on removal of grit particles
with minimum size of 0.15 mm and therefore Stoke's law is not applicable to
determine the settling velocity of grit particles for design purposes.
v2= 4g(ρp-ρ)d
3 C Dρ
where, CD= drag coefficient Transition flow conditions hold good for Reynolds
number,Re
between 1 and 1000. In this range CD can be approximated by
CD= 18.5 = 18.5
Re0.6
(vd/υ)0.6
Substituting the value of CD in settling velocity equation and simplifying, we get
v= [0.707(Ss-1)d1.6υ-0.6]0.714
Primary Sedimentation
Primary sedimentation in a municipal wastewater treatment plant is generally plain
sedimentation without the use of chemicals. In treating certain industrial
chemically aided sedimentation may be involved. In either case, it constitutesfloccul ent
settling, and the particles do not remain discrete as in the case of grit, but tend to
agglomerate or coagulate during settling. Thus, their diameter keeps increasing and
settlement proceeds at an over increasing velocity. Consequently, they trace a curved
profile.
The settling tank design in such cases depends on both surface loading anddetention
time.
Long tube settling tests can be performed in order to estimate specific value of surface
loading and detention time for desired efficiency of clarification for a given industrial
wastewater using recommended methods of testing. Scale-up factors used in this case
range from 1.25 to 1.75 for the overflow rate, and from 1.5 to 2.0 for detention time
when converting laboratory results to the prototype design.
For primary settling tanks treating municipal or domestic sewage, laboratory tests are
generally not necessary, and recommended design values given in table may be used.
Using an appropriate value of surface loading from table, the required tank area is
computed. Knowing the average depth, the detention time is then computed. Excessively
high detention time (longer than 2.5 h) must be avoided especially in warm climates
where anaerobicity can be quickly induced.
Classification of Micro organisms
[Link] Requirements: On the basis of chemical form of carbon required,
microorganisms are classified as
[Link]: organisms that use CO2 or HCO3- as their sole source of carbon.
[Link]: organisms that use carbon from organic compounds.
[Link] Requirements: On the basis of energy source required, microorganisms
are classified as
[Link]: organisms that use light as their energy source.
[Link]: organisms that employ oxidation-reduction reactions to
provide energy. They are further classified on the basis of chemical compounoxidized
(i.e., electron donor)
[Link]: Organisms that use complex organic molecules
as their electron donor.
[Link]: Organisms that use simple inorganic molecules
such as hydrogen sulfide or ammonia as their electron donor.
[Link] Range: On the basis of temperature range within which they can
proliferate, microorganisms are classified as
[Link]: organisms whose growth is optimum within 15 to 30°C.
[Link]: organisms whose growth is optimum within 30 to 45°C.
[Link]: organisms whose growth is optimum within 45 to 70°C.
[Link] Requirements: On the basis of oxygen requirement microorganisms are
classified as
[Link]: organisms that use molecular oxygen as electron acceptor.
[Link]: organisms that use some molecule other than molecular oxygen
as electron acceptor.
[Link] organisms : organisms that can use either molecular oxygen or
some other chemical compound as electron acceptor.
Growth Pattern of Micro organisms
When a small number of viable bacterial cells are placed in a close vessel containing
excessive food supply in a suitable environment, conditions are established in which
unrestricted growth takes place. However, growth of an organism do not go on
indefinitely, and after a characteristic size is reached, the cell divides due to hereditary
and internal limitations. The growth rate may follow a pattern similar to as shown in
figure:
Screening
A screen is a device with openings for removing bigger suspended or floating matter in
sewage which would otherwise damage equipment or interfere with satisfactory operation
of treatment units.
Types of Screens
Coarse Screens: Coarse screens also called racks, are usually bar screens, composed of
vertical or inclined bars spaced at equal intervals across a channel through which sewage
flows. Bar screens with relatively large openings of 75 to 150 mm are provided ahead of
pumps, while those ahead of sedimentation tanks have smaller openings of 50 mm.
Bar screens are usually hand cleaned and sometimes provided with mechanical devices.
These cleaning devices are rakes which periodically sweep the entire screen removing the
solids for further processing or disposal. Hand cleaned racks are set usually at an angle
of 45° to the horizontal to increase the effective cleaning surface and also facilitate the
raking operations. Mechanical cleaned racks are generally erected almost vertically. Such
bar screens have openings 25% in excess of the cross section of the sewage channel.
Medium Screens: Medium screens have clear openings of 20 to 50 [Link] are usually
10 mm thick on the upstream side and taper slightly to the downstream side. The bars
used for screens are rectangular in cross section usually about 10 x 50 mm, placed with
larger dimension parallel to the flow.
Fine Screens: Fine screens are mechanically cleaned devices using perforated plates,
woven wire cloth or very closely spaced bars with clear openings of less than 20 mm.
Fine screens are not normally suitable for sewage because of clogging possibilities.
Septic Tank
Septic tanks are horizontal continuous flow, small sedimentation tanks through which
sewage is allowed to flow slowly to enable the sewage solids to settle to the bottom of
the tank, where they are digested anaerobically. The tank is de-sludged at regular
intervals usually once every 1-5 years.
Cesspool
It is a pit excavated in soil with water tight lining and loose lining by stone or brick to
provide for leaching of wastewater by sides and the pit is covered. The leaching type is
suitable for porous soils. The capacity should not be less than one day's flow into the pit.
If all the water in a test pit of one meter diameter and 2 m deep, disappears in 24 hours,
such soil is best suitable for cesspools. The bottom of the cesspool must be well above
the ground water level. After sometime the sides of pit get clogged by the sewage solids,
reducing the leaching capacity. At overflow level, an outlet is provided to take-off
unleached liquid into a seepage pit. The settled matter is removed at intervals. Water
tight cesspools are cleaned every 6 months and their capacity must not be less than 70
l/person/month.
Seepage Pit
The seepage pit is needed to discharge the effluent of cesspool, aquaprivy, septic tank or
sullage from bathrooms and kitchens. The difference between seepage pit and cesspool is
that the seepage pit is completely filled up with stones. The fine suspended solids adhere
to the surface of stones and get decomposed by the zoogleal film, which are on the
stones and the effluent is leached into the side walls.
Activated Sludge Process
The most common suspended growth process used for municipal wastewater treatment is
the activated sludge process as shown in figure:
Activated sludge plant involves:
1. wastewater aeration in the presence of a microbial suspension,
2. solid-liquid separation following aeration,
3. discharge of clarified effluent,
4. wasting of excess biomass, and
5. return of remaining biomass to the aeration tank.
In activated sludge process wastewater containing organic matter is aerated in an
aeration basin in which micro-organisms metabolize the suspended and soluble organic
matter. Part of organic matter is synthesized into new cells and part is oxidized to CO2
and water to derive energy. In activated sludge systems the new cells formed in the
reaction are removed from the liquid stream in the form of a flocculent sludge in settling
tanks. A part of this settled biomass, described as activated sludge is returned to the
aeration tank and the remaining forms waste or excess sludge.
Activated Sludge Process Variables
The main variables of activated sludge process are the mixing regime, loading rate, and
the flow scheme.
Mixing Regime
Generally two types of mixing regimes are of major interest in activated sludge process:
plug flowand complete mixing. In the first one, the regime is characterized by orderly
water supply notes iit kanpur