LECTURE NOTES

Degree and Diploma Programs

For Environmental Health Science Students

Vector and Rodent Control

Aymere Awoke, Laikemariam Kassa

Haramaya University

In collaboration with the Ethiopia Public Health Training Initiative, The Carter Center,
the Ethiopia Ministry of Health, and the Ethiopia Ministry of Education

September 2006
 Funded under USAID Cooperative Agreement No. 663-A-00-00-0358-00.

Produced in collaboration with the Ethiopia Public Health Training Initiative, The Carter
Center, the Ethiopia Ministry of Health, and the Ethiopia Ministry of Education.

Important Guidelines for Printing and Photocopying

Limited permission is granted free of charge to print or photocopy all pages of this
publication for educational, not-for-profit use by health care workers, students or
faculty. All copies must retain all author credits and copyright notices included in the
original document. Under no circumstances is it permissible to sell or distribute on a
commercial basis, or to claim authorship of, copies of material reproduced from this
publication.

©2006 by Aymere Awoke, Laikemariam Kassa

All rights reserved. Except as expressly provided above, no part of this publication may
be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system,
without written permission of the author or authors.

This material is intended for educational use only by practicing health care workers or
students and faculty in a health care field.
 PREFACE
Certain species of arthropods and fresh water snails are responsible
for the transmission of some important diseases. In tropical countries
the largest groups of illnesses are probably vector borne. Similarly,
rodents and snails are also potential reservoirs for a number of
diseases besides their contribution economic to losses.

These vector borne diseases, however, could have through the

application of environmental modification methods.

This lecture note contains 13 chapters where the general feature, life
cycle, medical importance and appropriate prevention and control
strategies are touched with some practical examples and review
questions. In been prevented or controlled through the application of
vector control methods, particularly other words, it will guide the
reader to the subject matter of vector and rodent control by
presenting general information first and then specific diseases
transmitted by the vector and its control methods.

A lecture note on vector and rodents control was prepared in 2002

by Ato Solomon Tassew for Diploma environmental health students
by collecting the necessary information relevant to the course from
existing books, journals, and lecture materials. Now by putting similar
effort that material is reorganized and updated with the aim of
making it a sufficient reference material for degree Environmental
health science students. Comments of different instructors from
department of Environmental health, Faculty of health sciences,
Haramaya University were also incorporated which brought the
material to its present status.

i
Finally, it is hoped that this material will be important not only for
professionals who are engaged in public health work but also it
would be of a paramount importance to others who are interested in
public health work. Generally, Environmental health professionals
have the responsibility to plan and apply appropriate vector control
programs at community level to prevent diseases transmitted by
arthropods, rodents and snails through organized community
participation. To accomplish this responsibility this material is worth
helping.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This material was first prepared in 2002 by Ato Solomon Tassew for
Diploma environmental health students. It is based on the previous
lecture note that this material with wider content is made. Therefore
we express our warm gratitude to Ato Solomon Tassew.
We would also like to extend our deepest gratitude to The Carter
Center (EPHTI) for its financial and material support to realize the
preparation of this lecture note.

We are also grateful to all Carter Center-Ethiopia staffs, to staffs of

Haramaya University, Faculty of health science especially Ato
Tesfayie Gobena and Andualem Sitotaw who reviewed the material
with great courage. We also extend our appreciations to Ato
Yohannes Tesfaye (Defence unvesity college), Ato Ahmed
Mohammed (Jimma University), Ato Tesfaye Tilaye (Gondar
University) and Ato Alemayehu Woldecherkos ( Hawassa University)
who have critically reviewed and contributed a lot to bring this lecture
note in to this stage. Finally it is with great honour that we extend our
thank to Ato Sileshi Taye and Ato Teshome Regassa from MOH who
spent their precious time in reviewing this material and provide
valuable comments.

iii
 Table of Contents

Preface i
Acknowledgement iii
Table of Contents iv
List of Table ix
List of figure x
Abbreviations xii
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction 1
1.1 Existing problems 1
1.2 Definition of terms 7
1.3 Ways of vector borne disease
transmission 9
1.4 Insects of Public health Importance 10
1.5 Order Diptera 12
CHAPTER TWO
Family Culicidae (mosquitoes)
2.1 Introduction to the family Culicidae
(mosquitoes) 14
2.2 Anophelinae (Anopheles Mosquitoes) 24
[Link] Mosquittoes 42
2.3.1 Introduction 42
2.3.2 Culex Mosquitoes 43
2.3.3 Aedes Mosquitoes 51
2.3.4 Haemagogous Mosquitoes 61
2.3.5 Sabethes Mosquitoes 63

iv
 2.3.6 Mansonia Mosquitoes 64
2.3.7 Psorophora Mosquitoes 66
2.4 Control strategies for Mosquitoe 67
2.4.1 Mosquitoe Survey Techniques 67
2.4.2 Mosquito Abatement (Management) 71
CHAPTER THREE
Simulidae /Black Fly/ 84
3.1 Occurrences 84
3.2 Identification 85
3.3 Life cycle and Habits 88
3.4 Public health importance 94

3.5 Control 99
CHAPTER FOUR
Psychodidae / Sand Fly / 102
4.1 Sand flies (Phlebotomus and Lutzomyia
spp.) 102
4.2 Identification 103
4.3 Life history and habits 104
4.4 Public health importance of
phlebotamus sand fly 107
4.5 Control methods 114
CHAPTER FIVE
Glossinidae /Tsetse Fly / 117
5.1 Introduction 117
5.2 Identification 118

5.3 Life history and habits 119

5.4 Public health importance 120

v
 5.5 Control methods 129
CHAPTER SIX

Muscidae/ House Fly/ and Other Dipterans 132

6.1 Physical Characteristics 132

6.2 life cycle 136
6.3 Public health importance 138
6.4 Prevention and control 140
6.5 Recommended Control Measures 144
6.6 Other Diterans 147

CHAPTER SEVEN
Siphonaptera (Fleas) 151
7.1 Introduction 151
7.2 External Morphology 151
7.3 Life Cycle 152
7.4 Public health Importance 155
7.5 Tunga Penetrans 161
7.6 Control of Fleas 163
CHAPTER EIGHT
Anoplura/ Lice 169
8.1 Introduction 169
8.2 Public health Importance 172
8.3 Control of louse-borne diseases 175
8.4 Survey methods 178
CHAPTER NINE
Order Hemiptera / Bed Bugs/ 181

9.1 Introduction 181

vi
 9.2 Habitat 181
9.3 Life cycle 182
9.4 Medical importance 182
9.5 Control 182
CHAPTER TEN
Cockroaches / Blattaria / 184
10.1 Introduction Life Cycle 184
10.2 External Morphology 184
10.3 Life cycle 185
10.4 Medical Importance 185
10.5 Control 186
CHAPTER ELEVEN
Other Classes of Public Health Importance 188
11.1 Arachnida 188
11.2 Chilopoda 200
11.3 Diplopoda 201
11.4 Crustacean 202
CHAPTER TWELVE
Rodents 209
12.1 Identification 209
12.2 Investigation of rodent infestation 212
12.3 Diseases transmitted by rodents 213
12.4 Control Measures of Rats 214
CHAPTER THERTEEN
Control of Disease Vectors 215
13.1 Introduction 215
13.2 The insecticide era 217

vii
 13.3 Agriculture and vector-borne diseases 221
13.4 Integrated vector control 222
13.5 Research on community strategies for
vector control 230
13.6 Insecticides 235
13.7 Equipments for Insecticidal sprays
and safety measures 246
Glossary 258
Reference 261

viii
 LIST OF TABLES
page
Table 2.1. The following characters can determine the sex of a
Mosquito ................................................................ 23
Table 2.2 Differentiation of Anopheles larvae from Cullex Larvae23
Table 2.3 Differentiation of Adult Culex from adult Anopheles .. 23
Table 12.1 The field identification of the three murine rodents:
Rattus rattus, Rattus norvegicus and Mus musculus210
Table 13.1 Prevalence and distribution of some vector-borne
diseases of humans .............................................. 216

Table 16.2 some pesticides used in public health .................. 224

ix
 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 1.1: Vector born diseases transmission cycle ...................... 6

Fig. 2.1: Eggs of Anopheles mosquitoe ..................................... 18
Fig. 2.2: Larvae of culex mosquitoe ........................................... 19
Fig. 2.3: Pupae of mosquito Life cycle of Leishmania ................ 19
Fig. 2.4: Life cycle of mosquito ................................................. 20
Fig. 2.5: diagrammatic representation of the principal characters
separating various stages in the life cycle of anopheline
and culicine mosquitoes. ........................................... 22
Fig. 2.6: Approximate distribution of malarious regions ............ 30
Fig. 2.7: Life cycle of the malaria parasite ................................. 34
Fig. 2.8: Adult Aedes albopictus ................................................ 54
Fig. 2.9: Diagrammatic representation of the sylvatic, Rural and
urban transmission cycles of yellow fever in Africa. . 57
Fig. 2.10: Some of the breeding sites of mosquito .................... 80
Fig. 3.1: Adult Black fly ............................................................... 85
Fig. 3.2: Eyes of female and male black fly ............................... 87
Fig. 3.3: Larvae of black fly ........................................................ 92
Fig. 3.4: Life cycle of Onchocerca volvulus ................................ 97
Fig. 4.1: Adult Phlobotaminae sand fly..................................... 105
Fig. 4.2: Cutaneous leishmaniasis ........................................... 112
Fig. 4.3: Mucocutaneous leishmaniasis ................................... 113
Fig. 5.1: Adult Tsetse fly .......................................................... 119
Fig. 5.2: Transmission cycle of sleeping sickness .................. 126

Fig. 6.1: Egg, larvae, pupae and adult of common house fly ... 144

x
Fig.8.1 Adult human lice .......................................................... 170

Fig 8.2: life cycle of head lice .................................................. 171

Fig: 11.1: Life cycle of guinea worm ....................................... 203

Fig. 11.2: Life cycle of Schistosomes ...................................... 207

xi
 ABBREVATIONS

Ae: Aedes
An: Anopheles
APOC: African Program for Onchocerciasis Control
BHC: Benzene Hexa chloride
CHF: Common Housefly
CU: Culex
DDT: Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane
DNOC: Dinitro-ortho-Cresol
Glos: Glossina
IPM : Integrated Pest Management
Ma : Mansonia
M.L.C: Minimum Lower Concentration
OCP Oncoserciasis Control Program
Ph: Phelebotomus
Pla: plasmodium
Sim: Simulium
Spp. Species
Try: Trypanosoma
ULV: Ultra Low Volume
W.W: Water Wettable

xii
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

Learning Objective
At the end of this chapter, the student (the reader) will be able to: -
• List the different ways of vector borne disease transmission.
• Define relevant words like vector, arbo-virus, technical grade
insecticide, etc.
• Describe the roles of insects in the ecosystem.
• Describe the general features, medical importance and methods
of control of insects of public health importance under class
insecta.
• Describe the transmission cycle of onchocerciasis, filariasis,
yellow fever and malaria.
• Draw applicable control strategy for the diseases caused by
body louse and fleas.

1.1. Existing Problems of vectors

The relation ships of early humans to insects were similar to those

between insects and other primates and mammals. Insect parasites,
fed on humans, annoyed them and transmitted diseases among
them. In common with other mammals, humans have acquired host-
specific parasites, for instance, the head and body louse. Insects
also destroyed stored foods, shelters and articles made of wood,
plant fibers and animal hides. In turn, primitive peoples, sometimes

1
as a regular part of their diet ate insects. Honey was widely sought
in both the old and new worlds. Honeybees are native to the old
world and stingless bees produce honey in the tropics of the new
world.

With development of agriculture and cities, humans came in to

cooperation and conflict with insects. Despite the devastating effects
of some insects as destroyers of crops and wooden structures, and
as carriers of diseases, it is generally agreed that the majority of
insects are directly or indirectly beneficial to human society.

Since effective vaccines or drugs were not always available for the
prevention or treatments of these diseases, control of transmission
of the disease often rely on control of the vector. The discovery of
the insecticide Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane (DDT) was a major
breakthrough in the control of vector borne diseases. In the 1950s
and early 1960s, programs were organized in many countries which
attempted to control or eradicate the most important vector-borne
diseases by the large scale application of DDT. The objective was to
eradicate the diseases or to reduce transmission to such a low level
that control could be maintained through the general health care
facilities with out the need for additional control measures.

Initially these programs were largely successful and in some

countries it proved possible to reduce the vector control activities.
However, in most countries, success was short lived; often the
vectors developed the so called resistance to the pesticides in use,
creating a need for new and more expensive chemicals. This
situation, eventually led to a return to significant levels of disease

2
transmission. Permanent successes were mostly obtained where
environmental modification was carried out in order to prevent the
disease vectors from having breeding or resting place. Due to this
fact, many scholars are now advocating the importance of
environmental change as an effective and first line control strategy
for vector and rodent control.

Vector borne diseases are prevalent in the tropics and subtropics

and are relatively rare in temperate zones, although climate change
could create conditions suitable for outbreaks of diseases such as
Lyme disease, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, malaria, dengue
fever, and viral encephalitis in temperate regions. There are different
patterns of vector-borne disease occurrence. Parasitic and bacterial
diseases, such as malaria and Lyme disease, tend to produce a high
disease incidence but do not cause major epidemics. An exception
to this rule is plague, a bacterial disease that does cause outbreaks.
In contrast, many vector viral diseases, such as Yellow fever,
dengue, and Japanese encephalitis, commonly cause major
epidemics. There has been a world wide resurgence of vector-borne
diseases since the 1970s including malaria, dengue, Yellow fever,
louse-borne typhus, plague, leishmaniasis, sleeping sickness, Lyme
disease, Japanese encephalitis, Rift Valley fever. Reasons for the
emergence or resurgence of vector-borne diseases include the
development of insecticide and drug resistance; decreased
resources for surveillance, prevention and control of vector borne
diseases; deterioration of the public health infrastructure required to
deal with these diseases; unprecedented population growth;
uncontrolled urbanization; changes in agricultural practices;

3
deforestation; and increased travel.

Therefore, control methods generally focus on targeting the

arthropod vector. These include undertaking personal protective
measures by establishing physical barriers such as house screens
and bed nets; wearing appropriate clothing (boots, apparel that
overlap the upper garments, head nets, etc.); and using insect
repellents. Environmental modification to eliminate specific breeding
areas or chemical and biological control measures to kill arthropod
larvae or adults may also b e undertaken. Areas such as ports and
airports should be rigidly monitored, with control measures utilized to
prevent important arthropod disease vectors from entering the
country. Some efforts to control vector borne diseases focus on the
pathogen. It is clear that people will always have to live with vector-
borne diseases, but maintenance of a strong public health
infrastructure and undertaking research activities directed at
improved means of control—possibly utilizing biological and genetic-
based strategies, combined with the development of new or
improved vaccines for diseases such as malaria, dengue and Lyme
disease—should lessen the threat to human health.
The field of medical entomology continues tomass more information
and to encompass more innovations, particularly regarding
procedures for control. Perhaps most important among recent trends
is the amalgamation of arthropod life history and behavior
information as well as awareness of problems with environmental
disruptions into the development of more holistic control schemes.
The control of insects and other pests has long been an important
aspect of public health in temperate and tropical parts of the world.

4
Many insects and other arthropods are of medical and veterinary
importance in that they either cause pathological conditions or
transmit pathogenic organisms to man or animals. The arthropods
involved may be causal agents themselves, developmental transfer
hosts, or vectors of pathogens. The study of these conditions
includes broad aspects of the biology and control of the offending
arthropods and recognition of the damage they do and the way that
they do it. The bearing of public and individual health and on the
health of domestic and wild animals is obvious. Both mental and
physical health, plus general comfort and well-being are concerned.
Insects are extremely successful animals and they affect many
aspects of our lives despite their small size. All kinds of natural and
modified ecosystems both terrestrial and aquatic support
communities of insects that present a bewildering variety of life
styles, forms and functions.

We should study insects for many reasons. Their ecologies are

highly diverse and often they dominate food chains and food webs in
biomass and species richness. Insect life cycles are adapted to a
variety of a biotic condition, including seasonal extremes of heat and
cold, wet and dry, and notably to unpredictable climate. In the
tropical countries the largest group of illnesses is probably insect-
borne, and it is important to know the habits of the insect vectors.
Similarly rodents contribute as potential reservoirs of a number of
important diseases besides their attribute to economic losses.
Therefore, knowledge of these vectors is of significant public health
importance.

5
 Fig.1.1 Vector born diseases transmission

Vector borne diseases are a heavy burden on human populations, a

major cause of work loss, and a serious impediment to economic
development and productivity. They require an intermediate living
agent for their transmission. Their epidemiology is influenced by
attributes of their vectors, which in turn are closely linked to
environmental conditions. Over the past decades, the increased
demands on the landscape for food and shelter and an increased
number of by-products of man’s living environment have led to
unparalleled changes. Some of these changes have led to an
increase in the distribution of several vector borne diseases,

6
including malaria.

The key to the success of arthropod-borne disease transmission lies

in the competence of vector efficiency. Whereas one vector species
may be extremely efficient in the transmission of a particular
pathogen, a closely related species may be totally incompetent as a
vector. Even within a single vector species, individuals and
populations vary dramatically in their competence to transmit a
particular pathogenic agent. The expression of vector competence
appears to be controlled, in part, by genetic factors involving multiple
genes. Environmental factors and behavioral patterns of vector and
human populations combine to provide favorable conditions for
malaria transmission. While much is known about vector biology,
behavior, and malaria parasites, the importance of human behavior
in malaria transmission has been largely overlooked. This failure to
consider community attitude and beliefs about malaria has
contributed to the inability of programs to achieve sustainable
control. An intimate knowledge of community attitudes, knowledge
and behavior can form the basis for appropriate planning of control
measures.

1.2 Definition of Terms

1. Arbo viruses: are viruses’ that are transmitted from one
vertebrate to the other by the help of mosquitoes and other
arthropods.
2. Biological vectors- are vectors that transmit disease pathogens
after the multiplication or development of the pathogen in the

7
 insect gut or muscle. E.g. malarial mosquito
3. Insecticides: are substances or an agent that kill insects or other
arthropods.
4. Insecticide formulation:- is the addition of substances ( solvent
or diluents ) which enable a given chemical insecticide to be
used to greatest advantage.
5. Mechanical vectors- are vectors that transmit pathogenic
Microorganisms without undertaking any developmental change.
E.g. common house fly
6. Medical Entomology:-This is a special phase of entomology and
parasitology which deals with arthropods which affect the health
and well-being of man and vertebrate animals. In other words
medical entomology is a medical science directly concerned with
vectors that affect human and animal health.
7. New World:-refers to Countries or regions in the Western
hemisphere.
8. Old World:- refers to the Eastern hemispher; the world of
Europe, Asia and Africa.
9. Rodents:- comprise a great number of mammals, ranging in size
from the rats and mice to as large as the Porcupines and which
belong to the order rodentia. In this course we are concerned
with the domestic rats and mice, which is one of the serious
health hazards in the community.
10. Technical grade insecticides: are an insecticides that exist in its
purest commercial form.
11. Vector(s):-In communicable disease terminology, vectors are
arthropods or other invertebrates which transmit infection by
inoculation into or through the skin or mucous membrane by

8
 biting or by deposit of infective materials on the skin or on food
or other objects.

1.3 Ways of Vector Borne Disease Transmission:

Generally there are three types of vector borne disease
transmission. Namely, Mechanical disease transmission, Biological
disease transmission, and hereditary disease transmission.
1. Mechanical disease transmission:- is a type of disease
transmission in which the vector is no more than a carrier that
transmit pathogens without any change either on the number or
form of disease pathogens. Example-Trachoma.

2. Biological disease transmission:

In this type of disease transmission certain developmental
pattern exists either in the vector or host or in both cases. It is
sub-divided in to

2.1. Propagative:
In propagative type of disease transmission only the number of
pathogens increases and the developmental stage remain constant.
The disease plague and typhus are a good examples of propagative
type of disease transmission.

2.2. Cyclo-developmental:
In this type of disease transmission only the developmental stage
(form) of the disease pathogen changed (small to big, immature to
matured stage, etc.) while the number of the pathogenic organism

9
remain constant.

2.3. Cyclo-propagative:
This type of disease transmission is a combination of both
propagative and cyclo-developmental where by the disease
pathogen under take a change both in number and developmental
form (stage). E.g. Malaria.

3. Transovarian(Hereditary)disease transmission:- is a type of

disease transmission where by the causative agent is
transmitted to the immature stage ( usually to egg ) from the
adult insects and / or other arthropods who carry disease
pathogens and when the infected egg complete its
developmental stage, it become infective or can transmit the
disease to man and other animals. Ticks are very good
examples of arthropods that exhibit hereditary disease
transmission.

1.4. Insects of Public Health Importance Introduction

Arthropod is the great phylum of invertebrate animals. They were the
first animal phylum to overcome the problems of locomotion,
respiration, and water conservation in a terrestrial environment. The
phylum comprises at least 85 per cent of all known species of
animals. All species under phylum arthropoda have the following
characteristics in common
• Bilaterally symmetrical body sub-divided into segments.
• Body covered with exoskeleton, which is made up of cuticle that

10
 contain chitin. (Nitrogenous polysaccharide). Chitin is a tough
and rigid substance made up of poly (N-acetyl)-D-glucosamine
(C15H20N2O10). It is water proof, parasite proof, shock proof and
do not dissolve with acids.
• Jointed appendages are present on some body segments.
(Wings, legs, antennae)
• Body cavity between the alimentary canal and the body wall.
• Open circulatory system that works by diffusion.
• Central ladder type of nervous system that work with ganglia.

The phylum arthropoda from public health point of view can be sub-
divided in to five important classes namely Insecta, Arachnida,
Diplopoda, Chilopoda and Crustacea.

Insects are the earth’s most varied organisms. Almost half (50.8 per
cent) of the species of living things and 72 per cent of all animals are
insects.

Of all the animal phyla, only the arthropods and the chordates have
succeeded extensively in adapting to life in dry air. Insects now
inhabit virtually all land surfaces of the globe except the extreme
polar regions and the highest mountain peaks.

Insects that feed on green plants are termed phytophagous. All parts
of green plants are attacked: roots, trunks, stems, twigs, leaves,
flowers, seeds, fruits, and sap in the vascular system. Insects that
kill other insects are termed entomophagous. Of these, the
predators kill their prey more or less immediately, while parasitoids
feed externally or internally in their host for some period before
finally killing it.

11
A typical adult insect has a segmented body with an external
skeleton, or exoskeleton, composed of chitin and protein. The
exoskeleton provides not only strong support and protection for the
body but also a large internal area for muscle attachments. Their
body is divided in to three main regions, head, thorax, and abdomen.
The head bears a pair of large compound eyes and as many as
three simple eyes, or ocelli, a pair of sensory antennae, and the
feeding appendages or mouth parts. The thorax is composed of
three segments, each bearing a pair of legs. The last two segments
may also bear a pair of wings. The abdomen is composed of no
more than 10 or 11 visible segments and lacks appendages except
for a pair of cerci and the reproductive external genitalia that may be
present near the tip of the anal opening.

Entomologist express as the orders of class insecta could reaches to

about 30. But the most common orders of insects are diptera,
anoplura, coleoptera, hemiptera, hymenoptera, lepidoptera,
orthoptera, siphonaptera, mallophaga, isoptera, homoptera and
odonata.

1.5 Order Diptera

All species under order diptera are fliers. Adult insects belonging to
the diptera have one pair of functional wings and undergo
holometabolous life cycle. The larva is different from adult in
structure, habitat, and food source. Generally there are more than
50,000 species of both biting and non-biting diptera and the majority
of which have no medical importance, but few of them are the most
important disease vectors. They are divided in to three sub families

12
based on their antennal structured. These are Nematocera,
Brachicera and Cyclorapha. Most of the families (including Culcidae,
Simulidae, Psycodidae, Glosinidae and Muscidae) which are
discuced in the concicative chapters are included under this order.

Review Questions

1. Write the three types of disease transmission and give a short

description for each.
2. Define the following terms or phrases.
A. Vector
B. Biological vector.
C. Arbo-virus.
D. Technical grade Insecticides.
3. Describe the burden of vector borne diseases on human
population.

13
 CHAPTER TWO
CULICIDAE (MOSQUITOES)

Learning objective
At the end of this chapter the reader will be able to
• Describe the general characteristics, medical importance,
lifecycle and control methods of mosquitoes.
• Discuss the mode of transmission of diseases that are
transmitted by Anopheles mosquitoes.
• Identify the different species of mosquitoes which are the
vectors of different diseases.
• Mention the control methods of Anopheles and other mosquitoes
• Identify the genera under culicinae mosquitoe
• Describe the medical importance of culex mosquitoe.
• Describe the general prevention and control methods.
• Discuss the techniques and steps of mosquitoe management

2.1 Introduction to the family Culicidae (mosquitoes)

2.1.1 Occurrence
Mosquitoes -have a world wide distribution. Mosquitoes are
notorious as proven vectors of some of the most devastating human
diseases. There is little need to document the impact on human
public health of malaria, yellow fever, filariasis, and several
mosquito-borne diseases of arboviral etiology. Rift Valley fever and
the equine encephalitis are important livestock diseases transmitted

14
by mosquitoes. Although over 2,500 species of mosquitoes have
been described worldwide in 18 genera and subgenera, those
species of greatest importance as vectors of pathogenic agents are
found in the genera Aedes, Culex, Anopheles, and Mansonia. They
belong to the class insecta, order diptera family Culicidae, which is
divided in to three subfamilies toxorhychitnae, anophilinae, culicinae
and 37 generas,and about 3454 species of mosquitoes, of which
about 100 are vectors of human diseases. The Anophelinae and the
culicinae are blood feeders but the third subfamily, the
toxorhynictinae, do not feed on blood and so do not concern in here.
The most important man biting belongs to the genera Anopheles,
Culex, Aedes, Mansonia, Hemagogus and Sabethes.

2.1.2 External morphology

Mosquitoes are one of the most important groups of biting dipterans,
which have:
• long slender body
• Long needle shaped piercing mouth parts.
• Scales on the thorax, legs, abdomen, and wings.
• Three pairs of long thin legs.
• one pair of functional wing
Mosquitoes are very small (3-6mm) with easily fragile physical
appearance, and they can be sexed by examining their antennae
(male-feathery, female-short, invisible).

They can be easily identified from other insects by

-Mouth parts –possession of a mouth part which is conspicuous

15
and forwardly projected proboscis
-The presence of scales on their abdomen, legs and thorax
- The presence of fringe of scales at the posterior margin of wings.

2.1.3 Blood feeding and Gonotrophic Cycle

Female mosquitoes are the one that bite and take a blood meal
After emerging from pupa they mate shortly and spermatozoa
passes from the male to the spermatica of the [Link] sperm is
enough to fertilize all the eggs that can be laid by the female through
out her life time thus only one mating and insemination per female is
required. After mating it is a must for a mosquito to have a blood
meal for the eggs to be matured. This is the normal procedure and is
referred to as anautogenous development. A few species, however;
can develop the first batch of eggs without a blood-meal. This
process is called autogenous development. After taking a blood
meal they have to take a rest for digestion and egg maturation. The
speed of digestion of the blood-meal depends on temperature and in
most tropical species takes only 2-3 days, but in colder, temperate
countries blood digestion may take as long as 7-14 days. Then the
matured eggs are oviposited at the appropriate place. Such a
repeated process of blood feeding then egg maturation followed by
oviposition through out the females life time is called Gonotrophic
cycle.

2.1.4 Life cycle

The mosquito has four distinct stages in its life cycle: egg, larva,
pupa, and adult. The adult is an active flying insect, while the larvae

16
and pupae are aquatic and occur only in water. Depending on the
species eggs are laid either on the surface of water or are deposited
on moist soil or other objects that will often be flooded. One method
of classifying mosquitoes, which is important in the control of the
larval stage, is by the type of habitat in which the eggs are laid.
Those species that lay eggs singly on the moist soil usually near the
edge of temporary pools of water are known as flood water
mosquitoes. These eggs only hatch after they have been flooded by
water. Psorophora, Aedes, and Ochlerotatus mosquitoes are
floodwater mosquitoes which are most abundant shortly after spring
rainfall. Those species that lay eggs on the surface of the water,
either clumped in rafts or as single floating eggs, are known as
permanent water mosquitoes. Anopheles, Culiseta, and Culex are
permanent water mosquitoes found. Floodwater mosquitoes are
usually pests in April and May, with permanent water mosquitoes
being problems later in the summer.

The females usually mate only once but produce eggs at intervals
through out their life. In order to be able to do so most female
mosquitoes require a blood meal. Male do not suck blood but feed
on plant juice.

The Eggs - Many species lay their eggs directly on the surface of
water either singly having a boat shape (Anopheles) or stuck
together in rafts (culex) which allow the eggs to float on the water
surface. Aedes lay their eggs just above the water line or on wet
mud: these eggs hatch only when flooded with water. The eggs of all
mosquitos’ species are not aquatic; hatching is affected by many

17
environmental factors especially by temperature.

Fig 2.1 Eggs of anopheles spp

In harsh environmental conditions eggs of Aedes spp can stay

weeks or months in the quiescent state before hatching by arresting
its embryonic development such state of quiescence is called
Diapause. There are environmental factors which stimulate the
diapause to be broken out; such factors include temperature,
decreased dissolved oxygen of the water body, and shortened day
length.
• The Larvae of mosquitoes are active in feeding and in moving.
They feed on yeast, bacteria, and small aquatic organisms. They
have a siphon located at the tip of the abdomen through which
air is taken in and come to the surface of water to breathe. They
dive to the bottom for short periods in order to feed or escape
danger. Anopheles larvae, which feed and breathe horizontally
at the surface, have a rudimentary siphon. Larvae of mansonai
do not need to come to the surface to breath since they can
obtain air by inserting the siphon in to a water plant. In warm

18
 climate larval period lasts about 4-7 days.

Fig 2.2 Larvae of culex

• Pupae: the fully grown larva changes in to a comma shaped

pupa which does not feed but spends most of its time at the
water surface. Unlike most insect pupae it is able to move.

Fig.2.3 pupae of mosquito

19
 Fig. 2.4 The life cycle of mosquitoe

• Adult behavior
The Knowledge of behaviour of mosquitoes governs the selection of
control methods.
Anopheles are active between sunset and sunrise, usually they
become active at twi-light.
The resting position of adult anopheles is angled or perpendicular
where as culex and aedes rest horizontally with the resting surface.

20
2.1.5 Feeding Habits
• Female mosquitoes feed on animals and humans.
• Most spp. Show a preference for certain animals or for humans.
• Mosquitoes are attracted by the body odors, carbon dioxide and
heat emitted from the animal or person

Mosquitoes that bite person to obtain blood meal are called

Anthropophagic and those that prefer feeding on non human are
called Zoophagic.
-The anthropophagic mosquito can be divided in to:
-endophagic- feed indoor
-exophagic-feed outdoor
-endophilic- rest in indoor
-exophilic- rest in outdoor

21
Fig.2.5 Diagrammatic representation of the principal
characters separating the various stages in the life cycle of
anopheline and culicine mosquitoes.

22
Table [Link] following characters can determine the sex of a
mosquito.

[Link] Character. Female Male

1. Proboscis Sharp Blunt
2. Bite Yes NO
3. Antennae Slender, thin and Thick, bushy and
sparsely haired. heavily haired.

Table 2.2 Differentiation of Anopheles larvae from Cullex Larvae

Sen. Character Anoph., larva Culex larva.

1. Siphon Short Longer
2. Body at rest. Parallel Vertical or an
angle to the
watersurface.
0
3. Head Rotates 180 Do not rotate
when feeding.
4. Float hairs Bushy Simple.

Table 2.3 Differentiation of Adult Culex from Adult Anopheles.

[Link]. Character. Adult Culex. Adult

Anopheles.
1. Palp Shorter than As long as
proboscis and not proboscis and
clubbed at the tip clubbed at the tip.

23
 2. Resting position Parallel Angled or
perpendicular.
3. Wing Not spotted Highly spotted
( clear) (marked)
4. Scutellum Tri-lobed One lobe.

2.2 Anophelinae (Anopheles Mosquitoes)

2.2.1 External Morphology of Anopheles
The main features distinguishing adults of the Anophelinae, and in
particular the genus Anopheles, from other mosquitoes have been
given previously, but a brief summary is presented here.

Most, but not all, Anopheles have spotted wings, that is the dark
and pale scales are arranged in small blocks or areas on the veins.
The number, length and arrangement of these dark and pale areas
differ considerably in different species and provide useful characters
for species identification. Unlike culicinae the dorsal and ventral
surfaces of the abdomen are about as long as the proboscis and in
males, but not females, they are enlarged (that is clubbed) apically.

2.2.2 Life Cycle of Anopheles

After mating and blood-feeding Anopheles lay some 50-200 small
brown or blackish boat-shaped eggs singly on the water surface. In
most anopheleses there is a pair of conspicuous lateral air-filled
chambers called the egg shaft. These floats help to keep the eggs
floating on the water surface. Anopheles eggs cannot withstand
desiccation and in tropical countries they hatch within 2-3 days, but

24
in colder temperate climates hatching may not occur until after about
2-3 weeks, the duration depending on temperature.

Anopheles larvae have a dark brown or blackish sclerotized head, a

roundish thorax with numerous simple and branched hairs and a
single pair of thoracic palmate hairs dorsally, which help to maintain
the larvae in a horizontal position at the water surface. On each side
just below and lateral to the spiracles is a sclerotized structure
bearing teeth some what resembling a comb and called the pecten.
At the end of the last abdominal segment are four sausage-shaped
transparent anal papillae, which have an osmoregulatory function.

As in all mosquitoes there are four larval instars in Anopheles larvae.

Anopheles larvae are filter-feeders and unless disturbed remain at
the water surface feeding on bacteria, yeasts, protozoa and other
micro-organisms and also breathing in air through their spiracles.
When feeding, larvae rotate their heads 1800 so that the ventrally
positioned mouth brushes can sweep the underside of the water
surface. Larvae are easily disturbed by shadows or vibrations and
respond by swimming quickly to the bottom of the water, they
resurface some seconds or minutes afterwards.

Anopheles’s larvae occur in many different types of large and more

or less permanent habitats raging from fresh and salt-water
marshes, mangrove swamps, grassy ditches, rice field’s, edges of
streams and rivers to pounds and borrow pits. They are also found
in small and often temporary breeding places like puddles, hoof
prints, wells, discarded tins and some-times in water-storage pots. A

25
few species occur in water-filled tree-holes. A few Anopheles breed
in water that collects in the leaf axils of epiphytic plants growing on
tree branches such as bromeliads, which somewhat resemble
pineapple plants. Some Anopheles prefer habitats with aquatic
vegetation, others favour habitats without vegetation. Some species
like exposed sunlight waters whereas others prefer more shaded
breeding places. In general, Anopheles prefers clean and unpolluted
waters and are usually absent from habitats that contain rotting
plants or are contaminated with faeces.

In tropical countries the larval period frequently lasts only about 7

days but in cooler climates the larval period may be about 2-4
weeks. In temperate areas some Anopheles overwinters as larvae
and consequently may live many months.

In the comma-shaped pupa the head and thorax are combined to

form the cephalothorax which has a pair of short trumpet-shaped
breathing tubes situated dorsally with broad openings. The
abdominal segments have numerous short setae and segments 2-7
or 3-7 have in addition distinct short peg-like spines. The last
segment terminates in a pair of oval paddles. Pupae normally
remain floating at the water surface with the aid of the pair of
palmate hairs on the cephalothorax but when disturbed they swim
vigorously down to the bottom with characteristic jerky movements.
The pupal period lasts 2-3 days in tropical countries but sometimes
as long as 1-2 weeks in cooler climates.

26
2.2.3 Adult Behaviour
Most Anopheleses are crepuscular or nocturnal in their activities.
Thus blood feeding and oviposition normally occur in the evenings,
at night or in the early mornings around sunrise. Some species such
as An. albmanus malaria vector in centeral and south America bite
people mainly outdoors (exophagic) from about sunset to 21.00
hours. In contrast in Africa species of the An. gambiae complex
which contains probably the world most efficient malaria vectors bite
mainly after 23.00 hours and mostly indoors (endophilic). As already
discussed previously the times of biting and whether adult
mosquitoes are exophagic or endophagic may be important in the
epidemiology of disease.

Both before and after blood-feeding some species will rest in houses
(endophilic) whereas others will rest outdoors (exophilic) in a variety
of natural shelters such as amongst vegetation, in rodent burrows, in
cracks and cervices in trees, under bridges, in termite mounds, in
caves and among rock fissures and cracks in the ground. Most
Anopeles species are not exclusively exophagic or endophagic,
exophilic or endophilic but exhibit mixture of these extremes of
behaviour. Similarly few anopheles feed exclusively on either
humans or non-humans most feed on both people and animals but
the degree of anthropophagism an important Indian malaria vector
commonly feeds on cattle as well as humans whereas in Africa
[Link] sensustricto( of the gambiae complex) feeds more
rarely on cattle and thus maintains as stronger mosquito-man
contact . This is one of the reasons why An. gambiae is a more

27
efficient malaria vector than An. Culicifacies.

2.2.4 Public Health Importance of Anopheles

mosquitoes
1. Biting Nuisance
Although Anopheles mosquitoes may not be disease vectors in an
area they may constitute a biting nuisance. Usually, however, it is
the culicine mosquitoes, especially Aedes and psorohora species
that cause biting problems.
2. Malaria
Introduction
Malaria is a serious vector-borne disease affecting a greater
proportion of the world’s population than any other vector-
transmitted diseases. Over 200 million cases of malaria occur every
year, and the number is increasing. Large areas of regions where
malaria had been controlled are now suffering again from this
significant public health problem.

In Ethiopia too, it is one of the leading causes of disease burden,

with 350 days lost per year per 1000 population. There are about 4-5
million clinical cases every year. Since 1994, malaria epidemic
continues to be reported from most regions of Ethiopia. The
increasing trend of epidemic has burdened the already inefficient
health services. Malaria accounts for nearly a quarter of all out
patient visit in health facilities. It is the second highest causes of
hospital admission accounting for 9.7%of all admissions and 3.1% of
hospital deaths in 1994/95. Over 70% of the Ethiopian land is

28
malarious and 60% of the population is living in this area.

The country has also experienced the worst malaria epidemic in

1958 with three million malaria cases and 150,000 deaths. Most
malarious areas were under inhabited, even though they had water
and potentially rich soil. Thus, it is understandable that malaria was
considered as the number one public health problem. In farmers,
malaria has contributed to economic failure.

This is because it diminishes the working capacity of those who are

not killed by the disease. Additionally, High transportation costs
render treatment very expensive. The increase in malaria
prevalence is determined by several factors such as mosquito
resistance to insecticides, parasite resistance to drugs, changes in
land-use patterns and reductions in funding and manpower
dedicated to control activities.

Distribution

Malaria exists in 100 countries but is mainly confined to poorer

tropical areas of Africa, Asia and Latin America. More than 90% of
malaria cases and the great majority of malaria deaths occur in
tropical Africa.

29
Causative agent

Single-celled protozoan parasites of the genus Plasmodium. Four

species infect humans by entering the bloodstream.

¾ P. falciparum: found throughout tropical Africa, Asia and

Latin America
¾ P. vivax: worldwide in tropical and some temperate zones
¾ P. ovale: mainly in tropical west Africa
¾ P. malariae: worldwide but very patchy distribution.

30
Plasmodium falciparum is the main cause of severe clinical malaria
and death.

Transmission of Malaria

Transmission of malaria is byInoculation via the bite of infected

bloodfeeding female mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles, which
transfer parasites from human to human.

Only mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles transmit the four parasites

that cause human malaria. Because the sexual cycle of the malaria
parasite occurs in the vector, it is conventional to call the mosquito
the definitive host, and humans where the Asexual cycle occurs are
the intermediate hosts.

Male and female malaria gametocytes are ingested by female

mosquitoes during blood feeding and pass to the mosquito’s
stomach where they undergo cyclical development that includes a
sexual cycle termed sporogony. Only gametocytes survive in the
mosquito’s stomach, all other blood forms of the malaria parasites
(The asexual forms) are destroyed. Male gametocytes
(microgametocytes) extrude flagella that are the male gametes
(microgametes) and the process is called exflagellation. The
microgametes break free and fertilize the female gamets
(macrogametes), which have formed from the macrogametocytes.
As a result of fertilization a zygote is formed which elongates to
become an ookinete. This penetrates the wall of the mosquito’s
stomach and reaches its outer membrane where it becomes

31
spherical and develops in to an oocyst. The nucleus of the oocyst
divides repeatedly to produce numerous spindle-shaped sporozoites
then the oocyst is fully grown (about 60-80-µm) it ruptures and
thousands of sporozoites are released in to the haemocoel of the
mosquito. The sporozoites are carried in the insect’s haemolymph to
all parts of the body but most penetrate the salivary glands. The
mosquito is now infective and sporozoites are inoculated into people
the next time the mosquito bites. It has been estimated that there
may be as many as 60, 000-70, 000 sporozoites in the salivary
glands of a vector although the number may be much less and very
few are injected into a person.

Oocysts can be seen on the stomach walls of vectors about four

days after an infective blood-meal, after about eight days they are
fully grown and rupture. Sporozoites are usually found in the salivary
glands after 9-12 days, by the time required for this cyclical
development (exogenous or extrinsic cycle) depends on both
temperature and plasmodium species. For example, at 24oc
sporogony in [Link] takes only nine days in [Link], 11 days in
p. malariae, 21 days at 26oc sporogony of P. ovale is completed in
15 days.

The sporozoite rate is the percentage of female vectors with

sporozoites in the salivary glands varies considerably not only from
species to species of mosquitoes but also according to locality and
season. Sporozoite rates are often about 1-5% in species such as
An. gambiae and [Link] of the An. gambiae complex but less
than 1% in many other species such as An albimanus and An

32
culicifacies .For practical purposes it can be said that once a vector
becomes infective it remains so throughout its life.

In humans, parasites multiply exponentially in the liver and then in

infected red blood cells. Mosquitoes ingest parasites with a blood
meal, the parasites undergoing another reproductive phase inside
the mosquito before being passed on to another human.

33
 Fig. 2.6 Life-cycle of Plasmodium

Symptoms

Malaria begins as a flu-like illness 8-30 days after infection.

Symptoms include fever (with or without other indications such as

34
headache, muscular aches and weakness, vomiting, diarrhoea,
cough). Typical cycles of fever, shaking chills and drenching sweats
may then develop. The periodicity of these cycles depends on the
species of parasite, coinciding with parasite multiplication and
destruction of Red Blood Cells (RBC), which also leads to anemia.
Falciparum malaria may not show this cyclic pattern and can be fatal
if untreated or treated with insufficiently effective drugs. Death may
be due to infected RBC blocking blood vessels supplying the brain
(cerebral malaria), or damage to other vital organs. In areas where
the disease is highly endemic, people are infected so frequently that
they develop a degree of acquired immunity and may become
asymptomatic carriers of infection. Epidemics are often associated
with non-immune people moving to highly endemic areas, where
they quickly succumb to infection. Epidemics and atypical increases
in malaria incidence have been increasing.

Common malaria vector species

An. Gambiae complex

The An. Gambiae complex contains six morphologically very similar
specie (An. gambiae, An. arabiensis, An. melas, An. merus, An.
quadriannulatus, An. bwanbae), that can be separated by banding
patterns of the polyten chromosomes found in half-gravid females
and fourth instar larvae. The species differ in certain aspects of their
biology, behaviour and distribution.

35
An. funestus
It breeds on more or less in permanent waters, especially with
vegetation such as marshes, edges of streams, rivers and ditches,
and rice fields with mature plants providing shade It prefers shaded
habitats. Bites humans predominantly, but also domestic animals:
feeds indoors and also outdoors: after feeding rests mainly indoors.

An. arabiensis
One of six species of the An. gambiae complex. It breeds on
ricefields, borrow pits and also temporary waters such as pools,
puddles hoofprints, only in sunlit habitats. Adults bite humans
indoors and out doors but also cattle, after feeding rests either
indoors or outdoors. Tends to occur in drier areas than does An.
gambiae, and is more likely to bite cattle and rest outdoors than An.
gambiae.

An. anthropophagus
Shaded pools and ponds, only rarely in rice fields are its common
breeding places. It bites humans indoors and mainly it rests indoors
after feeding.

An aquasalis
The common breeding sites are tidal salt-water marshes, lagoons,
salt-water regions of rivers, estuaries, rarely fresh water, sunlit or
shaded habitats. It bites humans and domestic animals indoors or
outdoors, rests mainly outdoors.

36
An albitarsis
Larvae breeds nearly always in sunlit ponds, large pools and
marshes with filamentous algae. The adult bites humans and
domestic animals almost indiscriminately, feeds outdoors and also
indoors, usually rests outdoors after feeding.

An. campestris
It breeds deep and usually shaded or partially shaded waters such
as ditches, well and shaded parts of ricefields, larvae also
sometimes in brackish waters. It bites humans and animals indoors
and out doors, substantial numbers rest indoors after feeding.

An. donaldi
Shaded habitats such as tree-covered swamps, forest pools, often
with vegetation, ricefields are the preferable breeding sites. They
bite domestic livestock but also feeds on humans inside or outsides
houses, rests mainly outdoors.

An. farauti
There are several morphologically similar species, known as An.
Farauti no 1. An. farauti no.2. and An. farauti no .3 etc and all are
species of the An. punctuates complex. Larvae of An. farauti usually
occur in semi permanent waters such as swamps, ponds, lagoons,
edges of slow-flowing streams, put also in puddles, hoof prints,
pools and man made containers, water may be fresh, slightly brakish
or even polluted and in sunlight or shade. Adults bite animals but
also humans indoors or outdoors and rest afterwards mainly

37
outdoors, but also indoors.

[Link]
It has become apparent that this species consists of at least two
separate buy morphologically similar species, namely An. freeborni
and An. hermsi. It seems that in the past malaria in colifornia was
transmitted by [Link] occurs in north-western Mexico and it, not
An freeborni, is the local malaria vector.
Larvae occur in ditches, irrigation ditches, polls seepages, mostly
with filamentous algae or floating or emergent vegetation, ricefields,
prefers sunlight. Bites animals and humans mainly outdoors but also
indoors rests [Link] winters as hibernating adults.

An. minimus
Water such as foothill streams, irrigation ditches, borropits and
ricefields are suitable breeding sites. It prefers shaded areas. Feeds
mainly on humans, but will bite domestics animals, feeds and rests
mainly in doors.

An. pharoensis
It breeds on marshes, ponds especially those with abundant grassy
or floating vegetation , also rice fields. Bites human and animals
indoors or outdoors, rests outdoors after feeding.

An sergentii
Borrow pits, rice fields, ditches, seepage waters, Slow-flowing
streams, sunlit or partially shaded habitats are suitable breeding
sites. Bites humans or animal indoors or outdoors, rests in houses

38
and caves after feeding.

An. Superpictus
They breed on flowing waters such as torrents of shallow water over
rocky streams, pools in rivers, muddy hill streams, vegetation may
be present, it prefers sunlight. It bites humans and animals indoors
and outdoors, after feeding rests mainly in houses and animals
shelters, but also in caves.

Prevention and control of Malaria

• Avoidance of mosquito bites and use of vector control measures to

reduce mosquito transmission, such as insecticide-impregnated
bed nets, spraying houses with residual insecticides.

• Environmental management to minimize potential mosquito

breeding sites or to make aquatic sites unsuitable for the
development of mosquito larvae.

When exposure is likely, use appropriate prophylactics drugs such

as chloroquine, chloroquine + proguanil, or mefloquine, doxycycline,
or sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine in areas where chloroquine-resistant
parasites are found. No prophylactic drug can guarantee full
protection. In endemic areas, malaria control relies on diagnosis and
prompt treatment of infected individuals based on clinical symptoms
and microscopic diagnosis, if possible. Suspected or confirmed
infections should be swiftly treated as life-threatening disease can
develop within hours of infection. Drugs effective against local
parasite populations must be used; the drug of choice will be

39
determined by the resistance pattern in the area where the infection
was contracted. Severe or cerebral malaria is fatal if untreated and
requires immediate hospital treatment, usually with injectable
quinine. Regular assessment of a country’s malaria situation is
necessary, allowing early detection, containment or prevention of
epidemics.

3. FILARIASIS
Filarial development in mosquitoes

Filarial development of Wucheriera .bancrofti and Burgia .malayi

within the mosquito vector, and the basic mode of transmission from
mosquito to humans is the same for all vectors. Basically, the life
cycle in the mosquito is as follows. Microfilariae ingested with the
blood-meal pass into the stomach of the mosquito (in some vectors
such as Anopheles many may be destroyed during their passage
through the oesophagus). Within a few minutes they exsheath,
penetrate the stomach wall and pass into the haemocoel, from
where they migrate to the thoracic muscles of the mosquito. In the
thorax the small larvae become more or less inactive, grow shorter
but considerably fatter and develop, after 2 days, into’ sausage-
shaped forms. They undergo two molts and the third stage larvae
become active, leave the muscles and migrate, through the head
and down the fleshy labium of the proboscis. This is the infective
stage and is formed some 10 days or more after the microfilaria has
been ingested with a blood-meal.

When the mosquito takes further blood-meals, infective (third-stage)

larvae 1.2-1.6 mm long rupture the skin of the labella of the labium

40
and crawl onto the surface of the host’s skin. Several infective larvae
may be liberated onto the skin when a vector is biting. However,
many of these small worms die. Only a few manage to find a skin
abrasion, sometimes the small lesion caused by the mosquito’s bite,
and thus enter the skin and pass to the lymphatic system. It should
be noted that the salivary glands are not involved in the transmission
of filariasis, and also that there is no multiplication or sexual cycle of
the parasites in the mosquito.

Infection rates of infective larvae in anopheline vectors vary

according to the mosquito species and local conditions, but they are
often about 0.1-5% for [Link] and about 0.1-3% for [Link].

There are no animal reservoirs of [Link], but the nocturnal

subperiodic form of B. malayi, transmitted by Mansonia mosquitoes,
is a zoonosis.

The presence of filarial worms in the thoracic muscles of

mosquitoes, or infective worms in the proboscis, does not
necessarily implicate mosquitoes as vectors of bancroftian or
brugian filariasis. This is because there are several other mosquito-
transmitted filariae. For example, various setaria species infecting
cattle, Dirofilaria, repens and Dirofilaria immitis infecting dogs, and
various other species of Brugia, such as B. patei in Africa and B.
pahangi in Asia infect animals but not people. Careful examination is
therefore essential to identify the filarial parasites found in
mosquitoes as those of [Link] or [Link].

41
Summery of the Control of Anopheles Mosquitoe ( see also on
mosquito abatement )
-Alteration of natural breeding sites
-filling
-draining
-Burnt oil application on the breeding areas
-Abate (Temphose)
-Bacterial larvicide – B. sphaericus and B. thurgensies
Biological control -Fishes-Gambusia
Adult
-personal protection measures
-repellents
-treated bed nets (pyrethroids)
-Application of insecticides
-DDT- 2gm. /m2
-Malathion

2.3 Culicinae Mosquittoes

2.3.1 Introduction
The subfamily culicinae contains 34 genera of mosquitoes, of which
the medically most important ones are Culex, Aedes, Psorophora,
Mansonia, Haemagogus and Sabethes. The genera Culex, Aedes
and Mansonia. are found in both temperate and tropical regions,
whereas psorophora species are found only in North, Central and
South America. Haemagogus and Sabethes mosquitoes are
restricted to Central and South America.
Certain Aedes mosquitoes are vectors of yellow fever in Africa, and
Aedes, Haemagogus and Sabethes are yellow fever vectors in

42
Central and South America. Aedes species are also vectors of the
classical and haemorrhagic forms of dengue. All six genera of
culicine mosquitoes mentioned here, as well as some others, can
transmit a variety of other arboviruses. Some Culex, Aedes and
Mansonia species are important vectors of filariasis (Wuchereria
bancrofti or Brugia malayi). Psorophora species are mainly pest
mosquitoes. It is not easy to give a reliable and non- technical guide
to the identification of the six most important culicine genera.
Nevertheless, characters that will usually separate these genera are
given below, together with notes on their biology.

2.3.2 Culex Mosquitoes

Distribution
They are found more or less world-wide, but they are absent from
the extreme northern parts of the temperate zones.
Eggs
The eggs are usually brown, long and cylindrical, laid upright on the
water surface and placed together to form an egg raft which can
comprise up to about 300 eggs. No glue or cement-like substance
binds the eggs to each other; adhesion is due to surface forces
holding the eggs together. Eggs of a few other mosquitoes, including
those of the genus Coquillettidia, are also deposited their eggs in
rafts.
Larvae
The siphon is often long and narrow but it may be short and fat.
There is always more than one pair of sub ventral tufts of hairs on
the siphon, none of which is near its base. These hair tufts may
consist of very few short and simple hairs which may be missed

43
unless larvae are carefully examined under a microscope.
Adults
Frequently, but not always, the thorax, legs and wing veins are
covered with somber-coloured, often brown, scales. The abdomen is
often covered with brown or blackish scales but some whitish scales
may occur on most segments. Adults are recognized more by their
lack of ornamentation than any striking diagnostic characters. The
tip of the abdomen of females is blunt. The claws of all tarsi are
simple and those of the hind tarsi are very small. Examination under
a microscope shows that all tarsi have a pair of small fleshy pluvial.

Biology
Eggs are laid in a great variety of aquatic habitats. Most culex
species breed in ground collections of water such as pools, puddles,
ditches, borrow pits and rice fields. Some lay eggs in man made
container-habitats such as tin cans, water receptacles, bottles and
storage tanks. Only a few species breed in tree-holes and even
fewer in leaf axils. The most important species, culex
quinquefasciatus which is a filariasis vector, breeds in waters
polluted with organic debris such as rotting vegetation, household
refuse and excreta.
Larvae of this vector species are commonly found in partially
blocked drains and ditches, soak-away pits, septic tanks and in
village pots, especially the abandoned ones in which water is
polluted and unfit for drinking. It is a mosquito that is associated with
urbanization, and towns with poor and inadequate drainage and
sanitation. Under these conditions its population increases rapidly.
Culex tritaeniorhynchus is an important vector of Japanese

44
encephalitis and breeds prolifically in rice fields and also in grassy
pools. In southern Asia larvae are common in fish ponds which have
had manure added to them.

Culex quinquefasciatus, and many other culex species, bite humans

and other hosts at night. Some species, such as, culex
quinquefasciatus commonly rests indoors both before and after
feeding, but they also shelter in outdoor resting places.

Public Health importance of Culex

1. Biting Nuisance

In several areas of the world a lot of money is spent on mosquito

control, not so much because mosquitoes are vectors of disease but
because they are such truoublesome bitters.

2. Lymphatic Filariasis

Lymphatic filariasis is rarely life-threatening. It causes widespread

and chronic suffering, disability, and social stigma. It can lead to
grotesquely swollen limbs - a condition known as elephantiasis.

Distribution
It is endemic in over 80 countries in Africa, Asia, South and Central
America and the Pacific Islands. More than 40% of all infected
people live in India and one-third live in Africa.

Causative agent
It is caused by parasitic nematode worms of the family filariidae.

45
Three species are of significance, Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia
malayi and Brugia timori.

Transmission
It is transmitted via the bite of blood-feeding female mosquitoes,
which transmit immature, larval forms of the parasitic worms from
human to human.
Culex quinquefasciatus mosquitoes and some species of Anopheles
mainly transmit Bancrofti parasites. Mansonia mosquitoes mainly
transmit Brugia parasites. In humans, adult worms can live for many
years, producing large numbers of larval forms (known as
microfilariae), which circulate in the lymphatics and blood where they
can be ingested by blood-feeding mosquitoes, so completing the
transmission cycle.

Forms
Both bancroftian and brugian filariasis occur in two distinct forms.
The nocturnal periodic forms in which the microfilariae are in the
peripheral blood only at night. it is transmitted by night –biting
mosquitoes such as Anopheles, Mansonia and Cl. quinquefasciatus.
During the day the microfilariae are in the blood vessels supplying
the lungs and are not available to be taken up by mosquitoes .In
subperiodic forms of W. bancrofti and [Link] the microfilariae
exhibit a reduced periodicity and are present in the peripheral blood
during the day as well as at night, but there nevertheless remains a
degree of periodicity . For example subperiodic W. bancrofti, such as
found in Polynesia has a small peak in microfilarial density during
the day time and can therefore be called diurnal subperodic,

46
whereas subperiodic [Link] in West Malaysia, Sumatra, Sabah,
Thailand, etc has a slight peak of microfilariae at night, and so can
be called nocturnal sub eriodic.

Bancroftian filariasis
Wuchereia bancrofti occurs throughout much of the tropics (central
and south America, Africa, Asia, Pacific areas) and also in
subtropical countries in the Middle East. It is the most widely
distributed filarial infection of humans. Bancroftian filariasis is
essentially an urban disease, there are no animal reservoirs and the
parasites develop in only mosquito and humans.

The nocturnal periodic form is transmitted by various anopheles

species and throughout much of its distribution also by culex
quinquefasciatus. This mosquito is wide poured in the tropics and
breeds mainly in waters polluted with human or animal feaces or
rotting vegetation and other filth; larvae are found in septic tanks,
cesspools, pit latrines, drain and ditches, and in water-storage jars if
they contain organically polluted water. It is mosquito that has
increased in number in many town due to rapid and increasing
urbanization and the resultant proliferation of in sanitary collections
of water. Adults bite at night and after feeding they often rest in
houses. Although Cx. quinqufasciatus is a good vector in most areas
of Africa, it is a poor vector in West Africa where most transmission
of bancroftian filarasis is by anopheline mosquitoes.
In New Guinea, mansonia uniformis and night- biting culex species
are also [Link] China, and formally Japan, Aedes togoi, which

47
breeds in rock-pools containing fresh or brackish water and in rain-
filled receptacles such as pots and cisterns, is also a vector of
nocturnal periodic bancroftian filariasis, although it is more usually
known as a vector of brugian Filariasis. Adults bite early in the
evening around sunset.
In the Philippines Ae. Poicilius is the most important vector. Adults
bite in the early part of the night, mainly in doors but also sometimes
outdoors. After feeding adults rest outdoors. Larvae occur in leaf
axils of banana, plantain and colocasia plants.
The diurnal subperiodic form occurs in the Polynesian region from
where the nocturnal periodic form is absent. The most important
vector is Ae. Polynesiensis, a day-biting mosquito which feeds
mostly outdoors but may enter houses to feed; adults rest almost
exclusively out of doors. Larvae occur in natural containers such as
split coconut shells, leaf bracts and crab-holes, and also in man
made containers such as discarded tins, pots, vehicle tyres and
canoes. Aedes Pseudoscutellaris is another out of doors day-biting
mosquito that is a vector of diurnal subperiodic [Link] in Fiji. It
breeds maninly in tree- holes and bamboo stumps but larvae are
also found in crab-holes. In New Caledonia Ae. Polynesiensis is
absent and the most important vector is Ae. Vigilax, adults of which
feed outdoors mainly during the day. Larvae are found in brackish or
freshwater in rock-pools and ground pools.
The nocturnal subperiodic form is found inThailand and is
transmitted by the [Link] group of mosquitoes. Adults bite and
rest outdoors, larvae are found mainly in [Link] should be noted
that although several Aedes mosquitoes are vectors of filariasis,
especially the bancroftian form, Ae. Aegypti, is not a vector of

48
lymphatic filariasis. Natural infection rates of mosquitoes with
infective larvae of [Link] range from about 0.5%, depending
greatly on vector species and local conditions.

There are three basic disease stages:

1. Asymptomatic: patients have hidden damage to the

lymphatic system and kidneys.
2. Acute: attacks of ‘filarial fever’ (pain and inflammation of
lymph nodes and ducts, often accompanied by fever,
nausea and vomiting) increase with severity of chronic
disease.
3. Chronic: may cause elephantiasis and hydrocoele (swelling
of the scrotum) in males or enlarged breasts in females.

Prevention and control

Transmission can be reduced by avoiding mosquito bites in endemic
areas (e.g. through use of repellents, bed nets, insecticides).
Mosquito vectors often breed in polluted urban waters (such as
blocked drains and sewers) so good sanitation and environmental
management to minimize mosquito breeding places can play a
major role in reducing the risk of the disease.

The global elimination strategy has two major components:

• Mass administration of drugs to 'at-risk' populations with once-a-

year, one-day treatment (to interrupt transmission).

49
• Promotion of rigorous, simple hygiene techniques for
lymphoedema (to alleviate and prevent suffering of affected
individuals).

Lymphatic filariasis is used to be treated with a 12-day treatment

regimen using the drug diethylcarbamazine (DEC), but recent work
has shown that a single dose of DEC is equally effective. Ivermectin
has also been registered for treatment of filariasis, and albendazole
was shown to have additional antifilarial effects.

The treatment strategy is now based on annual, single-dose, 2-drug

regimens of ivermectin+albendazole in countries that are co-
endemic for onchocerciasis, and of DEC+albendazole in all other
countries.

3. Encephalitis
This is an arthropod-borne viral infection that attacks the central
nervous system and causes inflammation of the brain. In the U.S.
there are three major kinds: Eastern, Western and St. Louis
encephalitis. These diseases are normally transmitted between
animal populations and occasionally to people. Culex tarsalis and
Cx. pipiens are two common encephalitis vectors. In Asia, a more
deadly disease called Japanese encephalitis is common and can
have a major impact on military operations if troops are not properly
protected.

50
2.3.3 Aedes Mosquitoes
Distributions
It has world-wide distribution; their range extends well into Northern
and Arctic areas where they can be vicious biters and serious pests
to people and livestock.

Biology
Although some Aedes species breed in marshes and ground pools,
including snow-melt pools in Arctic and sub arctic areas, many
especially tropical species, are found in natural or man made
container-habitats such as tree-holes bamboo stumps, leaf axils,
rock-pools, village pots, tin cans and tyres. For example Ae. aegypti
breeds in village pots and water – storage jars placed either inside
or outside houses. Larvae occur mainly in those with clean water
intended for drinking. In some areas [Link] also breeds in rock-
pools and tree-holes. Aedes africanus an African species involved in
the sylvatic transmission of yellow fever, breeds mainly in tree-holes
and bamboo stumps, whereas Ae. bromeliae, another African
yellow-fever vector, breeds almost exclusively in leaf axils,
especially those of banana plants, pineapples and coco-yams
(Colocasia).

Aedes albopectus which is a vector of dengue in South-east Asia,

breeds in natural and man made container-habitats such as tree-
holes water pots and vehicle tires. This species was introduced into
the USA in 1985 as dry, but viable eggs which had been oviposited
in tyres in Asia and then exported. .

51
Larvae of Ae. Polynesiensis occur in man made and natural
containers, especially split coconut shells, whereas larvae of Ae.
Pseudoscutellaris are found in tree-holes and bamboo stumps. Both
of these species are important vectors of diurnal subbperioldic
bancroftian filariasis. Aedes togoi, a vector of nocturnal periodic
bancroftian and burgian filariasis, breeds principally in rock-pools
containing fresh or brackish water.

The life cycle of Aeds Mosquitoes from eggs to adults can be rapid,
taking as little as about 7 days, but it more usually takes 10-12 days;
in temperate species the life cycle may last several weeks to many
months, and some species over winter as eggs or larvae.
Adults of most Aedes species bite mainly during the day or early
evening. Most biting occurs out of doors and adults usually rest out
of doors before and after feeding.

Eggs
Eggs are usually black, more or less ovoid in shape and are always
laid singly. Careful examination shows that the eggshell has a
distinctive mosaic pattern. Eggs are laid on damp substrates just
beyond the water line, such as on damp mud and leaf litter of pools,
on the damp walls of clay pots, rock-pools and tree-holes.

Aedes eggs can withstand desiccation, the intensity and duration of

which varies, but in many species they can remain dry, but viable,
for many months. When flooded, some eggs may hatch within a few
minutes, others of the same batch may require prolonged immersion
in water, thus hatching may be spread over several days or weeks.

52
Even when eggs are soaked for long periods some may fail to hatch
because they require several soakings followed by short periods of
desiccation before hatching can be induced. Even if environmental
conditions are favorable, eggs may be in a state of diapauses and
will not hatch until this resting period is terminated. Various stimuli
including reduction in the oxygen content of water, changes in day
length, and temperature may be required to break diapauses in
Aedes eggs.
Many Aedes species breed in small container- habitats (tree-holes,
plant axils, etc) which are susceptible to drying out, thus the ability of
eggs to withstand desiccation is clearly advantageous. Desiccation
and the ability of Aedes eggs to hatch in installments can create
problems with controlling the immature stages

Larvae
Aedes species usually have a short barrel-shaped siphon, and there
is only one pair of sub ventral tufts which never arise from less than
one-quarter of the distance from the base of the siphon. Additional
characters are at least three pairs of setae in the ventral brush, the
antennae are not greatly flattened and there are no enormous setae
on the thorax. These characters should separate Aedes larvae from
most of the culicine genera, but not unfortunately from larvae of
South American Haemagogus. In central and South America, Aedes
larvae can usually be distinguished from those of Haemagogus, by
possessing either larger or more strongly speculate antennae; also
the comb is not on a sclerotized plate as in some Haemagogus.

53
Adults
Many, but not all, Aedes adults have conspicuous patterns on the
thorax formed by black, white or silvery scales in some species
yellow. Scales are present. The legs often have black and white
rings. Aedes aegypti, often called the yellow fever mosquito, is
readily recognized by the lyre shaped silver markings on the lateral
edges of the scutum. Scales on the wing veins of Aedes mosquitoes
are narrow, and are usually more or less all black, except may be at
the base of the wing. In Aedes the abdomen is often covered with
black and white scales forming distinctive patterns, and in the female
it is pointed at the tip.

Fig 2.4.1 adult Aedes albopectus

Public Health importance of Aedes Mosquitoes

1. Yellow fever
Yellow fever is a zonoosis, essentially a disease of forest monkeys,
which occasionally transmitted to humans. It is an acute disease of
short duration which often causes death. The yellow fever virus

54
mainly occurs in population of monkeys in dense forests and the
disease is transmitted from monkey to monkey by forest dwelling
mosquitoes called Aedes africanus in Africa, heamagogus and
sabeths in south and central America
Yellow fever. is usually an acute and highly fatal viral disease
although it's occasionally only a mild infection. It probably originated
in Africa and was brought to the New World on slave ships. There
are two epidemiological types of the disease, urban and jungle
yellow fever. The same virus causes both types, but the mosquito
vectors and vertebrate hosts are quite different.
Aedes aegypti is the most common urban vector, but Ae. albopictus
is a potential vector in areas where it has become established.
Yellow fever is still common in South America.

Transmission
In Africa the yellow fever virus occurs in certain cercopithecid
monkeys inhabiting the forest and is transmitted amongst them
mainly by Aedes africanus. This is a forest-dewlling

mosquito that breeds in tree-holes and bites mainly in the forest

canopy soon after sunset –just in the right place at the right time to
bite monkeys going to sleep in the tree-tops. This sylvatic, forest or
monkey cycle, as it is sometimes called, maintains a reservoir in the
monkey population (Figure 2.4.2). In Africa, monkeys are little
affected by yellow fever, dying only occasionally. Some species of
monkeys involved in the forest cycle, such as the red-tailed guenon,
descend from the trees to steal bananas from farms at the edge of

55
the forest in this habitat, the monkeys get bitten by different
mosquito including Aedes bormeliae (formerly called Ae. Simpsoni).
This species bites during the day at the edges of forest and breeds
in leaf axils of bananas, plantains and other plants such as coco-
yams (Colocasia) and pineapples. If the monkeys have viraemia,
that is yellow fever virus circulating in their peripheral blood, Ae.
Bromeliae becomes infected, and if the mosquito lives long enough
it can transmit yellow fever to other monkeys or more importantly to
people. This transmission cycle, occurring in clearings at the edge of
the forest involving monkeys, Ae. Bromeliae, and humans, is
sometimes referred to as the rural cycle (Figure 2.4.2). When people
return to their villages they get bitten by different mosquitoes,
including Ae. Aegypti, a domestic species breeding mainly in man
made containers such as water-storage pots, abandoned tin cans
and vehicle tyres. If people have viraemia then Ae. aegypti becomes
infected and yellow fever is transmitted among human population by
this species. This is the urban cycle of yellow fever transmission (Fig
2.4.2)

It is possible for people to become infected in the forest by bites of

Ae. africanus, but the likelihood of humans acquiring yellow fever by
a canopy-feeding mosquito is not very high. There is increasing
evidence in West Africa that in rural areas other Aedes species
spread the virus from monkeys to people. The epidemiology of
yellow fever is complicated and variable. In some areas for example,
yellow fever may be circulating among the monkey population yet
rarely gets transmitted to humans because local vector mosquitoes
are predominantly zoophagic. Other primates in Africa such as bush-

56
babies (Galago species) may also be reservoirs of yellow fever.
There is some evidence from West Africa that yellow fever virus may
be trans-ovarially transmitted in Aedes species, as males have been
found infected with the virus.

Fig 2.4.2 Diagrammatic representation of the sylvatic, Rural and

urban transmission cycles of yellow fever in Africa.

57
Viraemia
The intrinsic incubation period of yellow fever in humans is about 4-5
days, usually a little less in monkeys. Thus, after 4 or 5 days the
virus appears in the peripheral blood, that is viraemia is produced,
and this occurs irrespectively of whether monkeys or humans are
showing overt symptoms of the disease. Viraemia lasts only 2-3
days, after which the virus disappears from the peripheral blood
never to return and the individual is immune. Monkeys and people
are therefore infective to mosquitoes for only about 2-3 days in their
entire lives. A relatively high titre of yellow fever (and also any other
arbovirus) is needed before it can pass across the gut cells of the
mosquito into the haemolymph, from where it invades many tissues
and organs, including the salivary glands, where virus multiplication
occurs.
This is the extrinsic cycle of development and can take 5-30 days,
depending on temperature, the type of virus and the mosquito
species, but in yellow fever, and most other mosquito-borne viral
infections, the incubation period is typically 12-15 days. A mosquito
must therefore live a sufficiently long time before it becomes
infective and capable of transmitting an arbovirus-or malaria or
filariasis.

2. Dengue fever
This viral disease is commonly called break bone fever. It is
characterized by a sudden high fever, severe headache, backache
and pain in the joints. Dengue is transmitted from person to person
by Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus. There are four strains or types

58
and at least one or all four are found throughout much of the world.
Recovering victims are generally immune to future infections, but
only from the strain they were infected with. Therefore, a person can
potentially experience all four different strains of dengue.

Important Species of Aedes

Aedes aegypti is a small dark species easily identified by the lyre-
shaped, silvery-white lines on the thorax and the white bands on the
tarsal segments. It is a vector of urban yellow fever and dengue, and
it is a pest when present in large numbers. Aedes aegypti is
essentially a tropical species, probably introduced into the Western
World from Africa. This is a thoroughly domesticated mosquito and
breeds almost exclusively in artificial containers in and around
human habitations. The females lay their eggs singly on the water
just at the margin, or on the sides of the container above the water
line. They prefer human blood to that of other animals and readily
enter homes to find suitable hosts. Aedes aegypti bites mainly in the
morning and late afternoon. It attacks quietly, preferring to bite
around the ankles, under shirt sleeves, or on the back of the neck.
Aedes sollicitans. This is the most important of the salt-marsh
mosquitoes since it transmits eastern equine encephalitis (EEE),
and is also one of the most severe pest mosquitoes known. Adults
can have a golden-brown color on top of the thorax and a
longitudinal stripe of white or yellowish-white scales on the
abdomen.
The proboscis and tarsi also have wide pale bands. Females lay
their eggs singly on the mud of salt marshes where they remain until

59
flooded by high tides or rains. Oviposition generally occurs in marsh
areas that are not covered by daily tides. They usually use pot holes
and depressions of various sizes, but they may also lay eggs over
rather extensive level areas. Eggs must stay dry at least 24 hours
before they can hatch. After having been dry for a week or two, they
will hatch in a few minutes when water covers them. Aedes
sollicitans adults are strong fliers and often migrate in large swarms
from marshes to cities and towns many miles away. They very
commonly fly 5-10 miles and may travel up to 40 miles or more.
Migratory flights begin just before dark and may include tremendous
numbers of mosquitoes. They rest among the grasses during the
day but will readily attack anyone who disturbs them.

Aedes nigromaculis. This is medium-sized dark mosquito with a

longitudinal line of yellowish-white scales on the upper surface of the
abdomen. It is an important pest mosquito throughout the western
plains. In recent years, it has attained prominence as a pest in the
irrigated pastures. The adult is a severe biter and attacks readily. It
will bite during the daytime, but is most active in the evening. It is a
strong flier and may migrate several miles from its breeding ground.

Aedes vexans (flood-water mosquito). Aedes vexans is a medium-

sized, brown mosquito with narrow rings of white scales on the hind
tarsi and a V-shaped notch on the middle of each band of scales on
top of the abdomen. It may be found in every state, and it's a major
pest in most of the northern U.S. Aedes vexans breeds in rain pools,
flood waters, roadside puddles, and practically all temporary bodies

60
of fresh water. Adults migrate long distances (5-10 miles) from their
breeding ground. They are vicious biters and are especially
annoying at dusk and after dark.

Aedes taeniorhynchus (black salt-marsh mosquito). The black

salt-marsh mosquito has cross bands of white scales on top of the
abdomen and white rings on the proboscis and tarsi. This is the
most abundant and troublesome salt-marsh species.

Aedes albopictus. (Tiger mosquito or Asian tiger mosquito). This

species was recently introduced into the continental U.S. from
Southeast Asia via used tires. As of 1991, it was established in 160
counties in 18 states. Aedes albopictus resembles Ae. aegypti
except that the lyre-shaped markings on the thorax are replaced by
a stripe of silvery-white scales. It's a forest-dwelling species and has
adapted itself to urban environments. it is found mainly in artificial
containers, especially tyres.

2.3.4 Haemagogus Mosquitoes

Distribution
Haemagogus is found only in Central and South America

Eggs
The eggs are usually black and ovoid and laid singly in tree-holes
and other natural container-habitats, occasionally in human-made
ones. There is no simple method of distainguishing eggs of
Haemagogus from those of Aedes or psorophora mosquitoes.

61
Larvae
Larvae have a single subventral tuft arising, as in Aedes larvae, not
less than a quarter of the distance from the base of the siphon. They
resemble Aedes larvae but can usually be separated by the
following combination of characters: antennae short and either
without, or with only very few, spicules, a ventral brush arising from
a sclerotized boss. In some species the comb teeth are at the edge
of a sclerotized plate, in Aedes this plate is absent.

Adults
Adults are very colourful and they can easily be recognized by the
presence of broad, flat and bright metallic blue, red, green or golden
coloured scales, covering the dorsal part of the thorax. Like
Sabethes mosquitoes they have exceptionally large anterior pronotal
thoracic lobes behind the head. Haemagogus adults are rather
similar to Sabethes in other respects, and it may be difficult for the
novice to separate these two genera. However, no Haemoagogus
mosquito has paddles on the legs, which is a conspicuous feature of
many, but not all, species of Sabethes.

Biology
Eggs can withstand desiccation. Larvae occur mostly in tree-holes
and bamboo stumps, but also in rock-pools, split coconut shells and
sometimes in assorted domestic containers. They are basically
forest mosquitoes. Adults bite during the day, but mostly in the tree
tops where they feed on monkeys. Under certain environmental
conditions, however, such as experienced at edges of forests, during
tree felling operations or during the dry season, they may descend to

62
the forest floor to bite humans and other hosts. Haemagogus
spegazzinii, Hg. Equines, Hg. Leucocelaenus (this species was
previously placed in the genus Aedes), Hg. Janthinomys and Hg.
Capricornii are all involved in yellow fever transmission in forest
areas.

2.3.5 Sabethes Mosquitoes

Distribution
Sabethes mosquitoes are found only in central and South America.

Eggs
Little is known about the eggs of Sabethes species, but it appears
that they are laid singly, have no prominent surface features such as
bosses or sculpturing and are incapable of withstanding desiccation.
The eggs of sabethes chloropterus, a species sometimes involved in
the sylvatic cycle of yellow fever, are rhomboid in shape and can
thus be readily identified from most other culicine eggs.

Larvae
The siphon has many hairs placed ventrally, laterally or dorsally, and
is relatively slender and moderately long. Sabethes larvae can
usually be distinguished from other mosquito larvae by having only
one Pair of setae in the ventral brush, the comb teeth arranged in a
single row, or at most with 3-4 detached teeth, and by the absence
of a pectin.

63
Adults
The dorsal surface of the thorax is covered with approessed
iridescent blue, green and red scales. The anterior pronotal lobes
are very large. Adults of many species have one or more pairs of
tarsi with conspicuous paddles composed of narrow scales. Their
presence immediately distinguishes sabethes from all other
mosquitoes. Species, which lack these paddles, resemble those of
Haemagogus and a specialist is required to identify them.

Biology
Larvae occur in tree-holes and bamboo stumps; a few species are
found in leaf axils of bromeliads and other plants. They are forest
mosquitoes. They bite during the day, mainly in the tree canopy, but
like Haemagogus adults, may descend to ground level at certain
times to bite humans and other hosts. Sabethes chloropterus has
been incriminated as a sylvan vector of yellow fever.

2.3.6 Mansonia Mosquitoes

Distribution
This is principally a genus of wet tropical areas, but a few species
occur in temperate regions.

Eggs
Eggs are dark brown-black and cylindrical, but have a tube-like
extension apically which is usually darker than the rest or the egg.
Eggs are laid in sticky compact masses, often arranged as a rosette,
which are glued to the undersurfaces of floating vegetation.

64
Larvae
Mansonia larvae are very easily recognized because they have
specialized siphons adapted for piercing aquatic plants to obtain air
The siphon tends to be conical with the apical part darker and
heavily sclerotized; the siphon has teeth and curved hairs which
enable the larva to attach to plants and insert its siphon. Pupae also
breathe through plants, by inserting their modified respiratory
trumpets into plants.

Adults
Typically adults have the legs, palps, wings and body covered with a
mixture of dark (usually brown) and pale (usually white or creamy)
scales giving the mosquito a rather dusty appearance. The speckled
pattern of dark and palescales on the wing veins gives the wings the
appearance of having been sprinkled with salt and pepper, and
provides a useful character for identification. Closer examination
shows that the scales on the wings are very broad and often
asymmetrical. In other mosquitoes these scales are longer and
narrower.

Biology
Eggs are glued to the undersurfaces of plants and hatch within a few
days; they are unable to withstand desiccation. All larval habitats
have aquatic vegetation, either rooted, such as grasses, rushes and
reeds or floating, such pistia stratiotes, Saluinia or Eichhornia.
Larvae consequently occur in armament collections or waters, such
as swamps, marshes, ponds, borrows grassy ditches, irrigation
canals and even in the middle of rivers if they we floating plants.

65
Larvae and pupae only detach themselves from plants and rise to
the surface of the water if they are disturbed. Because they are more
or less permanently attached to plants the immature stages, are
frequently missed in larval surveys. It is therefore not easy to identify
breeding places with certainty unless special collecting procedures
are undertaken, such as the collection of plants to which the
immature stages are thought to be attached. It is often difficult to
control breeding of Mansonia species by conventional insecticidal
applications, because of the problems of getting the insecticides to
the larvae, which may be some distance below the water surface.

Adults usually bite during the night, but a few species are day-biters.
After feeding most Mansonia rest out of doors, but a few species
rest indoors. The main medical importance of Mansonia mosquitoes
is as vectors of filariasis, such as nocturnal periodic and nocturnal
sub periodic forms of Brugia malayi in Asia. In Africa filariasis
([Link]) is not transmitted by Mansonia species, although they
can be vectors of a few, but not very important, arboviruses.

2.3.7 Psorophora Mosquitoes

The species under the genera psorophora are of minor medical
importance and are therefore only briefly described. Psorophora
mosquitoes are found only in the Americas, from Canada to South
America. They are similar in many respects to Aedes species. For
example, their eggs look like those of Aedes and they can withstand
desiccation, and a specialist is required to distinguish the larvae and
adults of the two genera. Breeding places are mainly flooded
pastures and sometimes rice fields; larvae of several species are

66
predators. Although they can be vectors of a few arboviruses, such
as Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis, their main importance is
as vicious biters; some pest species can be very large.

2.4 Control Strategies for Mosquitoes

2.4.1. Mosquito Survey Techniques.
The need for surveys: Whether pest managers are aligned with a
medical or engineering organization, it's essential to conduct
mosquito surveys to determine the species present, their
abundance, their potential as disease vectors, and to collect enough
information to base a pest management program on. Surveys should
be a continuing part of the pest management program to evaluate
the effectiveness of pest management actions. They will also help
determine the effectiveness of pest management actions and
anticipate increases or decreases in operations relative to changing
mosquito populations. To adequately conduct mosquito surveys, the
first thing needed is an adequate map Use it to become familiar with
the area, locate breeding places for all developmental stages of
mosquitoes and establish good sites for sampling stations.

A. Larval surveys. Larval surveys show the exact areas where

mosquitoes are breeding, so they have special value in guiding
mosquito management operations. Identify and mark the map for
regular larval dipping stations, then inspect them periodically
throughout the breeding season. Also, conduct random larval
samplings in the control area to check the effectiveness of larviciding
operations. Larval stations may be barrels, small pools, ditches,

67
drains, ponds or almost any type of water collection. If possible, use
a white enamel dipper to collect survey samples, then record
findings as the number of larvae per dip. Use large-mouth pipettes
or siphons to collect samples from small areas such as tree holes.
Return sample specimens to a laboratory for identification.
B. Adult surveys. Several methods are available to conduct adult
mosquito surveys, including traps and resting stations as well as
biting and/or landing rates. The methods used in a particular
situation will depend upon the habits of the species concerned. Use
a combination of methods whenever possible, particularly when
there are several species with different behavioral characteristics
present. In addition to the adult survey methods discussed below,
there are a number of special procedures occasionally used in
research or special disease survey programs.

(1) Light traps. The "New Jersey" light trap is a large, durable trap
that military forces have used for many years for adult mosquito
surveys. More recently, the CDC or Army light trap has replaced the
New Jersey design as the mosquito trap used on many military
installations, and it is a commonly used in field operations The Army
light trap functions very similarly to the New Jersey light trap, but is
collapsible. Both of these traps provide a relative index of
abundance for most species. Addition of carbon dioxide (as dry ice)
will greatly increase the efficiency of traps. Note that some
Anopheles and Aedes are poorly (or not at all) attracted to light, so
don't use light traps to collect them. Also, consistently use the same
type and size bulb to obtain a standard index for seasonal or locality
comparisons. Whenever possible, place light traps 6 feet above

68
ground where they are sheltered from wind as much as possible and
far away from other artificial light sources. Ideal locations are
between the installation and breeding areas. Operate traps 3-4
nights a week unless the main purpose is to detect uncommon
species. In this case, operate them every night. In either situation,
operate traps from dusk to dawn. Remove the contents as soon as
possible each morning following collections to avoid excessive
damage to specimens. Sort collections according to species and
sex, and record the numbers taken at each station. Average the
weekly index for several stations to give a composite index for a
particular area or installation. A commonly-used index is the number
of female mosquitoes caught per trap night; that is, the total number
of females of a species divided by the number of traps divided by the
number of nights operated. The weekly trap index is also useful to
plot a graph to show mosquito population changes resulting from
control measures on seasonal and annual variations. Rainfall and
temperature figures are useful to determine when to start or stop
control operations when such figures are plotted along with the trap
index for past years.

(2) Biting or landing rates. Collecting mosquitoes as they bite or

land on a person or animal is a simple way to determine the
important pest species and estimate their relative abundance.
Standardize the method used as to timing, the person or animal
used, and locations in order to make comparisons between the
biting rates which occur at different locations. Sample regular
stations at intervals of 1-2 weeks and collect mosquitoes with an
aspirator for a designated period of time (usually 10-15 minutes)

69
from a standard area such as the back or from both legs of the
subject. Then convert the number of each species collected to bites
per hour to obtain a standard index. When populations are very high,
this method is useful for a rapid check of mosquito abundance
before and after treatment but don't use it in areas where disease
transmission is known to exist unless the subject is adequately
protected from the potential of becoming infected

(3) Resting stations. Adults of many species are inactive during the
day; they're easily found resting quietly in cool, dark, and damp
places. Use a vial aspirator to make collections in houses, stables,
sheds, culverts, and similar shelters to get a good indication of
mosquitoes species in the area. To prepare a population density
index, conduct counts in a standard way for equal time periods so
records of one inspection will be comparable with those made at the
same station on other days.

(4) Animal bait stations. Animal bait stations are excellent devices
for collecting mosquitoes during disease outbreaks or for more long-
term research. These stations may be made large enough for a
horse or small enough for small caged animals such as raccoons.
Such devices can be made of cloth, but normally are best
constructed of wood. They should be constructed so mosquitoes can
enter through an opening on each side. Make these openings
somewhat funnel shaped with a much smaller opening on the
interior of the trap; this makes it easy for mosquitoes to enter, but
difficult to escape. The trap must have an opening large enough for
an individual to enter, close the door, and then collect resting adult

70
mosquitoes.

2.4.2. Mosquito Abatement (Management).

Introduction

Mosquito abatement methods may be either long term or temporary

programs directed against larvae or adults. Larvae management
includes using larvicides and eliminating breeding sources by
improving water drainage or using other methods of water
management. Managing adults may involve applying insecticidal
aerosols and sprays over infested areas, using residual sprays,
chemical barriers, and/or personal protection methods such as
screens, nets, and repellents.

A. Long-term methods. Long-term abatement methods focus

on controlling water where mosquitoes breed. Ditching, pumping,
filling and similar measures can take much time, labor and
equipment to give long-term results. Their high initial cost, both to
implement and to maintain equipment, must be weighed against the
cost of temporary measures, such as insecticide application, on a
scheduled and continuing basis, but results are much more effective
and permanent when conducted properly. Installations should not
begin such long-term measures without first obtaining assistance
from experienced entomologists.

(1) Stream and pond management:

(a) Improving natural draining. Shallow sluggish streams and
ponds containing plant growth provide excellent conditions for

71
mosquito breeding. Increase the water flow rate and reduce its
surface area to decrease mosquito breeding; this is often less
expensive than other methods. Obtain instruction from maintenance
engineers to plan and carry out this operation.

(b) Stream flushing. Where existing drainage control includes small

dams, it may be possible to use these systems for mosquito
abatement. To do this, periodically release collected water, either
manually or by automatic siphon, to flush the stream below the dam.
The stream must have sufficient capacity (with high banks) to
prevent the stream from flooding over its banks. This can be a very
effective means of abatement if it is possible to flush a stream more
often than it takes for the specific mosquito species breeding in it to
complete its aquatic development.

(c) Impounded water. Mosquito abatement in impounded water

depends on reservoir preparation, water level fluctuation and proper
shoreline maintenance. Clear reservoirs to provide clean water
surface after impoundment between maximum and minimum water
levels. Fill or alter depressions between minimum and maximum
water levels to drain during water level fluctuations of the lake or
pond. Accomplish winter impounding after the normal breeding
season ends. Lower the water level at intervals not to exceed 10
days to strand eggs, larvae and pupae at the margin, strand
protective debris, and expose larvae to predators. Changes to water
levels may involve a cyclical fluctuation, a seasonal recession, or a
combination of these methods. Shoreline drainage, removing and
burning driftwood, and controlling growth of shoreline vegetation

72
should all be a part of this action so water level fluctuation will not
cause an increased breeding area for another pest species.

(2) Managing aquatic vegetation. Aquatic vegetation protects

mosquito larvae and pupae protection from wave action and natural
enemies and, in some cases, may seriously interfere with larvicidal
applications on the water surface. If such vegetation is a serious
problem, its elimination becomes an essential part of mosquito
abatement. Either chemical or mechanical removal may be the
proper procedure, depending on the type of vegetation, size of area,
and how the water is used. Give consideration to soil erosion and
effects of any vegetation management techniques on fish and
wildlife.

(3) Coastal marshes. To manage mosquitoes in these areas, alter

the salt content of water in the marsh, or use dikes and tide gates
designed to control flooding. Planners need a thorough knowledge
of the species and habits of the mosquitoes present to effectively
conduct this type of management. Salt content in the water may
seriously affect or limit the breeding of some species. Opening
channels to let sea water enter breeding areas, or excluding sea
water to reduce salt content may measurably reduce mosquito
breeding.
Use tide gates to prevent salt water from leaking in natural water
courses or ditches. Two or more gates are sometimes used side by
side. Install break waters and spearheads to prevent sand from
blocking outfalls.

73
(4) Fish. Surface feeding fish are sometimes used as a
supplementary control measure against mosquito larvae. The most
useful are killifishes (Fundulus spp.) in salt water and top minnows
(Gambusia, Labistes and Panchax spp.) in fresh water. Of these,
Gambusia species are usually used. Remove marginal aquatic
plants to help fish catch mosquito larvae more easily.

(5) Pumping. Use pumps to drain water when the area to be

drained is at or below the water level of an adjacent body of water.
Several standing pools may be drained into one, and the water
pumped from this pool to the selected outfall.

(6) Filling and grading. Fill and grade shallow pools to prevent
mosquitoes from breeding in such places as beneath buildings, on
improved grounds, or beside roadways. Filling may reclaim valuable
land areas, as well as eliminate mosquito breeding. If hydraulic filling
is recommended, take care not to block natural drainage. Cracks
and low areas are likely to form as the fill settles, and will afford
breeding places when flooded; pest managers can effectively treat
these areas with mosquito larvicides.

(7) Ditching. Adequate ditching should remove water so ground

surfaces become dry and ditch levels return to normal within 4-7
days (depending on climate and species) after the ditch is filled by
heavy rainfall or irrigation. Soil texture, topography, vegetation,
rainfall, and water movement during tides in salt marshes are
important factors. In designing drainage systems, care is needed to
prevent creating mosquito breeding areas in new locations.

74
B. Temporary methods. Larvicides and adulticides are the
most important temporary mosquito abatement methods. Pest
managers should use such temporary measures to give immediate
relief from mosquitoes and when more permanent measures are
lacking or in planning. Temporary methods are often much less
costly than permanent measures and, in some instances, may be
used at less expense than permanent systems, provided they do not
adversely effect people or the environment. Also, it is often vital to
take such temporary methods to rapidly reduce disease vectors
during an arthropod-borne disease epidemic or during short-term
operations an endemic disease area.

(1) Larval management. To temporarily manage mosquito

breeding, treat water surfaces with insecticides, or eliminate small
water accumulations in temporary containers. Breeding areas
include most types of ground water accumulations, as well as
containers such as tin cans, cisterns, wells, reservoirs, fire barrels,
roof gutters, tires, catch basins, etc. All such water-holding
containers must be treated for effective management to be
achieved.
(a) Larviciding is done with many forms of pesticides. Solutions,
emulsions, suspensions, dusts or granules may be applied with
ground-operated equipment. Use granular formulations where a
heavy plant cover must be penetrated.
(b) Containers such as empty tin cans and old tires, in which
mosquitoes may breed, should be eliminated as much as possible.
Treat those that can not be eliminated with larvicide to prevent

75
breeding. Solicit the help of all people in the area to eliminate
temporary water containers.

(2) Adult control Adult mosquitoes are effectively controlled with

residual chemicals and space sprays. Adequately screening
occupied structures is also essential where mosquitoes occur.
(a) Indoors. Use space sprays to manage mosquitoes indoors
where immediate reduction is needed. These sprays have little or no
residual effect and must be reapplied whenever new mosquitoes
enter the area. Where frequent reentry is a problem, or where
disease-bearing species are present, apply residuals to all surfaces
where mosquitoes are likely to rest (unless otherwise prohibited,
such as in a food service area or hospital). Treat surfaces such as
door and window screens, walls, corners, chest interiors, etc.
Screens with apertures equivalent to 18 x 16 mesh are essential to
keep disease-bearing and pest mosquitoes, flies, and other insects
from entering buildings.
(b) Outdoors. Use Ultra Low Volume (ULV) space treatments to
manage adult mosquitoes outdoors. These treatments can't
completely eradicate mortality of mosquitoes in the target area, but
their repellent effects commonly give adequate protection for a day
or more. In areas where breeding is continuous or the population is
dominated by migratory species, ULV space sprays alone are
seldom satisfactory unless done on a repetitive basis. Such
repetitive treatments are usually very expensive and pose some risk
to people or the environment; avoid them except in the most unusual
conditions. When properly applied on a non-repetitive schedule, ULV
space treatments will leave a small residual deposit which is not

76
dangerous or unsightly. Exterior residual sprays have a limited value
in protecting single residences or small camps. For larger areas
where ULV treatments are not possible, apply a residual spray to
vegetation surfaces within a radius of 100 feet or more around the
site to protect people and kill mosquitoes resting in the vegetation.

C. Contingency considerations. Mosquitoes are generally

the most important arthropods managed in contingency operations
because of the number, types and distribution of diseases they
transmit. A historical review of all the conflicts fought in Asia, Africa,
Central America and South America clearly demonstrates the
adverse impact of these insects on peoples' ability to carry out their
battlefield or policing missions. These actions are essential to
effectively combat such mosquito-borne diseases:

(1) Individual protective measures. These are those measures all

people must take to protect themselves. People should use skin-
applied repellents, insect repellent mesh jackets, bed nets, limited
amounts of aerosol space sprays, and head nets in extreme cases.
For additional protection, they should wear the uniform properly with
sleeves down and buttoned and pants tucked into the boots. In
areas where malaria is endemic, preventive drug treatments
(chemoprophylaxis) should be started before deployment and rigidly
enforced as long as people are in the area and for a prescribed
period of time after leaving the area as directed by the command
surgeon or preventive medicine officer.

77
(2) Unit protective measures. In addition to the above individual
actions, a unit can carry out additional measures when it's
operational overseas or during contingency operations to reduce the
potential for arthropod-borne disease transmission. The main unit
effort should focus on training people in protective measures and
then strictly enforcing them, especially the regular use of malaria
chemoprophylaxis as directed by the command surgeon or
preventive medicine officer. Since Air Force and Navy units normally
operate from established bases, their units normally receive direct
unit support from the preventive medicine or pest management
engineering units described in Army and Marine Corps units operate
more diversely and as a result must have an increased pest
management capability in each unit. Unit field sanitation teams give
this support before deployment, using 2-gallon pesticide sprayers
and selected premixed pesticides, such as those normally included
in self-help programs on fixed installations.
Pest management support beyond this level is given by preventive
medicine or engineering units.

3)Area protective measures. Area protective measures are those

carried out by preventive medicine or engineering units with
specially trained technicians using special equipment and controlled
or restricted-use pesticides. These are the only military units with the
equipment and training needed to conduct a large scale pest
management operation.

78
 Steps for effective mosquito control
• Education
One of the most effective tools available is awareness of mosquito
biology so that you can eliminate future mosquito breeding sites
from your yard. You should be aware of the life cycle of mosquitoes
so you can take steps to avoid rearing mosquito larvae in water
containers on your property. You should eliminate larval breeding
sites such as discarded tires, beverage cups/litter, and unused
children's wading pools. Residents should clean and replenish pet
water and bird bathes every 3 days, clean roof gutters to allow
proper drainage, prevent standing water in flower pots, ensure good
property drainage, and plug hollow tree stumps. Water gardens or
small fountains should be treated with larvicides or contain mosquito
eating fish to prevent emerging adult mosquitoes. Maintenance of
screen doors and windows will prevent adult mosquitoes from
entering homes. Remember, any container that will hold water for 5
to 7 days is a potential breeding site for mosquito larvae.

79
Fig.2.4.3 (a) some of the breeding sites of mosquitoe

• Source Reduction of Larval Habitats

One of the simplest ways to reduce larval mosquito populations is to

drain any unnecessary containers/pools of water which allow
mosquito larval development. If it is not possible to drain areas, then
treating them with larvicides if they are supporting larvae is an
alternative.
Many mosquito larvicides on the market are very host specific and
only disrupt the larval stage of mosquitoes and do not harm non
target species.

80
 Fig.4.3 (b) some of the breeding sites of mosquitoe

• Personal Protection

People can reduce their exposure to biting mosquitoes by wearing

insect repellent when they are outdoors. They can also avoid being
outside at dawn, early evening, and dusk when the majority of biting

81
female mosquitoes are active. Wearing long sleeved clothing with
long pants also provides protection. Repellants which contain from
10 to 30% DEET (N, N diethyl-m-toluamide) are most effective, but
always read and follow label directions for proper application.
Special care should be taken when applying repellants to children.

• Chemical Control for Adult Mosquitoes

Homeowner chemical control for adult mosquitoes is not practical

and decisions regarding control should be left up to municipal
regulation. Area wide chemical control for adult mosquitoes in
Oklahoma is typically applied by thermal fogging or Ultra Low
Volume (ULV) spraying.

This type of control is not usually effective in Oklahoma because it

is very rare for conditions to be conducive for fogging adult
mosquitoes. Adult mosquitoes must come into contact with the
pesticide, so timing of application is critical. Since different mosquito
species are active during different periods throughout a 24hr day it is
critical to fog at exactly the proper time to get effective control of the
target species. Extensive behavioral knowledge of the species to be
controlled must be utilized and the spray applied only when adults
are active. Weather conditions must be considered, as windy
conditions usually present in the spring in Oklahoma may cause
pesticides to drift out of an area so that they never reach their
intended target. If ULV spraying is utilized the air temperature should
be at least 60oF, with wind velocities between 3-5 mph. Spraying in
the heat of the day is not recommended as ULV droplets volatilize

82
and go upward out of target areas. ULV spray equipment must be
properly calibrated and operated by experienced personnel to
ensure proper pesticide application rates. Pesticide label rates and
recommendations must be followed according to the manufacturers
instructions for all pesticides applied. Mosquito control products
available for consumer use are typically sold through local home and
garden supply stores. Product availability may vary according to
location and state regulation

Review Questions
1. Write at least three distinguishing features of mosquito from
other biting dipteras.
2. Describe the medical importance, and control methods for
anopheles, culex, and aedes
3. Justify the reasons why malaria is still the most prevalent
disease in the tropics .
4. Which host of malaria is referred as definitive host?
5. What are the steps in mosquitoe management.

83
 CHAPTER THREE
SIMULIDAE /BLACK FLY/

Learning objectives
At the end of this chapter the reader will be able to
- Describe the specific features of black flies
- Discuss how onchocerciasis is transmitted by black flies
- Discuss the life cycle, medical importance and control
methods of black flies.

3.1 Occurrences
Class: Insecta;
Order: Diptera;
Family: Simulidae;
Genus: Simulium;
Species: -damnosum, neavei.
There are more than 1300 known species of black flies (or "buffalo
gnats," as they are sometimes called) in the family Simulidae. Their
range extends throughout the temperate and tropical regions of the
world.

84
 Fig.3.1 Adult black fly

3.2 Identification:
Adult black flies are quite small, about 1.5-4 mm long, relatively stout
bodied and, when viewed from the side, have a rather humped
thorax. As their vernacular name indicates they are usually black in
colour but many have contrasting patterns of white, silvery or
yellowish hairs on their bodies and legs, and others may be
predominantly or largely orange or bright yellow.

Black flies have a pair of large compound eyes, which in females are

85
separated on the top of the head ( a condition known as dichoptic);
in the males the eyes occupy almost all of the head and touch on top
of it and in front, above the bases of the antennae ( a condition
known as holoptic). In the males, but not females, the small lenses
are larger on the upper than lower half of the eyes (Figure 3.2) The
antennae are short, stout, cylindrical and distinctly segmented
(usually 11 segments) but without long hairs. The mouth parts are
short and relatively inconspicuous but the five-segmented maxillary
palps, which arise at their base, hang downwards and are easily
seen. Only females bite. The arrangement and morphology of the
mouth parts in similar to those of the biting midges
(Ceratopogonidae) the mouthparts, being stout and broad, do not
penetrate very deeply into the host’s tissues. Teeth on the labrum
stretch the skin and the rasp-like action of the maxillae and
mandibles cuts through it and rupture the fine blood capillaries. The
small pool of blood produced is then sucked up by the flies. This
method of feeding is ideally suited for picking up the microfilariae of
Onchocerca volvulus which occur in human skin not blood.

The thorax is covered dorsally with very fine and appressed hairs,
which can be black, white, silvery, yellow or orange and may be
arranged in various patterns. The relatively short legs are also
covered with very fine and closely appressed hairs and may be uni-
colorous or have contrasting bands of pale and dark colour. The
wings are characteristically short and broad and (lack scales or
prominent hairs. Only the veins near the anterior margin are well
developed, the rest of the wing is membranous and has an indistinct
venation. The wings are colourless or almost so.

86
When at rest the wings are closed flat over the body like the blades
of a closed pair of scissors.
The abdomen is short and squat, and covered with inconspicuous
closely appressed fine hairs. In neither sex are the genitalia very
conspicuous. Blackflies are most easily sexed by looking at the
eyes.

87
3.3 Life Cycle
When first laid the eggs are pale and often whitish but darken to a
brown or blank colour. They are about 0.1-0.4 mm long, more or less
triangular in shape but with rounded corners and have smooth shells
which are covered with a sticky substance. They are always laid in
flowing water but the type of breeding place differs greatly according
to species. Habitats can vary from small trickles of water, slow
flowing streams, lake outlets and water flowing from dams to fast-
flowing rivers and rapids. Some species prefer lowland streams and
rivers whereas others are found in Mountain Rivers. In species such
as S. ochraceum, one of the South American vectors of
onchocerciasis, eggs are scattered over the surface of flowing water
while females are in flight in most species, however, ovipositing
females alight on partially immersed objects such as Rocks, stones
and vegetation, to lay their eggs. Usually some 150-800 eggs are
laid in sticky masses or strings on a level with, or just below, the
water line on submerged objects. Femalses may crawl underneath
the water and become completely submerged during ovipositing.
There may be a few favoured oviposition sites in a stream or river,
resulting in thousands of eggs from many females being found
together. Simulium damnosum, for example, frequently has such
communal oviposition sites.

Eggs of [Link] hatch within about 1-2 days but in many other
tropical species the egg stage lasts 2-4 days. Eggs of species
inhabiting temperate and cold northern areas may not hatch for
many weeks and some species pass the wither as diapausing eggs.

88
There are 6-9 (usually7) larval instars and the mature larva is about
4-12 mm long depending on the species, and is easily distinguished
from all other aquatic larvae. The head is usually black, or almost so,
and has a prominent pair of feding brushes (cephalic fans), while the
weakly segmented, cylindrical body is usually whitish, but may be
darker or sometimes even greenish. The body is slightly swollen
beyond the head and in most, but not all, species distinctly swollen
towards the end. The rectum has finger-like rectal organs which on
larval preservation may be extruded and visible as a protuberance
from the dorsal surface towards the end of the abdomen. Ventrally,
just below the head, is a small pseudopod called the proleg which is
armed with small circles of hooklets.

Larvae do not swim but remain sedentary for long periods on

submerged vegetation, rocks, stones and other debris. Attachment
is achieved by the posterior hook-circlet (anal sucker of many
previous authors) tightly gripping a small silken pad. This has been
produced by the larva’s very large salivary glands and is firmly glued
to the substrate. Larvae can nevertheless move about and change
their position. This is achieved by alternatively attaching themselves
to the substrate by the proleg and the posterior hook-circlet, thus
they move in a looping manner. When larvae are disturbed they can
deposit sticky saliva on a submerged object, release their hold and
be swept downstream for some distance at the end of a silken
thread. They can then either swallow the thread of saliva and regain
their original position, or reattach themselves at sites further
downstream larvae normally orientate themselves to lie parallel to
the flow of water with their heads downstream. They are mainly

89
filter-feeders, ingesting, with the aid of large mouthbrushes,
suspended particles of food. However, a few species have
predacious larvae and others are occasionally cannibalistic. Larval
development may be as short as 6-12 days depending on species
and temperature, but in some species may be extended to several
months, and in other species larvae overwinter.
Mature larvae, which can be recognized by a blackish mark, termed
the gill spot (respiratory organ of the future pupa) on each side of the
thorax, spin, with the silk produced by the salivary glands, a
protective slipper-shaped brownish cocoon. This cocoon is firmly
stuck to submerged vegetation, rocks or other objects and its shape
and structure vary greatly according to species. After weaving the
cocoon the enclosed larva pupates. The pupa has a pair of, usually
prominent, filamentous or broad thin- walled, respiratory gills. Their
length, shape and the number of filaments or branches provide
useful taxonomic characters for species identification. These gills,
and the anterior part of the pupa, often project from the entrance of
the cocoon. In both tropical and non-tropical countries the pupa
period lasts only 2-6 days and is unusual in not appearing to be
dependent on temperature. On emergence adults either rise rapidly
to the water surface in a protective bubble of gas, which prevents
them from being wetted, or they escape by crawling up partially
submerged objects such as vegetation or rocks. A characteristic of
many species is the more or less simultaneous mass emergence of
thousands of adults. On reaching the water surface the adults
immediately take flight.

The empty pupa cases, with gill filaments still attached, remain

90
enclosed in their cocoons after the adults have emerged and retain
their taxonomic value. Consequently, they provide useful information
on the species of simuliids that have recently bred and successfully
emerged from various habitats.
A few African and Asian blackfly species have a very unusual
aquatic existence. For example, in East Africa larvae of [Link]
(except first instar) and pupae do not occur on submerged rocks or
vegetation but on other aquatic arthropods, such as the bodies of
immature stages (nymphs) of mayflies (Ephemeroptera), and
various crustacean including freshwater crabs. Such an association
is termed a phoretic relationship. Eggs, however, are never found on
these animals; they are probably laid on submerged stones or
vegetation.

The nuclei of the larval salivary gland cells have large polytene
chromosome which have banding patterns that are used to identify
otherwise morphologically identical species within a species
complex. For example, chromosomal studies have shown that there
are about 40 cytologically different entities in the [Link]
complex, several of which are distinct species, whereas other forms
are best referred to as cytotypes until their reproductive isolation, or
otherwise, is determined.

91
Adult Behaviour
Both male and female blackflies feed on plant juices and naturally
occurring sugary substances, but only females take blood- meals.
Biting occurs out of doors at almost any daylight hour, but teach
species may have its preferred times of biting. For example, in Africa
S. damnosum has a biting peak in the morning and another in the
afternoon, whereas in South America S. ochraceum bites
predominantly early in the morning between 08.00-10.00 hours.
Many species seem particularly active on cloudy, overcast days and
in thundery weather. Species may exhibit marked preferences fro
reeding on different parts of the body, for example, [Link]

92
feeds mainly on the legs whereas [Link] prefers to bite the
head and torso. When feeding on animals, adults crawl down th fur
of mammals, or feathers of birds, to bite the host’s skin, they may
also enter the ears to feed.

Many species of black fly feed almost exclusively on birds

(ornithophagic) and others on non-human mammalian
hosts(zoophagic). However, several species also bite people. Some
human-biting species seem to prefer various large animal such as
donkeys or cattle and bite human only as a poor second choice,
whereas others appear to find humans almost equally attractive
hosts; no species bites people alne. In many species sight seems
important in host location but host odours may also be important.
After feeding, blood-engorged females shelter and rest in vegetation,
on trees and in other natural outdoor resting places until the blood-
meal is completely digested. In the tropics this takes 2-3 days, in
non-tropical areas it may take 3-8 days or longer, the speed of
digestion depending mainly on temperature. Relatively little is known
about blakfly longevity, but it seems that adults of most species live
for 3-4 weeks.

Female blackflies may fly considerable distances (15-30kb) from

their emergence sites to obtain blood-meals and may also be
dispersed large distances by winds. For example, it is not
exceptional for adults of S. damnosum to be found biting 60-100 km
from their breeding places, and in west Africa there is evidence that
prevailing winds can carry adults up to 400-600 km. The long
distances involved in dispersal have great reliance in control

93
programmes, because areas freed from blackflies can be reinvaded
from distant breeding places.
In temperate and northern areas of the palearctic and Nearctic
regions biting nuisance from simuliids is seasonal, because adults
die in the autumn and new generations do not appear until the
following spring or early summer. Although in many tropical areas
there is continuous breeding throughout the year, there may
nevertheless be dramatic increases in population size during the
rainy season.

3.4 Public Health Importance

1. Nuisance
In both tropical and non tropical areas of the world black flies can
cause a very serious bitting problem, since there bites can be
painful. Although the severity of thereaction to bites is different in
different individuals, localized swelling and inflammation frequently
occurs, accompanied by in tense irritation lasting for several days or
even weeks.

2. Onchocerciasis
Onchocerciasis / river blindness is the disease transmitted by the
female black fly. Repeated infection affects the eyes that lead to
blindness. South western Ethiopia is confirmed to have the vector:
Jimma, Shebe. Bonga, Gore, Gardula, Lekemt are believed to be
endemic.

Onchocerciasis is the world’s second leading infectious cause of

94
blindness. Rarely life threatening, the disease causes chronic
suffering and severe disability. In Africa, it constitutes a serious
obstacle to socioeconomic development. It is often called river
blindness because of its most extreme manifestation and because
the black flies that transmit the disease abound in riverside areas,
where they breed in fast-flowing waters. Fertile riverine areas are
frequently abandoned for fear of the disease.

Distribution
35 countries in total. 28 in tropical Africa, where 99% of infected
people live. Isolated foci in Latin America (6 countries) and Yemen.

Causative agent
A parasitic worm, Onchocerca volvulus, of the family filariidae, which
lives in the human body for up to 14 years. Each adult female worm
produces millions of microscopic larvae (microfilariae), that migrate
throughout the body to cause a variety of symptoms.

Transmission

Transmission of the disease is via the bite of infected black flies

(Simulium spp.) that carry immature larval forms of the parasitic
worms from human to human.

The life-cycle begins when a parasitized female black fly takes a

blood-meal from a human host. The host’s skin is stretched by the
fly’s apical teeth and sliced by its mandibles. A pool of blood is
pumped up into the black fly, saliva passes into the pool, and

95
infective Onchocerca larvae pass from the black fly into the host’s
skin. The larvae then enter the host’s subcutaneous tissue, where
they migrate, form and lodge in nodules, and slowly mature into
adult worms. New worms form new nodules or find existing nodules
and cluster together. It is thought that the smaller male worms may
migrate between nodules to mate. After mating, eggs formed inside
the female worm, develops into microfilariae and leave the worm
one by one. A female worm may produce 1000 microfilariae per day.
Many thousands of microfilariae migrate in the subcutaneous tissue.
When the microfilariae die, they cause skin rashes, lesions, intense
itching and skin depigmentation. Microfilariae also migrate to the eye
and can cause blindness.

96
 Fig. 3.4

Symptoms
Adult worms lodge in nodules under the skin, releasing large
numbers of microfilariae into surrounding tissues. Immature worms
move through the body and after dying, cause a variety of conditions
including serious visual impairment and blindness, skin rashes,
lesions, intense itching and depigmentation of the skin,

97
lymphadenitis (resulting in hanging groins and elephantiasis of the
genitals) and general debilitation.

Prevention and control of Onchocerciasis

Drug treatment: the development of ivermectin in the 1980s
provided a safe, effective drug for killing microfilariae in infected
people. A single dose of the drug needs to be taken annually.
Vector control: insecticide spraying to control black flies has proved
successful in certain areas.

Onchocerciasis Control Program’s (OCP’s): principal method for

controlling onchocerciasis involved interrupting transmission by
eliminating the black fly vector. Simulium larvae are killed by
applying insecticides via aerial spraying over breeding sites in fast-
flowing rivers. Following interruption of transmission, the reservoir of
adult worms dies out in humans after 14 years. To complement
vector control activities, OCP also distributes ivermectin.

African Programme for Onchocerciasis Control (APOC)

Following the success of the OCP, the same co-sponsors and

donors created APOC in 1995. The objective is to create, by 2007,
sustainable community-directed distribution systems using
ivermectin. These will ultimately cover 59 million people in 17 non-
OCP countries, where the disease remains a serious public health
problem and some 15 million people are infected. In a few isolated
foci, APOC aims to eliminate the black fly through insecticide
spraying.

98
3. Mansonella Ozzardi

Mansonella ozzardi is a filarial parasite of humans that is usually

regarded as non-pathogenic, although it has been reported as
causing morbidity in Colombia and Brazil.

3.5 Control of Black flies

There are few reports on the effectiveness of repellents against
blakfly attacks. It seems that some protection, usually lasting up to 2
hours, can be gained by use of repellents such as diethyltoluamide
(DEET), dimethylphthalate (DIMP) and butyryl-tetrahydro quinoline.

Although insecticidal fogging or spraying of vegetation though to

harbour resting adult blackflies has occasionally been undertaken,
this approach results in very temporary and localized control. The
only practical method at present available fro the control of blackflies
is the application of insecticides to their breeding places to kill the
larvae. Insecticides need be applied to only a few selected sites on
watercourses for some 15-30 min, because as the insecticide is
carried downstream it kills simuliid larvae over long stretches of
water. The flow rates of the water and its depth are used to calculate
the quantity of insecticide to be released. Applying DDT by this
method has resulted in good control of [Link] in areas of
Nigeria and Uganda. If treatment is not repeated at intervals
throughout the year, gravid female adult dispersing into the area
from untreated areas will probably cause recolonization. In Kenya
[Link] has been eradicated by the application of DDT to he
relatively small sterms in which this vector occurred, together with

99
bush clearing. Because of its accumulation in food chains DDT is no
longer recommended for larval control, instead organophosphate,
such as temephos (Abate),are usually recommended
In many areas ground application of larvicides is difficault, either
because of the enormous size of the rivers requiring treatmdnt or
because breeding occurs in a large network of small streams and
watercourses. Under these conditions aerial applications from small
aircraft or helicopters have been used. Considerable information has
been gained in North America on the chemical control of pestiferous
blackflies.
Because of the severity of river blindness in the Volta River Basin
area of West Africa and its devastating effect on rural life the world’s
most ambitious and largest vector control programme was initiated
in 1997 by the world Health organization, and is called the
Onchocerciasis control programme (OCP). This programme
originally involved seven west African countries but has now
expanded to cover 11 countries. Some 50,000 km of rivers over an
area of 1.3 million km2 that are breeding the [Link] complex
are dosed at weekly intervals with temephos (Abate), which is
usually dropped from helicopters or small aircraft. Because of the
appearance of temephos resistance (in 1980) in some populations
and species of the [Link] complex, some rivers are treated
instead with chlorphoxim or Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis
(=B. thuringiensis H-14). Results have been spectacular. And
transmission or river blindness has ceased over most of the OCP
area. Larviciding will continue in the newer areas covered by the
programme until the year 2000, thus giving insecticidal control in
these areas fro 14 years, the period required to eliminate [Link]

100
from the human population.

Review questions
1. Describe the identification characteristics of black fly.
2. Discuss the transmission cycle of human onchocerciasis.
3. Describe socioeconomic impact of the disease river blindness.
4. List the applicable control techniques of black flies.

CHAPTER FOUR
101
 Phlobotaminae /Sand Fly/

Learning objectives
At the end of this chapter the reader will be able to
- describe the identifying characteristics and lifecycle of
phlobotaminae sand flies
- list the different types of diseases transmitted by sand flies
- discuss the modes of transmission of these diseases
- Discribe the applicable control methods of sand flies

4.1 Sand flies (Phlebotomus and Lutzomyia spp.)

Class: Insecta;
Order: Diptera;
Family: Psychodidae;
Genus: Phlebotomous, Psychoda
Species : Ph. Longipes , Ph. Longerni, Ph. Orientalis, Ph. Papatasi,
Ph. Chinesis;
Ps. Phalaenoides, Ps. Alternata
There are some 700 species of phlebotomine sandflies in five
genera within the subfamily phlebot00 ominae of the family
psychodidae. Species in three genera, phlebotomus, Lutzomyia and
Sergentomyia, suck blood from vertebrates, the former two are the
more important medically as they contain disease vectors. The
genus phlebotomus occurs only in the Old World, especially in
southern parts of the northern temprate areas such as the
Mediterranean region. The genus also occurs in the Old world

102
tropics, but there are not many species in tropical Africa, especially
West Africa. Most phlebotomus species inhabit semiarid and
savannah areas in preference to forests. Lutzomyia species by
contrast are found only in the New World tropics, occurring mostly in
the forested areas of Central and South America
Sergentomyia species are also confined to the Old World, being
especially common in the Indian subregion, but also occurring in
other areas such as Africa and Central Asia. A few species of
sergentomyia bite people, but they are not disease vectors.

4.2 External Morphology

No details are given for distinguishing between the adults of
phlebotomus, Lutzomyia and sergentomyia because this requires
specialized knowledge and detailed examination; generally species
biting people in the Old World will be phlebotomus and in the New
World Lutzomyia.
Their minute size (1.3-3.5 mm in length), hairy appearance,
relatively large black eyes and their relatively long and stilt-like legs
can readily recognize adult phlebotomine sandflies. The only other
blood-sucking flies which are as small as this are some species of
biting midges (Ceratopogonidae), but these have non-hairy wings
and differ in many other details. Phlebotomine sandflies have the
head, thorax, wings and abdomen densely covered with long hairs.
The antennae are are long and composed of small bead-like
segments with short hairs; they are similar in both sexes. The
mouthparts are short and inconspicuous and adapted for blood-
sucking. At their base are pair of five-segmented maxillary palps

103
which are relatively conspicuous and droop downwards.
Wings are lanceolate in outline and quite distinct from the wings of
other biting flies. The phelebotominae can be distinguished from
other subfamilies of the family psychodidae, which they may
superficially resemble, by the wings. In sandflies the wings are held
erect over the body when the fly is at rest, whereas in non-biting
psychodid flies they are folded, roof like, over the body. The wing
venation also differs. In phlebotomine sandflies, but not in the other
subfamilies of psychdidae, vein 2 branches twice, although this may
not be apparent unless most of the hairs are rubbed from the wing
veins (Figure 4.1).

4.3 Life history and habits

Four stages of development (complete metamorphosis). Limited
home range- Horizontal flight: maximum 200 meters. Vertical flight:
about 6 meters. Like dampness. Only females bite man, livestock,
rodents, dogs, hyrax, cats and other mammals. They deposit their
eggs in humid place on damp soil rich in humus. The larvae feed on
decaying organic matter. Life cycle lasts from 1-4 months depending
on spp, and temperature. Although it usually lasts less than 45 days,
Breeding is in the soil independent of surface water. Sand flies
usually rest in the day time in dark and humid sites such as termite
hills, animal burrows, cracks in mud walls and masonry, on decaying
vegetations etc

104
Figure 4.1 Adult male phlebotomine sandfly, terminal abdominal
claspers of the genitalia, and diagrammatic representation of double
branching of wing vein 2.

Adult Behavior
Both sexes feed on plant juices and sugary secretions but females in
addition suck blood from a variety of vertebrates, including livestock,
dogs, urban and wild rodents, snakes, lizards and amphibians; a few
species feed on birds. In the Old World many phletobomus species
bite people whereas most species of sergentomyia feed mainly on
reptiles and rarely bite humans. In the tropical Americas Lutzomyia
species feed on a variety of mammals including humans. Biting is
usually restricted to crepuscular and nocturnal periods but people

105
may be bitten during the day in darkened rooms, or in forests during
overcast days. Most species feed out of doors (exophagic) but a few
also feed indoors (endophagic). Adults are weak fliers and do not
usually disperse more than a few hundred metres from their
breeding places. Consequently biting may be localized to a few
areas. However, it is known that adults of at least some species can
fly up to 2.2 km over a few days. Sandflies have a characteristic
hopping type of flight so that there may be several short flights and
landings before females settle on their hosts. Windy weather inhibits
their flight activities and biting. Because of their very short
mouthparts, they are unable to bite through clothing.

During the day adult sandflies rest in sheltered, dark and humid
sites, but on dry surfaces, such as on tree trunks, on ground litter
and foliage of forests, in animal burrows, termite mounds, tree-holes,
rock fissures, caves, cracks in the ground and inside human and
animal habitations. Species that commonly rest in houses
(endophilic) before or after feeding on humans are often referred to
as domestic or peridomestic species. Examples are phlebotomus
papatasi in the Mediterranean area and Lutzomyia longipalpis in
South America.

In temperate areas of the Old World sandflies are seasonal in their

appearance and adults occur only in the summer months. In tropical
areas some species appear to be common more or less throughout
the year, but in other species there may be well marked changes
abundance of adults related to the dry and wet seasons.

106
4.4 Public Health importance of phlebotamus sand fly
1. Nuisance
Apart from their importance as disease vectors, sand flies may
constitute a serious, but usually localized bitting nuisance. In
previously sensitized people their bite may result in severe and
almostintolerable irritations, a condition known in the middle east as
harara.

2. Leishmaniasis
This is a term used to describe a number of closely related diseases
caused by several distinct species, subspecies and strains of
Leishmania parasites.
Leishmania parasites are named after W.B. Leishman, who
developed one of the earliest strains of Leishmania in 1901.

Distribution

Leishmaniasis is wide spreaded in 22 countries in the New World

and in 66 nations in the Old World, it is not found in South-east Asia.
Human infections are found in 16 countries in Europe, including
France, Italy, Greece, Malta, Spain and Portugal. Occurring in
several forms, the disease is generally recognized for its cutaneous
form, which causes non-fatal, disfiguring lesions, although epidemics
of the potentially fatal visceral form cause thousands of deaths. It is
endemic in 88 countries on 4 continents. More than 90% of
cutaneous leishmaniasis cases occur in Iran, Afghanistan, Syria,
Saudi Arabia, Brazil and Peru. More than 90% of visceral
leishmaniasis cases occur in Bangladesh, Brazil, India and Sudan

107
The disease is widely spread in different area in Ethiopia: Gondar,
Tigrai, Jimma, Diredawa, Lekempt, Harar, Arbaminch, Dessie.

Causative agent

Parasitic protozoa of the genus Leishmania, transmitted to humans

by sand flies. Over 20 species and subspecies infect humans, each
causing a different spectrum of symptoms. These range from simple,
self healing skin ulcers (e.g. due to infection with Leishmania major),
to severe, life-threatening disease (e.g. visceral leishmaniasis
caused by L. donovani

Life cycle of Leishmania

The life cycle starts when a parasitized female sand fly takes a blood
meal from a human host. As the sand fly feeds, promastigote forms
of the leishmania parasite enter the human host via the proboscis.
Within the human host, the promastigote forms of the parasite are
ingested by macrophage where they metamorphose into amastigote
forms and reproduce by binary fission. They increase in number until
the cell eventually bursts, then infect other phagocytic cells and
continue the cycle.

Clinical Forms
The diseases occur in three main clinical forms: cutaneous,
mucocutaneous, and visceral leishmaniasis and a fourth less
common form termed diffuse cutaneous leishmaniasis.
Phlebotomine sandflies are the only vectors. The epidemiology of
leishmaniasis is too complex to be adequately described here.

108
Basically parasites (amastigotes) are ingested by female sandflies
with a blood-meal and multiply in the gut. They develop a flagellum
and attach themselves to either the mid-gut or the hindgut wall. After
further development they become infective metacyclic promastigotes
and migrate to the anterior part of the mid-gut and from there to the
oesophagus. After 4-12 days from taking an infective blood-meal the
metacyclic forms may be found in the mouth parts from which they
are introduced into a new host during feeding. Infective flies often
probe more often than uninfected flies, thus maximizing transmission
of parasites during blood-feeding. Previous feeding by females on
sugary substances, mostly obtained from plants, is essential not only
for the survival of the sandfly but the development of the parasites to
the infective form.

Most types of leishmaniasis are zoonoses. The degree of

involvement of humans varies greatly from area to area. The
epidemiology is largely determined by the species of sandflies, their
ecology and behaviour, the availability of a wide range of hosts and
also by the species and strains of Leishmania parasites. In some
areas, for example, sandflies will transmit the disease almost entirely
among wild or domesticated animals, with little or no human
involvement, whereas elsewhere animals may provide an important
reservoir of infection for humans. In India the disease may be
transmitted between people by sandflies, with animals taking no
identifiable part in its transmission.

Cutaneous leishmaniasis in the Old World, known also as Oriental

sore, occurs mainly in arid areas of the Middle East to northwestern

109
India and central Asia, in North Africa and various areas in East,
West and southern Africa. In the New World it is found mainly in
forests from Mexico to northern Argentina. Several species of
parasites are involved, including Leishmania major and Le. Tropica
in the Old World, and Le. braziliensis and Le. mexicana in the
Americas. Leishmania major is usually zoonotic and in most of its
range gerbils are the reservoir hosts; Le. tropica occurs in densely
populated areas and, although dogs are also infected, humans are
the main reservoir host. Important vectors of cutaneous
leishmaniasis include phlebotomus papatast (Le. major), P. longipes
(Le. aethiopica) and P. sergenti (Le. tropica).

Mucocutaneous leishmaniasis (espundia) is a severely disfiguring

disease found from Mexico to Argentina. It is manly caused by
Leishmania braziliensis and Le. panamensis, parasites which
normally infect a wide variety of forest rodents, marsupials,
armadillos, edentates, primates, sloths and also domestic dogs. The
disease is spread by several species of Lutzomyia including L.
welcomei, L. amazonicus.

Diffuse cutaneous leishmaniasis is a form that causes widespread

cutaneous nodules or macules over the body and usually results
from infection with Leishmania aethiopica in Ethiopia and Kenya or
with Le. amazonensis in South America.

Visceral leishmaniasis, often referred to as kala-azar, is caused by

Leishmania donovani in most areas of its distribution, such as India,
Bangladesh, Sudan, East Africa, And Ethiopia. Among the vectors

110
are P. argentipes and P. orientalis. In Sudan rodents have beeen
found infected but most transmission seems to be from person to
person. In the Meditrranean basin, Iran, and central Asia, including
northern and central China, Leishmania infantum is the parasite, and
the vectors include P. ariasi, P. perniciosus and P. chinesis. Dogs
and foxes are most important reservoirs. Visceral leishmaniasis also
occurs sporadically in Central and South America, where the
parasite is Leishmania infantum (= Le. chgasi of some authors) and
is transmitted by Lutoaomyia longipalpis. Wild foxes and
domesticated dogs are reservoirs.

111
fig 2. clinical features of cutaneous leishmaniasis
(Source: Jan A. Rozendaal: WHO 1997)

112
Prevention and control of leishemaniasis

Most cases of CL heal without treatment, leaving the person immune

to further infection. In many parts of South-west Asia, infections were
deliberately encouraged on the buttocks of babies in order to
immunize them (avoiding disfiguring scars on the face or elsewhere).
Prevent sand fly bites through the repellents and Insecticides.
Management. Survey methods for sand flies include aspirators,
sticky paper and CDC [Link] for immature forms in soil, rock
piles and stone fences. Collect adults as they rest in animal houses
and shelters.
Fortunately, given their limited flight range and a tendency to stop
frequently (these pests actually fly in a series of short hops), the
sand fly is easily controlled by residual sprays applied to walls,
screens, fences, etc.

113
Contingency considerations
Unit pest management measures such as residual spraying and
enforcing individual protective measures are normally sufficient to
keep this pest from becoming a major problem. If a unit is operating
in a jungle or tropical forest areas where sand fly-borne disease is
endemic, additional area-level pest management units may be
needed to apply residual pesticides to vegetation near contaminated
areas.

3. Bartonelliosis
This disease is sometimes called Oroya fever or Carrion’s

4. Sandfly Fever
Sandflies can transmit several viral diseases, but the most important
is sandfly fever, sometimes called papataci fever or 3-day fever, of
which there are two distinct virus serotypes. Females become
infective 6-10 days after taking an infected blood-meal. Infected
females can lay eggs containing the virus and these eventually give
rise to infected adults. This is an example of trans-ovarious tick-
borne diseases. Sandfly fever occurs mainly in the Mediterranean
region, but also extends up the Nile into Egypt and the Middle East,
the most important vector is P. papatasi. The disease also occurs in
India, Pakistan and probably China, and in some of these areas
phlebotomines other than P. papatasi are the vectors.

4.5 Control Measures of sand fly

Leishmaniasis has in the past not usually been considered a

114
sufficiently important disease to justify much expenditure on
controlling the vectors, and consequently there have been relatively
few campagns devoted to sandflies control. Phlebotomine sandflies
are, however, very susceptible to insecticides; the only reported
case of resistance is P. papatasi to DDT in northeastern India. In
nearly all areas where residual insecticides, particularly DDT, have
been used to control Anopheles vectors of malaria there have
apparently been drastic reductions in sandfly populations followed
by interruption of leishmaniasis transmission.
With the cessation of spraying, sandflies usually return, and
transmission is renewed. In addition to DDT, HCH, malathion,
fenitrothion (Simuthion), propoxur (Baygon) and synthetic
pyrethroids have been used to try and control sandflies. Where
sanddflies bite and rest out of doors such control strategies are not
feasible.
If the outdoor resting sites are known (e.g. animal shelters, stone
walls, tree trunks, termite hills) these can be sprayed with residual
insecticides. Insecticidal fogging of outdoor resting sites is used in
Jordan for the control of P. papatasi, although this approach usually
gives only temporary control.
Personal protection can be achieved by applying efficient insect
repellents, such as diethyltoluamide (DEET), dimethylphthalate
(DIMP) or trimethyl pentanediol. Mesh screens or nets with very
small holes can afford some protection, but a disadvantage is that
they reduce ventilation causing it to be unpleasantly hot in screened
houses or under sandfly bed –nets. Such nets, or even mosquito
nets with larger holes, can be impregnated with pyrethroids such as
permethrin and deltamethrin to give protection against biting for up

115
to six monthes, so long as the nets are not washed.
Control of sand fly larvae remains impossible because the breeding
sites of most species are unknown, and even when they can be
identified it is usually impractical to do any thing to reduce larval
numbers.
Because most leishmaniasis transmission involvolves reservoir
animals, e.g. rodents and dogs, in some areas control focuses on
killing such hosts. For example in some areas of north Africa
clearing vegetation around villages reduces gerbil populations.

Review questions
1. describe the distinguishing features of sand flies
2. list the types of diseases transmitted by sand flies
3. mention the applicable control methods of sand flies

116
 CHAPTER FIVE
GLOSSINIDAE /TSETSE FLY /

Learning objectives
At the end of this chapter the reader will be able to
- describe external morphology of tsetse fly
- list the major diseases transmitted by tsetse flies
- describe the life cycle, habit, and public health importance of
tsetse flies
- discuss the basic prevention and control techniques applied
in the control of sleeping sickness

5.1 Introduction
Class: Insecta;
Order: Diptera;
Family: Glossinidae;
Genus: Glossina;
Species: - The six different Glossina spp. considered primary vectors of
the disease are Glossina palpalis, G. morsitans, G. tachinoides, G.
pallidipes, G. swynnertoni and G. fuscipes.
The tsetse is the vector of African trypanosomiasis or African sleeping
sickness, which may be caused by either Trypanosoma brucei
gambiense or Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense.
Occurrence Tsetse flies are generally confined to the area of tropical
Africa, south of the Tropic of Cancer.

117
5.2 Identification
Size: they are larger than the CHF; Color: dark; Proboscis (mouth):
long and slender; Occur only in tropical Africa. They are Yellowish or
dark brown in colour and medium sized flies (6-15mm). Their wing at
rest is closed over one another like a closed scissors, and the tip of
the wing is then extended beyond the abdomen. They can be
distinguished from other large biting diptera by their forward, pointing
mouth part and high pitched buzzing sounds.

They are somewhat more restricted between the thorax and the
abdomen than most other flies and have wings that fold over the
abdomen in a scissor-like fashion that extends well beyond the
abdomen. The bayonet-like proboscis extends outward in front of the
head when the fly is in a resting position.

118
 Fig. 5.1 Adult Tsetse fly

5.3 Life history and habits

Tsetse flies pass through complete metamorphosis. They are
larviparous i.e they retain fertilized egg in a kind of uterus and hatch
the matured larvae. The matured larvae after deposited burrow in to
the ground and pupate and finally emerge as adult fly. The egg and
larva develop in uterus of the insect. Matured larvae are laid in bush
under fallen trees and rotten trees to pupate. The adult lives in shady
forest areas.

Adult behaviour
Both sexes are blood suckers. They bite by day or at dusk Tsetse fly
is greatest single hindrance to animal production and agricultural
119
development in tropical Africa. 30 African countries are affected by
Tsetse fly. The affected area in Africa covers 45 million square miles.
Adult tsetse flies can transmit trypanosomiasis (African sleeping
sickness) to man and animals.

Both males and females are avid blood feeders and can fly at
speeds over 20 miles per hour. Unlike most flies, the female tsetse
fly gives birth to a full grown larva, one at a time every 10 to 12 days
over her lifetime. She must take a new blood meal before a new
larva will develop.

All tsetse flies, both male and female feed on blood having their
mouth parts adopted to pierce and suck blood of their hosts. The
proboscis is connected with salivary duct that brings salivary
secretion and salivary secretion contains anti-coagulants that keep
blood liquid during passage to the digestion portion
- They are attracted by large moving objects and carbon dioxide.
- They are exophagic
The habitat of adult fly is vegetation surrounding villages; in sacred
forests or forests on cemeteries forest edges surrounding plantation
Eg. Coffee and savanna habitats

5.4 Public Health importance

1. Nuisance -cause painful bites
-buzzing sound

2. Human trypanosomiasis

120
It is usually divided in to two. These are humanAfrican
trypanosomiasis which is called sleeping sickness. Another human
form of trypanosomiasis (Human American Trypanosomiasis) occurs
in the Americas and is known as Chagas disease.

Human African Trypanosomiasis or Sleeping Sickness

Human African trypanosomiasis, known as sleeping sickness, is a

vector-borne parasitic disease. Trypanosoma, the parasites
concerned, are protozoa transmitted to humans by tsetse flies
(glossina). Tsetse flies live in Africa, and they are found in vegetation
by rivers and lakes, gallery-forests and vast stretches of wooded
savannah. Human trypanosomiasis caused by protozoan parasites.
The following are the species responsible for causing sleeping
sickness.

Trypanosoma gambiense Trypanosoma. vivax

Trypanosoma rhodesiense Trypanosoma. Congolense

Sleeping sickness occurs only in sub-Saharan Africa, in regions

where tsetse flies are endemic. For reasons as yet unknown, there
are many regions where tsetse flies are found, but sleeping sickness
is not.

The rural populations that live in such environments and depend on

them for agriculture, fishing, animal husbandry or hunting are the
most exposed - along with their livestock - to the bite of the tsetse
fly. Sleeping sickness affects remote and rural areas where health

121
systems are least effective, or non-existent. It spreads with socio-
economic problems such as political instability, displacement of
populations, war and poverty.

It develops in foci whose size can range from a village to an entire

region. Within a given focus, the intensity of the disease can vary
considerably from one village to the next.

Human African trypanosomiasis takes two forms, depending on the

parasite involved:

Trypanosoma brucei gambiense (T.b. gambiense) is found in central

and West Africa. It causes chronic infection, which does not mean
benign. A person can be infected for months or even years without
obvious symptoms of the disease emerging. When symptoms do
emerge, the disease is already at an advanced stage.

Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense (T.b. rhodesiense) is found in

southern and east Africa. It causes acute infection that emerges
after a few weeks. It is more virulent than the other strain and
develops more rapidly, which means that it is more quickly detected
clinically.

Major epidemics

There have been three severe epidemics in Africa over the last
century: one between 1896 and 1906, mostly in Uganda and
the Congo Basin, one in 1920 in several African countries, and
one that began in 1970 and is still in progress. The 1920

122
epidemic was arrested due to mobile teams systematically
screening millions of people at risk. The disease had practically
disappeared between 1960 and 1965. After that success,
screening and effective surveillance were relaxed, and the
disease has reappeared in endemic form in several foci over
the last thirty years.

The geographical distribution of the disease

Sleeping sickness threatens over 60 million people in 36 countries of

sub-Saharan Africa. Only 3 to 4 million people at risk are under
surveillance, with regular examination or access to a health centre
that can provide screening.

Detection of the disease calls for major human and material

resources, such as well-equipped health centers and qualified staff.
Because such resources are lacking, most people with sleeping
sickness die before they can ever be diagnosed.

Almost 45 000 cases were reported in 1999, but the World Health
Organization (WHO) estimates that the number of people affected is
ten times greater. The 45 000 case figure shows not the true
situation but rather the lack of screening in many foci. The real
number of cases seems to be between 300 000 and 500 000.
Reported cases in recent years are from countries where
surveillance coverage is no more than 5%. In certain villages of
many provinces of Angola, the Democratic Republic of Congo and
southern Sudan, the prevalence is between 20% and 50%. Sleeping
sickness has become the first or second greatest cause of mortality,

123
ahead of HIV/AIDS, in those provinces.

Countries are placed in four categories in terms of prevalence. In

each country the spatial distribution of the disease is very diverse; it
is found in foci and micro-foci.

Countries where there is an epidemic of the disease, in terms of

very high cumulated prevalence and high transmission: Angola,
Democratic Republic of Congo and Sudan;

Highly endemic countries, where prevalence is moderate but

increase is certain: Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad,
Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea, Mozambique, Uganda and United
Republic of [Link] where the endemic level is low:
Benin, Burkina Faso, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Kenya, Mali, Togo
and Zambia;

Countries whose present status is not clear: Botswana, Burundi,

Ethiopia, Liberia, Namibia, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal and Sierra-
Leone.

Infection and symptoms

The disease is transmitted with the bite of the tsetse fly. At first the
trypanosomes multiply in the blood, and that process can last for
years with T.b. gambiense.

• Mother-to-child infection: the trypanosome can cross the

placenta and infect the fetus, causing abortion and perinatal death.

124
Accidental infections can occur in laboratories, for example, through
the handling of blood of an infected person, although this is fairly
rare.

Causative agent
Protozoan parasites of the genus Trypanosoma, which enter the blood
stream via the bite of blood Feeding tsetse flies (Glossina spp.).
Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense occurs mainly in east and southern
Africa. T.b. gambiense mainly in west and central Africa. A third
subspecies, T.b. brucei is responsible for the cattle disease but does
not infect humans.

Transmission
Its transmission is via the bite of infected bloodsucking male and
female tsetse flies that transfer the parasites from human to human.
Cattle and other wild mammals act as reservoir hosts of the
parasites. Tsetse flies can acquire parasites by feeding on these
animals, or on an infected person. Inside the human host,
trypanosomes multiply and invade most tissues.

125
 Fig. 5.2 Transmission cycle of sleeping sickness

Symptoms

Infection leads to malaise, lassitude and irregular fevers. Early

symptoms, which include fever and enlarged lymph glands and
spleen, are more severe and acute in T.b. rhodesiense infections. A
range of symptoms including headache, anaemia, joint pains and

126
swollen tissues follows early signs; advanced symptoms include
neurological and endocrine disorders.
As the parasites invade the central nervous system, mental
deterioration begins, leading to coma and death. T.b rhodesiense
infection is usually acute, causing severe symptoms and death within
a few days or weeks. T.b. gambiense infections tend to progress
more slowly (over several years) and are less severe. The early
phase entails bouts of fever, headaches, pains in the joints and
itching. The second, known as the neurological phase, begins when
the parasite crosses the blood-brain barrier and infests the central
nervous system. This is when the characteristic signs and symptoms
of the disease appear: confusion, sensory disturbances and poor
coordination. Disturbance of the sleep cycle, which gives the disease
its name, is the most important feature.
Without treatment, the disease is fatal. If the patient does not receive
treatment before the onset of the second phase, neurological
damage is irreversible even after treatment.

The role of the World Health Organization

Faced with this resurgence of sleeping sickness, WHO coordinates

activities in endemic countries and mobilizes a wide range of
partners for this purpose.

The Programme for Surveillance and Control of African

Trypanosomiasis (PSCAT) includes national control programmes,
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), donor countries, private
foundations, regional institutions, research centers and universities.

127
The objectives of PSCAT are:

- Coordination of the sleeping sickness control network to ensure

that field activities are sustainable;
- Strengthening of existing surveillance systems;
- Development of the network for study of treatment and drug
resistance;
- Promotion of inter-agency collaboration for example with the FAO;

Animal trypanosomiasis

Other sub-species of the parasite cause animal trypanosomiasis,

which are pathogenic to animals and are often different from those
that cause the disease in humans. Animals can carry parasites,
especially T.b. rhodesiense; domestic and wild animals are a major
reservoir. They can also be infected with T. b. gambiense, though
the precise role of this reservoir is not well known. The two human
and animal forms of the disease remain a major obstacle to the
development of rural regions of sub-Saharan Africa: human loss,
decimation of cattle and abandonment of fertile land where the
disease is rife.

Although tsetse flies are limited in their distribution to sub-Saharan

Africa, the importance of the animal trypanosomiasis (nagana of
cattle) on that continent ranks tsetse as one of the world's major
arthropod-vector groups. The very complex developmental cycle of
the trypanosome within the tsetse vector is further complicated by
several of other factors related to the biology of the vector, pathogen,
and host. Not only are the various species of tsetse flies

128
characterized by differences in their distribution, biology, and host
preferences, but even within the same species environmental factors
(especially humidity, temperature, and vegetation), densities and
composition of mammalian hosts, and vector population densities
affect their epidemiological role. In addition, there are wide
intraspecific variations in both morphology and pathogenicity of
trypanosomes. Certain parasite antigens that stimulate production of
protective antibodies by the host change before the parasites are
completely eliminated; new antibodies are then produced by the host,
and the parasites change their antigenic constitution again to maintain
themselves.
Animal trypanosomiasis is greatest hinderance in animal production
and agricultural development in tropical Africa.

5.5 Prevention and control

Reduction of tsetse fly numbers plays a significant role, especially

against the rhodesiense form of the disease. In the past, this has
involved extensive clearance of bush to destroy tsetse fly breeding and
resting sites, and widespread application of insecticides

Control Measures: - Clearing forest and bushy habitat of tsetse clear

10 - 12 meters on both sides of forest crossing roads. Close highway
of tsetse infested areas. Trapping adults, killing pupa use nets or /
odor attracted traps, use animals as bait / visual targets to trap,
Inspection of people and treating cases. Genetic control: sterile males
by radiation. Insecticide application / with care (Arial spraying, Ground
spraying, Fumigation, DDT, and BHC), Use of repellents: Oils, lotions

129
or creams applied to exposed body parts or applied lightly on clothing.
Management Insect sweep nets or biconcial, ox-odor-baited traps are
the most effective way to survey for these insects, even though such
techniques aren't species specific. Since the vector ecology varies, it is
necessary to identify the species common to a specific area before
taking appropriate pest management measures. Strict vegetation
management includes clearing dense brush along waterways and
around contaminated areas (preferably up to a mile away if possible).
Aircraft pesticidal applications that give a small droplet size
(approximately 250 microns or less) can be effective in areas where it
is not practical to eliminate or reduce thick brush for at least a quarter
of a mile.
Contingency considerations The only time human trypanosomiasis
is a contingency consideration is when operations are necessary in
the tsetse fly infested areas. If this is the situation, troop staging, and
as much of the support operations as possible, should be kept
outside of the known fly breeding areas. Aircraft spray operations
should be applied to brushy areas surrounding containment areas
and strict brush control should be practiced within the containment
area itself and within a mile of a large containment Strict use of
individual protective measures such as the repellent jacket and
proper uniform wear must be strictly enforced. To date the only cost-
effective success has been with large scale use of ox-odor-baited
traps.

130
Review Questions
1. List the favourable breeding site for tsetse fly.
2. Write at least four features typical to tsetse flies.
3. Describe the possible applicable environmental friendly
control measures of tsetse flies.
4. List at least two medical important species of glosina which
are found in Africa.

131
 CHAPTER SIX
MUSCIDAE /HOUSE FLY/ AND OTHER
DIPTERANS

Learning objectives
At the end of this chapter the reader will be able to
- discuss all possible diseases transmitted by house fly
- describe the possible factors affecting the distribution of house
fly
- list the applicable control techniques of house fly

6.1 Physical Characteristics/identification

The common House fly is medium sized (1/6 to 1/4 inch long,)
generally gray in color with the female usually large than the male.
The thorax bears four narrow black stripes. The female fly has a
much wider space between the eyes than the male.

Eggs
The eggs are white, elongate and about 1/20" long.

Larva
The larva is also referred to as a maggot. When it first emerges from
the egg it is transparent. As it grows it assumes a creamy white
color. Maggots have no legs and are somewhat carrot shaped. Two

132
small openings used for breathing are located at the hind end.
They're about 2/5" long.

Pupa
The pupae are reddish-brown in color. They are barrel-shaped and
about 3/8" long. Pupal cases are sometimes mistaken for American
cockroach egg capsules.

Adults
The adults have two wings (most adult insects have four). There are
four narrow black stripes located on the thorax or area just behind
the head. The adult is 1/4" long.

Biting
Adult house flies do not bite. They have sponging mouthparts for
feeding. In order to feed on a piece of food, the fly must first
regurgitate some saliva on the food to soften it. The food is
transformed into a liquid and sponged up.

Wings: two-membranous. Swift strong flyers (up to 30 mph.) with

wing beats of up to 1000 times per second. Hind wings are not
developed and are reduced to 2 short slender threads with a knob at
the end (may be used for balancing).

Metamorphosis: Complete (egg, larva, and pupa, adult). Maggots

are usually small, white legless worms without an obvious head.

Features: Soft-bodied insect. Head, thorax and abdomen are very

distinct. Thorax is generally quite small. The head is dominated by

133
two enormous compound eyes and the legs are clawed. Antennae
are small.

The mouth parts and feeding habits

The structure of the mouth part is made in such a way that the fly is
unable to feed any solid matter except in liquid form. The proboscis
looks like a funnel turned upside down. Because of this, the fly feed
by what is known sponging method. It can to ingest food particles
larger than about 0.05 mm in diameter. Hence the food to be eaten
must be transformed into solution or soluble forms. The solvent
(liquid) for dissolving the food (solute) into solution form is stored in
a special container called crop, connected to the proboscis by the
crop duct. Thus whenever the fly tries to feed it vomits the crop
through the proboscis on to the surface of the food in order to
dissolve it and eat it. This have it of feeding by vomiting and sucking
is known as regurgitation and is commonly employed on almost all
surfaces the fly test with its proboscis. As a result, yellowish
coloured spots or drops are deposited on nearly every surface
where the fly rests. These spots called vomit spots are visible on
window panes of kitchens and other places visited by the fly.
Similarly around unsanitary kitchens and food service areas, one
can observe rather dark minute pellet like spots, which are the
faeces of flies. Flies feed once about every 4-5 hours and may
produce around 15 to 30 vomit sports in 24 hours. It is important to
realize that the crop is known to contain thousands of micro-
organisms, which are deposited where ever the fly lands. It is also
worth noting that because of the nature of its mouth part, water is
essential fro a fly’s existence. It is believed that they can stay without

134
water for a maximum period of 48 hours. Because of this necessity
the fly is often attracted to wherever liquid is available such as
exposed milk and other fluid, to human eyes, exposed wound etc.

The hairy body and sticky legs

The housefly has a hairy body and peculiar type of legs. All the ends
of the six legs have tiny pad-like attachments, which are known as
Pulvilli. The pulvilli contain sticky secretion and easily flatten out and
hold firmly to the surfaces on which the fly rests. They enable the fly
to rest or walk on walls, edges, ceilings, slippery surfaces, and
overhead structures without being affected by gravity.
In addition to its hazardous habits of breeding in filth, feeding on filth
and regurgitation, the fly’s hairy body and sticky legs help to spread
microorganisms from foci of infections (human excreta, animal
wastes etc.) to exposed food, food contact surfaces, human eyes
and other exposed spots.

Phototropism
The housefly is instinctively attracted towards light: It in fact avoids
darkness and does not breed in totally dark places, such as deep pt
latrines etc. This knowledge is employed in some of the fly control
measures such as use of ventilated improved pit latrine (VIP) and
baited traps. During the night the housefly is normally inactive and
rest on edges or similar surfaces.

The compound eyes

The eyes occupy prominent place on the front of the housefly. The
compound eyes consist of facets known as ocelli and enable the fly

135
to see in all directions simultaneously. These eyes help the fly to
search fro food as well as to escape easily from enemies.

Flight range
Housefly populations can disperse rapidly from their place of
breeding to a radius of significant distances. Flight range tests using
flies tagged with radio-active materials have been performed in
different parts of the world. Based on these tests their average flight
ranges is reckoned to be between 10 and 20 km per 24 hours.
However, a large proportion of the fly populations are generally
limited to about 200 to 300 meters of their breeding media. From this
fact is can be seen that effective fly control programme calls for the
involvement of all the neighborhoods or the community at large
rather than households or food establishments alone.

6.2. Life cycle

Houseflies go through 4 stages of development: egg, larva, pupa

and adult. The entire life cycle can be completed in 7-10 days under
ideal conditions. Adult females can lay as many as 2,700 eggs in 30
days but more commonly lay 350-900 in 5 or 6 different batches.
The eggs which are laid singly but often appear in clusters hatch in 6
to 24 hours. The maggot remains in the breeding media for 4-10
days, feeding and growing. In wet breeding areas, full grown larvae
climb to the surface or sides of the breeding media before pupating.
There have been cases of the larva crawling a distance of 150 ft.
from the breeding source in order to pupate. The pupal stage lasts
3-6 days. The adult female is ready to lay eggs 2 days after

136
emergence and continues to lay eggs for about one month. Adult
flies live from 30-60 days during warmer months. In Northern areas,
some adults may survive indoors for several months. It appears that
flies continue to breed all year in low numbers in heated buildings
such as dirty restaurants or incinerator rooms. In the spring these
flies disperse to other buildings and increase in numbers rapidly.

The female of the species can be seen depositing their eggs on

suitable breeding materials. Often, the females can be seen in
clusters of up to 50 individuals. The female house fly lays individual
eggs that pile up in masses of 75 to 150 eggs; in her lifetime, a
single female house fly may lay up to 900 eggs. The female fly
begins laying her eggs anywhere from 4 to 12 days from emerging
from her pupae. She may lay 5 or 6 batches at intervals of several
days between each.

In warm weather, the leg-less white pupae (or maggots) emerge

from their eggs in 8 to 20 hours. This larva goes through three
instars (or stages of development) in 1 week or less during warmer
seasons, up to 8 weeks during cooler times. The house fly maggot
and eggs depend on damp organic material in which to develop and
feed. When it has completed its last instar, the fly maggot will move
to a cool dry area in which to pupate. These larvae have confused
many people by showing up far away from any possible breeding
site. They have been known to travel over 100 feet to locate a
suitable place to pupate. The pupa transforms into an adult in as
little as 3 days or as long as 5 weeks. This pupation period besides
conducive environmental conditions, such as availability of adequate

137
food and moisture, temperature is an important determinant for
breeding ranges from 29oC to 32oC, temperatures of 46oC or above
will kill the eggs and larvae; while temperatures below 7oC will retard
or inactivate the development process. Under the climatic conditions
of most parts of Ethiopia and that of most tropical countries, flies can
breed throughout the year and the average life cycle may be
completed between 8 and 16 days. Depending on environmental
conditions, the average life span ranges from 30 to 45 days. Given
the large number of eggs laid and the rapid rate of development, fly
populations reach alarming proportions unless control measures are
taken at an appropriate time.

Breeding places
Houseflies can breed practically in any moist, decaying or
fermenting human, animal and plant wastes. The following are some
of the favourite breeding media:

1. Human excreta: whenever exposed in open latrines, seepage

pits, septic tanks or in open field.
2. Animal wastes: horse manure, cow-dung,etc. whenerer moist
and decomposing.
3. Garbage: whenever moist and exposed.
4. Practically in any moist, rotting organic matter.

6.3. Public Health importance

Flies have been implicated as disease vectors fro thousands of
years. Specially the housefly has been known to be the most
dangerous contaminant of food, and transmitter of food borne and

138
other diseases. The explanation for this trait lies in its anatomical
structure, peculiar breeding and feeding habits, and its close
companionship to human beings and his habitations. The housefly is
known as a mechanical transmitter of disease agents, which
means that it carries through its body parts disease agents
(pathogens) from sources of infections to foods, food contact
surfaces, to human eyes, and other exposed body parts. In
mechanical transmission of disease, the biological pathogens do not
undergo developmental changes or multiplication, i.e. they are
simply transferred from the sources of infection to new places. An
example of this is indicated in Figure 11.1. The fly breeds in open
latrine, then carries pathogenic organisms from the faeces with its
mouth part, legs and body, and crawls over the exposed food. The
faeces-fly contaminated food is consumed by healthy persons, who
eventually develop the diseases, in this case, enteric infections.

Greenberg (1973) in his comprehensive volume on “ FLIES AND

DISEASE” as well as in a research publication (1965) has
indicatedteh following diseases transmitted y flies: Dysentery
(amoebic and bacillary), typhoid, cholera, salmonellosis,
tuberculosis, leprosy, anthrax, polio-myelitis, coxsackie virus
infections, infectious hepatitis, yaws, trachoma, conjunctivitis and
various infections by parasitic worms. (3,4) . Many investigators
have also shown that outbreaks of diarrhoeal diseases and
trachoma etc. correspond closely with the seasonal rise in fly
population density (4,5,6,7).

139
Albertsen, et al. (1957) stated that houseflies experimentally fed on
a suspension of a food poisoning strain of staphylococcus were
found to have these organisms on their feet and proboscis 3 days
later, while the same organisms survived in their digestive tracts fro
8 days. (8)
In addition to disease transmission, houseflies affect human in being
one of the persistently annoying insects, landing in undesirable
places. E.g. face, eyes, wounds, foods etc.

6.4 Prevention and Control

House fly elimination is accomplished through good integrated pest

management (IPM) [Link] following steps will rid your
home of house flies: Sanitation, Exclusion, Sprays, Baits.

Sanitation for the House Fly

Sanitation procedures not only include the obvious (clean trash

receptacles, etc.) but also doing the little things that can help reduce
the number of house flies in and around a structure. Indoors, make
sure that all trash cans are thoroughly cleaned before trash bags are
used. All trash bags need to be secured before disposing in an
outdoor container.

All outdoor receptacles (dumpsters, trash cans) need to be cleaned

regularly; they also need to have properly operating covers. What
good is a trash can without a lid? If possible, move dumpsters far
away from structures. This will help cut down the number of house
flies inside homes and businesses. Keep the areas around

140
dumpsters as clean and dry as possible; house fly eggs and pupae
need damp material to develop and survive.

Exclusion

House flies enter homes by several means: doors which do not

close properly or that do not have a good fit; windows without
screens or with screens in ill repair. Flies also enter buildings
through tiny cracks around windows and doors; seal or caulk these
areas.

Sprays

Space sprays and pheromone traps can be helpful tools in

eliminating indoor blowflies, but the elimination of their breeding
sources is the only guaranteed way to eliminate them. Make certain
that all possible sanitation measures have been implemented before
relying on chemical sprays to eliminate flies. Space sprays can be
used to knock down existing house fly infestations, but this is only a
temporary fix. If breeding sites have not been eliminated or altered,
house flies will continue to be a problem. Surface sprays can be
used around windows and doors and should also be used on
dumpsters. Any area where flies "rest" or enter in building can be
treated with a good surface spray. However, do not spray areas that
humans constantly come into contact with or on surfaces where food
is prepared or served.

141
Baits

Use baits inside dumpsters and the area around such trash
containers, if there are no non-target animals (dogs or children) in
the immediate area. Are there homeless people going through the
trash at night? If so, do not bait inside the container, but bait the
area surrounding the receptacle. Baits should be re-applied after
every cleaning or rainfall.

Common House Fly and Other Related Flies

Biology
The common house fly, is a pest all over the world. The adult has
the fourth wing vein sharply angled and four length-wise dark stripes
on the top of the thorax. Its face has two velvety tripes which are
silver above and gold below. Each adult female begins laying eggs a
few days after hatching, laying a total of five to six batches of 75 to
100 small, white oval eggs. In warm weather these hatch in 12 to 24
hours into cream-colored larvae which burrow into the food material
on which they hatched. These larvae grow and pupate in 4 to 7 days
in warm weather. The mature larva contracts until its skin forms a
case about 1/4 inch long. Inside this case, the true pupa forms.
When fully formed, the adult fly breaks open the end of the pupal
case and emerges. It is ready to mate within in a few hours after
merging. The hardened larval skin which is left behind still exhibits
most of the characteristics which are used in larval identification;
thus determination can often be made on the basis of the skin alone.
During warm weather two or more generations may be completed in
a month. Normally the population builds up and is greatest in early

142
fall months. The method of over wintering is not well understood, but
in some areas populations develop indoors throughout the winter.
House fly eggs are laid in almost any warm moist material which will
furnish suitable food for the growing larvae. Animal manure, human
excrement, garbage, decaying vegetable material and ground
contaminated with such organic mater are suitable materials.
Although they are attracted to a wide variety of food materials,
house flies have mouthparts which enable them to ingest only liquid
materials. Solid materials are liquefied by means of regurgitated
saliva. This liquefied food is then drawn up by the mouthparts and
passed onto the digestive tract.

During daylight hours house flies will rest on floors, walls and
ceilings indoors. Outdoors they will rest on plants, on the ground, on
fence wires, garbage cans and other similar surfaces. At night they
will rest principally on ceilings, electric wires and dangling light cords
indoors. In all situations they prefer corners and edges or thin
objects such as wires and strings. Night resting places are usually
near daytime sources of food and are usually 5 to 15 feet off the
ground.

143
 Fig. 6.1 Egg, larvae, pupae and adult of common house fly

6.5 Recommended Control Measures

1. Exclusion and Sanitation:

- Sanitation is the first measure of defense, even though there

are various traps and sprays that are used to kill flies, it is
necessary to eliminate the source in order to eliminate them.
- Whenever possible, food and materials on which the flies
can lay their eggs must be removed, destroyed, as a
breeding medium, or isolated from the egg-laying adult.
Killing adult flies will reduce infestation, but elimination of
breeding areas is necessary for good management.

144
- The key to controlling these infestations is to locate and
eliminate their breeding sources.
- Garbage cans and dumpsters should have tight-fitting lids
and be cleaned regularly.
- Drainage will often aid control, getting rid of extra moisture.
- Openings of buildings should be tightly screened with
screen.

2. Trapping-Glue and Outside

Window Fly Trap-allows you to use a trap to stick on the window,

without using an insecticide.

Advantage of fly trap is an excellent trap for the outside, with a

unique attractant lure included. It will trap house flies, blow flies and
a broad range of other fly species:

3. Electronic traps: Inside Use electronic fly traps are very efficient
and functional:

Properly fitting screen doors and windows are essential to exclude

flies from homes and other areas where food is prepared. UV insect
lights and air curtains used in industrial applications are effective but
maybe cost prohibitive in a domestic situation. A combination of
good sanitation and mechanical exclusion will produce the same
effect and keep fly populations under control. Elimination of potential
breeding sites will help in the general reduction of fly numbers. Pet
faeces should be removed and fresh manure and other compost dug
into garden beds. Routine emptying and cleaning of all garbage

145
receptacles will reduce breeding. People traveling to destinations
that may include rural areas of Africa, Central and South America,
should be aware of possible infection by the immature stages of
several exotic flies.

The three basic principles of house fly control are sanitation,

exclusion and non-chemical measures. Sanitation will provide the
best long-term control, followed by exclusion and non-chemical
measures, which provide shorter-term management.

Sanitation: Flies can't breed in large numbers if food sources are

limited. Don't allow materials such as manure, garbage or other
decaying organic matter to accumulate. Keep trash cans clean and
tightly covered. If garbage becomes infested with maggots, dispose
of it immediately.

Exclusion: Flies can be kept outside of homes by the use of window

and door screens. Make sure screens are tight fitting and without
holes. Keep doors closed, making sure there are no openings at the
top or bottom. Check for openings around water or gas pipes or
electrical conduits that feed into the building. Caulk or plug any
openings. Ventilation holes should be screened, as they can serve
as entryways for flies as well.

Non-chemical Measures: The use of devices such as ultraviolet-

light traps, sticky fly traps, fly swatters, and baited fly traps can
eliminate many flies inside a home, but the fly swatter is the most
economical control method for the occasional fly.

146
6.6 Other Dipterans
Blue or Blow fly
Class - Insecta Classification
Order- Diptera
Family- Calliphoridae- Blue or blow fly.
Genus 1: Calliphora.
Species- Calliphora vicina- Blue bottle fly.
Genus 2: Cynomyopsis
Species - Cynomyopsis cadverina- Blue bottle fly.
Genus 3: Lucilia
Species- Lucilia illustries - Green bottle fly.
Genus 4: Phaenica
Species- Phaenica sericata - Green bottle fly.
Phaenica cuprina “ “ “
Genus 5: Phormia
Species - Phormia regina - Black blow fly.
Genus 6: Cochliomyia
Species - Cochliomyia hominivorax - Screw worm fly.

General Features of Calliphoridae: Blue or Blow flies

All calliphoridae have world wide distribution. As common house fly

they are also mechanical disease vectors. Their breeding place is on
waste, decaying animal matter, and some lay their egg on flesh and
make human food unfit. The phormia regina species usually lay their
eggs on flesh. The female cochliomia hominivorax lay their eggs on
wound and result in myiasis particularly on sheep, goat and cattle.
Calliphora species also lay their egg on wound and the developing

147
maggot damage the neighbouring tissues example Lucilia illustries.

Public Health Importance:

Generally calliphorids are responsible to cause myiasis.

Prevention and Control of Calliphoridae:

► Basic sanitation:-

By proper disposal of both human and animal wastes, it is possible

to control the immature stages of these flies.

► Application of Insecticide:
Residual Insecticides like DDT (5% or 10%) used. From the non-
residual insecticide the pyrethrins are the best to kill adult flies while
flying or resting.

Sarchophagidae /Flesh Fly/

Class Inseca
Order- Diptera
Family - Sarcophagidae
Genus-Sarcophaga.
Species - S. occidua
Common Name- Flesh fly

General Feature and Identification:

Flesh flies are synanthropic (domestic) flies because of their close

association with man. When compared to Common House Fly they
are larger in size, and have grayish colour. Their abdomen is a

148
grayish black. There is a black strip on the thorax.

Adults are attracted towards feces and other wastes, in which they
normally breed and / or settle. Larvae, however, found on flesh,
decaying organic matter, and dead body. They sometimes infest
wounds or sores and cause intestinal myiasis.

Life Cycle:

Flesh flies pass through complete metamorphosis. Adults are

larviparous and therefore, the immatured larvae laid on flesh, dead
body and offals, etc. After the larvae changed to pupa, it dropped on
the ground and with favorable condition, the adult comes out of it.

Public Health Importance

1. Myiasis: is an illness condition that occurs while the larvae of the

Diapterans burry it self under the skin.
Flesh flies can bring intestinal or wound myiasis occasionally.
They are killer of sheep, goat, cattle and other animals.

2. Nuisance: The presence of flesh flies in the living environment is

undesirable. Because particularly when their number is large
they can make out door activities difficult.

Control Measure:

1. Application of Basic Sanitation:

Control of the immatured stages of flesh flies is linked with
sanitation. By proper disposal of refuse, the breeding place of
the fly can easily be abolished.

149
2. Application of Insecticides:
Both residual insecticides like DDT and non-residual insecticides
such as pyrethrum are commonly used. The pyrethrins used as
a space spray to knock-down and kill adults when they are flying
or resting in an enclosed space.

Review Questions
1. Describe the important characterstics of the common house fly.
2. List the potential breeding sites for common house fly.
3. Discuss the contol mechanisms against house fly.
4. List the common sources of food, breeding places and
resting places of house fly
5. Write all possible factors that affect the distribution, of house
fly in a certain environment.
6. Discuss the applicable control methods of house fly
7. Describe the public health importance of caliphoridae?
8. What is myasis?
9. How can we control Caliphoridae

150
 CHAPTER SEVEN
SIPHONAPTERA (FLEAS)

Learning objectives
At the end of this chapter the reader will be able to:
-Describe the identification features of flea.
-Discuss the medical importance and control methods of fleas.
-Design the applicable control strategies of fleas.

7.1 Introduction

There are some 2500 species and subspecies of fleas belonging to

239 genera but only relatively few are important pests of humans.
Fleas are found throughout most of the world but many genera and
species have a more restricted distribution, for example the genus
Xenopsylla which contains important vectors of plague (yersinia
pestis), and flea-borne endemic typhus (Rickettsia typhi). Some
fleas such as ctenocephalides species are intermediate hosts of
cestodes (Dipylidium caninum),(Hymenolepis nana, [Link]).
Fleas may also be vectors of tularaemia (Francisella tularensis), and
the chigoe or jigger flea (tunga penetrans) enters in to the feet of
people.

7.2 External Morphology

Adults are relatively small (1-4mm), and more or less oval insects,
compressed laterally and varying in color from light to dark brown.
Wings are absent, but there are three pairs of powerful and well-

151
developed legs, the hind pair of which are specialized for jumping.
The legs and much of the body parts are covered with bristles and
small spines. The head is roughly triangular in shape, bears a pair of
conspicuous black eyes (a few species are eyeless), and short three
segmented more or less club-shaped antennae, which lie in
depressions behind the eyes.

7.3 Life Cycle

Both sexes of fleas take blood –meals and are there fore equally
important as vectors of disease. The present account is a
generalized description of the life cycle of fleas which may occur on
humans or animals, such as dogs, cats and commensal rats. The life
cycle of the chigoe (tunga penetrans) is described separately. A
female flea, which is ready to oviposit, may leave the host to deposit
her eggs in debris, which accumulates in the host‘s dwelling place,
such as rodent burrows or nests.
With species which occur on humans or their domestic pets, such as
cats and dogs, females often lay their eggs in or near cracks and
crevices on the floor or amongst dust, dirt and debris. Sometimes,
however, eggs are laid while the flea is still on the host and these
usually, but not always, fall to the ground. The eggs are very small,
oval, white or yellowish and lack any pattern. They are thinly coated
with a sticky substance, which usually results in them becoming
covered with dirt and debris. Adult fleas may live for up to 6-12
months, or possibly 2years or more, and during this time a female
may lay 300-1000 eggs mostly in small bathes of about 3-25 a day.

Larvae are very active. They avoid light and seek shelter in cracks

152
and crevices and amongst debris on floors of houses, or at the
bottom of nests and animal burrows. Sometimes, however, larvae
are found amongst the fur of animals, and even on people who have
unclean habits and dirt-laden clothes, and occasionally in beds.
Larvae feed on almost any organic debris including the host’s
faeces, and partly digested blood evacuated from the alimentary
canal of adult fleas. In a few species feeding on expelled blood
seems to be a nutritional requirement for larval development. In
some species larvae are scavengers and feed on small dead insects
or dead adult fleas of their own kind. There are usually three larval
instars, but in some species there are only two instars.
The larval period may last as little as 10-21 days, but this varies
greatly according to species, and may be prolonged more than 200
days by unfavorable conditions such as limited food supply and low
temperatures. Mature larvae are 4-10 mm long. Unlike adult fleas,
larvae cannot tolerate large extremes in relative humidity and they
die if humidities are either too low or too high.

At the end of the larval period the larva spins a whitish cocoon from
silk produced by the larval salivary glands. Because of its sticky
nature it soon becomes covered with fine particles of dust, organic
debris and sand picked up from the floor of the host’s home.
Cocoons camouflaged in this way are very difficult to distinguish
from their surroundings. About 2-3 days after having spun a cocoon
around it self the larva pupates within the cocoon.

Adults emerge from the pupa after about 7-14 days, but this period
depends on the ambient temperature. After having emerged from

153
the pupa the adult flea requires a stimulus, usually vibrations, such
as caused by the movements of the host within its home, burrow or
nest, before it escapes from the cocoon. If, however, animal shelters
or houses are vacated, then adult fleas fail to escape from their
cocoons until their dwelling places are reoccupied. In some species,
carbon dioxide emitted from hosts or a seasonal increase in humidity
stimulates emergence. Adult may remain alive in their cocoons for
about 1 year. This explains why people moving in to buildings which
have been vacated for many months may be suddenly attacked by
large numbers of very bloodthirsty fleas, these being newly emerged
adults seeking their first blood-meal.

The life cycle from eggs to adult emergence may be as short as 2-3
weeks for certain species under optimum conditions, but frequently
the life cycle is considerably longer, such as 20 months or more.

Fleas avoid light and are therefore usually found sheltering amongst
the hairs or feathers of animals, or on people under their clothing or
in the bed.

If given the opportunity many species of fleas feed several times

during the day or although most species of fleas have one or two
favorite species of hosts, they are not entirely host-specific, for
example, cat and dog fleas (ctenocephalides felis and [Link]) will
readily feed on humans, especially in the absence of their normal
hosts. Human fleas (pulex irritans) feed on pigs and rat fleas of the
genus xenopsylla will attack people in the absence of rats. Most
fleas will in fact bite other hosts in their immediate vicinity when their

154
normal hosts are absent or scarce. However, although feeding on
less acceptable hosts keeps fleas alive, their fertility can be seriously
reduced by continued feeding on such hosts. Fleas rapidly abandon
dead hosts to seek out new ones, the behavior which is of profound
epidemiological importance in plague transmission. Fleas can
withstand both considerable desiccation and prolonged periods of
starvation, for example 6 months or more when no suitable hosts are
present. On their hosts, fleas move either by rapidly crawling or by
jumping. But host they tend to jump more than crawl in their search
for new hosts. Fleas can jump about 20 cm vertically and 30 cm or
more horizontally. (Such remarkable feats are achieved through a
rubber- like protein called resilin, which is very elastic and can
become highly compressed with rapid expansion of the compressed
of state that gives the power for jumping.)

7.4 Public Health Importance

1. Flea Nuisance
Although certain species of fleas may be important vectors of
disease, the most widespread complaint about them concerns the
annoyance caused by their bites, which in some people lead to
considerable discomfort and irritation. The three most widespread
and common nuisance fleas are the cat and dog fleas
ctenocephalides felis and [Link], and to lesser extent the so-called
human flea, pulex irritans. In some areas other species such as the
European chicken flea (ceratophyllus gallinae) and the western
chicken flea (ceratophyllus Niger) may be of local importance.

Fleas frequently bite people on the ankles and legs but at night a

155
sleeping persons is bitten on other parts of the body. In many people
the bite is felt almost immediately but irritation usually becomes
worse some time after biting. In sensitized people intense itching
may result. Because fleas are difficult to catch this tends to increase
the annoyance they cause, and people attacked by fleas frequently
spend sleepless nights alternately scratching themselves and trying
to catch the fleas. There is evidence that children under 10 years
generally experience greater discomfort than older people.

2. Plague
Plague is caused by yersinia pestis and is primarily a disease of
wiled animals, especially rodents, not people. Over 220 rodent
species have been shown to harbor plague bacilli. The cycle of
transmission of plague between wild rodent, such as gerbils,
marmots, voles, chipmuks and ground squirrels, is termed sylvatic,
campestral, rural or endemic plague transmission amongst them.
When people such as fur trappers and hunters handle these wild
animals there is the risk that they will get bitten by rodent fleas and
become infected with plague.

An important form of plague is urban plague. This describes the

situation when plague circulating among the wild rodent population
has been transmitted to commensal rats, and is maintained in the rat
population by fleas such as xenopsylla cheopis (Europe, Asia Africa
and the Americans), X. astia (south-east Asia) and X. brasiliensis
(Africa, South America and India). When rats are living in close
association with people, such as rat- infested slums, fleas normally
feeding on rats may turn their attention to humans. This is most

156
likely to happen when rats are infected with plague and as a result
rapidly develop an acute and fatal septicaemia. On death of the rats
the infected fleas leave their more normal hosts and feed on
humans. In this way plague is spread by rat fleas to the human
population. The most important vector species is X. cheopis but
other species including Xenopsylla astia, X. brasiliensis; and more
rarely Nosopyllus fasciatus Leptopsylla aethiopica, Ctenocephalides
felis, [Link] as well as other species in another 45 genera have
been incriminated in some parts of world with plague transmission.
In addition to humans becoming infected by the bite of fleas which
have previously fed on infected rats the disease can also be spread
from person to person by fleas such as Xenopsylla species and
Pulex irritans, feeding on a Plague victim then on another person.
This latter method, however, appears to play a minor role in the
transmission of plague.

Transmission cycle of plague

Plague bacilli sucked up with the blood meals of male and female
fleas are passed to the stomach where they undergo so great
multiplication that they extend forwards to invade the proventriculus.
In some species, especially those of the genus Xenopsylla further
multiplication in the proventriculus may result in becoming partially,
or more or less completely, blocked. This prevents the
proventriculus from functioning normally and results in fleas
regurgitating some of the blood meal during later feeds. Thus,
plague bacilli obtained from a previous feed are passed down the
flea mouthparts in to the host. In the case of completely blocked
fleas blood is sucked up with considerable difficulty about as far as

157
the proventiculus, where it mixes with the bacilli and is then
regurgitated back in to the new host. Blocked fleas soon become
starved and repeatedly bite in attempts to get a blood – meal, and
are therefore potentially very dangerous. Even if there is no
blockage of the alimentary canal, plague transmission can
nevertheless occur by direct contamination from the flea’s
mouthparts.

Another, but less important, method of infection is by the flea’s

faeces being rubbed in to abrasions in the skin or coming in to
contact with mucous membranes. Plague bacilli can remain infective
in flea faeces for as long as 3years. Occasionally the tonsils become
infected with plague bacilli due to crushing infected fleas between
the teeth.

In pneumonic plague the bacilli occur in enormous numbers in the

sputum. This form of plague is highly contagious due to the ease by
which bacilli are transmitted from patients to others by coughing and
the inhalation of droplets; insects are not involved in the spread of
pneumonic plague.

3. Flea-Borne Endemic Typhus

Flea borne or murine typhus is caused by Rickettsia typhi (mooseri)
which is ingested by the flea with its blood-meal. Within the gut the
rickettsiae multiply, but unlike plague bacilli they do not cause any
blockage of the proventriculus or stomach. Infection is caused by
infected faeces being rubbed in to abrasions or coming in to contact
with delicate mucous membranes, and also by the release of

158
rickettsiae from crashed fleas. Feaces may remain infective under
ideal conditions for as long as 4-9 years. Murine typhus is essentially a
disease of rodent, particularly rats and especially Rattus rattus and R.
norvegicus. It is spread among rats and other rodents by Xenopsylla
species, especially X. cheopis, but also by Nosopsyllus faciatus,
leptopsylla segnis and by a few ectoparasites which are not fleas,
such as the rat louse polyplax spinulosa (possibly also Hoplopleura
spp.) and maybe by the tropical rat mite Ornithonyssus bacoti. People
become infected mainly through Xenopsylla cheopis, but occasionally
Nosopsyllus fasciatus, Ctenocephalides canis; C. felis and pulex
irritans may be involved. Leptopsylla segnis does not attack humans,
but it is possible that murine typhus is sometimes spread to them by
an aerosol of infective faeces of this species.

The rickettsia of murine typhus can pass across in the flea’s ovaries, in
to the eggs and then to the larvae, a form of trans-ovarial transmission.
But whether this is epidemiological important remains unknown.

4. Cestodes
Dipylidium caninum is one of the more common tapeworms of dogs
and cats and occasionally occurs in children, and Hymenolepis
diminuta infects rats and mice and occasionally people. These
tapeworms can be transmitted by fleas to both rodents and humans.
Eggs of these parasites are passed out with excreta of rats and
domestic pets and may be swallowed by larval fleas feeding on
excreta. Larval worms hatching from the ingested eggs penetrate the
gut wall of the larval flea and pass across in to the body cavity
(coelom). They remain trapped within this space and pass on to the

159
pupa and finally to the adult flea where they encapsulate and become
cysticercoids (infective larvae). Animals can become infected by licking
their coats during grooming and thus swallowing the infected adult
fleas. Similarly, young children fondling and kissing dogs and cats can
become infected with D. caninum by swallowing cat and dog fleas or
by being licked by dogs which have crushed infected fleas in their
mouths thus liberating the infective cysticercoids Adult rat fleas
(xenopsylla, Nosopsyllus) occasionally get mixed with food or drink
and swallowed by humans, who may then become infected with
Hymenolepis diminuta.

Another tapeworm of humans, H. nana is spread through

contaminated food or water, and possibly also by fleas but their role in
transmission is unclear because a morphologically identical parasite,
H. fraterna of rats and mice, has fleas, especially Xenopsylla species,
as intermediate hosts. Hymenolepis nana is known to be capable of
developing in insects, and it is possible that fleas and rodents some
times serve intermediate as hosts and reservoirs of infection,
respectively

5. Less Important Diseases

In addition to the above diseases and parasites spread by fleas, these
insects may play some small part in the transmission of Francisella
tularensis, Rickettsia conori, Coxiella burneti and some other rather minor
infections. However, it should be stressed that their role as vectors of these
pathogens is at the most minimal.

7.5 Tunga Penetrans

160
External Morphology
Tunga Penetrans is found in the tropics and subtropics, having a
distribution stretching from central and South America, the West Indies
across Africa to Madagascar. It has occasionally been reported in
persons in India returning from overseas, mainly Africa, but the flea is
not indigenous to India or elsewhere in Asia. Tunga penetrans is
sometimes referred to as the Chigoe or Jigger or sand-flea. Tunga
penetrans does not transmit any disease to people but is a nuisance
because females burrow in to the skin.

Adults of both sexes are exceedingly small, only about 1 mm long.

They have neither general nor pronotal combs and are easily
separated from other fleas of medical importance by their very
compressed first three (thoracic) segments and the paucity of and
bristles on the body.

Life Cycle and Medical Importance

Eggs are dropped on to the floor of houses or on the ground outside.
They hatch within about 3-4 days and the larvae inhabit dirty and dusty
floors or dry sandy soils especially in areas frequented by hosts of the
adult fleas. Under favorable conditions larval development is
completed within about 10-14 days. The pupal period lasts about 5-14
days, and complete life cycle can be as about 18 days.

Newly emerged adults are very agile and jump and crawl about on the
ground until they locate a suitable host which is usually a person or
pig. Both sexes feed on blood but whereas the male soon leaves the
host after taking a blood-meal. The female after being fertilized

161
burrows in to the skin where it is soft as between the toes or under toe-
nails. Other areas of the foot including the sole may also be invaded.
In people habitually sitting on the ground such as beggars or infants
the buttocks may often be infected and particularly heavy infections
have been recorded from leprosy patients. In heavily infected
individuals the arms especially the elbows may also be attacked and
occasionally the females burrow in to the soft skin around the genital
region. Burrowing in to the skin appears to be accomplished by the
flea’s sharp and well-developed mouthparts. The result is that the
entire flea with exception of the abdomen bearing the anus genital
opening and large respiratory spiracles becomes completely buried in
the host’s skin. In this embedded position she continues to feed. The
area surrounding the embedded portion results in ulcerations and
accumulation of pus. While the blood-meal is being digested the
abdomen distends to an enormous size (about 1000 times a small
pea. This expansion is accomplished in some 8-10 days. Towards the
end of this period of abdominal enlargement the ovaries are composed
of thousands of minute eggs. Over the next 7-14 days about 150-200
eggs are passed out of the female genital opening most of which
eventually fall to the ground and hatch after about 3-4 days.

When the fleas die they remain embedded within the host. This
frequently causes inflammation and may in addition result in
secondary infections which if ignored be able to lead to loss of the toes
tetanus or even gangrene. Male fleas cause no such trouble as they
do not borrow in to the skin. These fleas are most common in people
not wearing shoes such as children. Because they are feeble jumpers
wearing shoes is a simple but in some communities’ relatively costly

162
method of the likelihood of flea infection.
Females embedded in the skin should be removed with fine needles
under aseptic conditions and wounds formed by their extraction is
sterilized and dressed. They are removed with in the first few days,
before they are becoming established as they are difficult to extract
when they have greatly distended abdomens containing numerous
eggs without rupturing them and this increases the risk of infections.

Pigs in addition to humans are often commonly invaded by Tunga and

they may provide a local reservoir of infection. Other animals such as
cats dogs and rats are also readily attacked.

7.6 Control of Fleas

1. Insecticide application
Cat and dog fleas (Ctenocephalides felis and [Link]) can most easily
be detected by examination of the fur round the neck or on the belly of
the hosts. Proprietary insecticidal powders containing 1%HCH ,2-5%
malathion 2-5% carbaryl (sevin) or 1% permethrin can be applied to
the coat of an animal. A simple but not always very efficient procedure
is to place a proprietary plastic collar impregnated with 20%dichlorvos
(DDVP) or fenthion round the necks of cats and dogs. Flea collars
remain effective for 1-2 months, but they may cause skin problems in
the animal. Alternatively insecticides like fenthion can be formulated as
a ‘Spot-on’ solution that is applied to the pet’s skin in just one small
area. The insecticide is absorbed through the skin and passes to the
animal’s blood so that blood-feeding fleas ingest the insecticide. One
treatment lasts for about a month.
However an important consideration is that most fleas are found away

163
from the host not on it. For example it has been said that a typical
colony of cat fleas consists of only about 25 adult fleas on the cat than
on the floor and bedding. There may be 500 adult fleas 500 cocoons
and as many as 3000 larvae and 1000 eggs. Clearly control measures
should not be restricted to the cat but applied to the total environment.
Flea cocoons are not very susceptible to insecticides consequently
insecticidal treatments should be repeated about every 2 weeks for
about 6 months. Beds, kennels or other places where pets sleep or
spend much of their time should be treated either with insecticidal
powders or lightly sprayed with solutions containing 0.5% HCH, 2%
Malathion, 0.5% diazinon or 2% dichlorvos (DDVP) to kill both adult
and larval fleas. For more general control of fleas, powders of 5-10%
DDT, 1%HCH or 0.5% dieldrin can be liberally applied to floors of
houses and runways of rodent. Insecticidal dusts can also be blown in
to rodent burrows. In many parts of the world however Xenopsylla
cheopis and pulex irritans have developed resistance to DDT, HCH
and dieldrin. In such cases organophosphate or carbamate
insecticides such as 2% diazinon, 2% fenthion (Baytex), 5% Malathion,
2% fenitrothion (sumithion) 5% iodofenphos (jodfenphos) or 3-5%
carbaryl (sevin) can be used. India [Link] has developed
resistance to malathion, and trials in that country have shown carbaryl
(sevin) to be the most effective insecticide.
Insecticidal fogs or aerosols containing 2% malathion or 2% Ronnel
have sometimes been used to fumigate houses harbouring fleas.
Insecticidal smoke bombs containing HCH, DDT permethrin or
pirimiphos-methyl (Actellic) can also be used to disinfest houses.

For the control of fleas in urban outbreaks of plague or murine typhus

164
extensive and well-organized insecticidal operations may be
necessary. At the same time as insecticides are applied rodenticides
such as the anti-coagulants, for example warfarin and fumarin can be
administered to kill the rodent population. However if fast- acting one-
dose rodenticides such as zinc phosphide, sodium flouroacetate or
strychnine or the more modern fast-acting anticoagulants like
bromadiolone and chlorophacinone are used then it is essential to
apply these several days after insecticidal applications. Otherwise the
rodents will be killed but not their fleas which will then bite other
mammals including people and this may result in increasing disease
transmission.

2. Insect growth regulators

More recently insect growth regulators such as methoprene have been
incorporated in to sprays often combined with a pyrethriod such as
permethrin for treating household infestations such sprays may remain
effective for 10 week. Insect growth regulators are virtually non-toxic to
pets and other mammals and some have been formulated as tablets or
syrup that is given to cats or dogs orally. Methoprene kills fleas by
interfering with their cycle of development for example by preventing
larvae reaching adulthood or eggs from hatching. Other insect growth
regulators are chitin- inhibitors that prevent the insect’s exoskeleton
formation properly. When pets are dosed with methoprene or chitin
inhibitors fleas ingest small quantities of the chemical with their blood-
meal when they blood-feed and their life cycle cannot be completed.
Insecticidal repellents such as dimethyl phthalate, diethyltoluamide or
benzyl benzoate may afford some personal protection against fleas.
Fleas can be found on the pet and in its environment. As a result an

165
effective flea control program must address both the pet and its
premise. The key to understanding effective control, or treatment, is
knowledge of the flea lifecycle. In the past flea control was directed
towards removing adult fleas from the pet. This was not effective
because the pre-adult stages matured and the pet was reinfected from
its environment. To address these products, such as adulticide collars,
sprays, mousses and dips, with residual actions were developed. This
helped the situation with respect to the pet, however, they did not
address the environmental source and were work intensive to
maintain. As a result these methods were still not very effective.
People became aware of the importance of environmental (premise)
control and products became available for treating the home and yard.
This, combined with regular on pet treatment with residual effect
products made great strides in the battle against fleas. Compliance
was often a problem as it was a work intensive approach and many did
not like the idea of insecticides on their pets and in the home. In any
case it did not address the insecticide resistant pupal stage of the flea
lifecycle. As an alternative to topical insecticides oral products
became available. These early products, such as Ectoral and Proban,
were based on inhibiting enzymes that were common to both the flea
and animals. As a result inadvertent overdose, or use during medical
compromise, could result in injury to the pet as well as the flea!
Another approach was the use of topical products, such as ProSpot,
that were dropped onto and absorbed into the skin. These products
were potentially hazardous to the pet and those applying them.
Instructions were to apply it in a well ventilated room wearing rubber
gloves, and to avoid handling the pet for some time afterward!
Needless to say these products were not the answer to safe flea

166
control.

Shampoos, Adulticide collars, sprays, mousses and powders are still

available and can be useful under certain circumstances. They contain
such ingredients as pyrethrins, pyrethroids, carbamates and
organophosphates.

Natural insecticides are available, however most claims of

effectiveness are purely anecdotal. The include ingredients such as
rosemary, wormwood, pennyroyal, eucalyptus, citronella and
diatomaceous earth. Products derived from citrus pulp such as d-
limonene and linalool have been marketed but have also been
implicated in some cat deaths! Although safe Brewer"s yeast, thiamine
and garlic have not proven effective in clinical trials. Avon Skin So
Soft, in diluted form (5%), has proven to act as an insect repellant but
does not kill fleas.

Premise and environmental control products are useful in affecting a

rapid start when combating an existing flea infestation.

Review Questions

167
1. List different types of diseases that are transmitted by fleas
2. What is the medical importance of Tunga penetrans?
3. Explain why people entering to houses evacuated for months
are attacked by massive fleas
4. Explain the transmission ways of vector born plague
5. Describe the techniques applied in the survey of flea infestation.
6. Describe the different strategies used in the control of fleas

168
 CHAPTER EIGHT
ANOPLURA/ LICE/

Learning objectives
At the end of this chapter the reader will be able to
- identify different species of lice
- discuss the different types of diseases transmitted by lice
- describe the control methods of lice

8.1 Introduction
Class Insecta
Order Anoplura
Family Pediculidae - the lice.

Identification
Lice are grayish in colour, are characteristically dorso-ventrally
flattened and both sexes feed on blood through mouthparts
designed for piercing and sucking. They are apterous (wingless).
Until recently in human history, lice were such common companions
of Homo sapiens that they were considered one of life's inevitable
nuisances for rich and poor alike. Lice are very host specific and are
still very common in developing countries.

169
 Fig 8.1 human lice

There are two species parasitizing humans

[Link] humanus (head & body lice)
[Link] pubis (crab louse)

There are two forms of Pediculus humanus

Pediculus humanus humanus (sometimes known as Pediculus humanus
corporis) - the body louse.
Pediculus humanus capitis - the head louse.
Pediculus humanus corporis (the body louse) and P. h. capitis (the head
louse) are common ectoparasites of humans around the world.

Body lice - Pediculus humanus humanus

Lifecycle
Body lice spend most of the time in their host's clothing. Eggs or nits are
cemented to fibers in the clothes. Females lay about 9-10 eggs per day
(about 300 in her lifetime). Crowding conditions facilitate transmission

170
and infestation (think about situations like times of civil unrest, crowding
due to poverty, refugee camps etc).

Head Lice-Pediculus humanus capitis.

Head lice are smaller than body lice. Nits are cemented to hairs and lice
and nits are more prevalent on the back of the neck & behind the ears.
Not life threatening but causes considerable discomfort. Scratching
leads to dermatitis or secondary infection, & matted hair.

Fig 8.2: life cycle of head lice

171
Crab lice or crabs Phthirus pubis.
Crab lice (Phthirus pubis) are small whitish insects with a short
abdomen and a large second and third pair of legs. This species is
most commonly found on the hairs in the pubic region, but they may
be found on the hairy regions of the chest and armpits. Infestations
in eyebrows and eyelashes are also frequently reported. The crab
louse's life cycle is similar to that of head and body lice. Eggs are
glued to hairs but they are smaller and have a more convex cap. All
stages of this louse are more sedentary than head or body lice. A
crab louse tends to settle down at one spot, grasp on to body hairs,
insert its mouthparts and feed intermittently for hours at a time. This
species survives only a short time away from the host. Nits are
cemented to the hair. Females deposit about 30 eggs during her
lifetime. Infection is through contact with bedding or other objects,
especially in crowded conditions. Transmission of the lice can be
through sexual contact.

8.2 Public health Importance

The body louse is the vector for the spirochete Borrelia recurrentis
(relapsing fever), Rickettsia prowazeki (typhus) & Rochalimaea
quintana (Trench fever). Crushed lice or lice faeces coming into
contact with broken skin leads to transmission of these diseases.
1. Pediculosis –the presence of body, head or pubic lice on a
person is some times reffered as pediculosis. The skin of people
who habitually harbour large number of body lice may become
pigmented and tough, a condition known as vagabond’s disease or
sometimes as morbus errorum. Because lice feed several times

172
aday, saliva is repeatedly injected in to people harboring lice, and
toxic effects may lead to weariness, irritability or a pessimistic mood:
the personfeels lousy.

2. Louse borne epidemic Typhus - caused by Rickettsia

prowazekii. Epidemics associated with conditions that favour heavy
infestations of body lice. Interestingly, typhus is fatal for lice. Head
lice are secondary vectors. The reckettisi of louse borne typhus,
Rickettisia prowazeki, are ingested with blood meal taken by both
male and female lice and also their nymphs. They invade the
epithelial cells lining the stomach of the louse where they multiply
enormously and cause and the cells to become greatly distended.
About four days after the blood meal, the gut cells rupture and
release the reckettisia back into the lumen of the insect’s intestine.
Due to these injuries to the intestinal wall, the blood meal may seep
into the hemocoel of the louse, giving the body an overall reddish
color. The reckettsia are passed out with the feaces of the lice, and
people become infected when these are rubbed or scratched in to
abrasions, or come in to contact with delicate mucus membranes
such as the conjunctiva. Infection can also be caused by inhalation
of the very fine powder dry feaces. And if a louse is crushed, due to
persistent scratching because of the irritation caused by its bites, the
reckettesia are released from the gut and may cause infection
through abrasions. The reckttesia may remain alive and infective in
dried lice feaces for about 70 days.

173
An unusual feature of epidemic typhus is that it is a disease of the
louse as well as of humans. The rupturing the epithelial cells of the
intestine, caused by the multiplication of the ricketisa, frequently kills
the louse after about 8-12 days. This may explain why people
suffering from typhus are some times found with no, or remarkably
few, lice on their bodies or clothing. Asymptomatic carriers remain
infective to body lice for many years. Recrudescences as Brill-
Zinsser’s disease, many years after the primary attack, may occur in
a person and lead to the spread of epidemic typhus.

3. Trench fever –Trench fever is a relatively uncommon and non

fatal disease. It is caused by another Rickettsia (Rochalimaea
quintana). The reckettsia is being ingested by the louse during
feeding. The pathogens are attached to the walls of the gut cells
where they multiply: they do not penetrate the cells as do typhus
reckttesia and consequently they are not injurious to the louse. After
5-10 days, the feaces are infected. Like typhus the disease is
conveyed to humans either by crushing the louse, or by its feaces
coming in to contact with skin abrasion or mucus membranes. The
pathogens persist for many months, even a year in dried louse
feaces, and it is suspected that infection may commonly arise from
inhalation of the dust like feaces. The disease may be contracted by
those who have no lice but are handling louse infected clothing
contaminated with feaces. It it is a debilitating disease transmitted
by Pediculus humanus humanus.

4. Louse borne epidemic Relapsing fever – it is caused by a

spirochete, Borrelia recurrentis. it is ingested with louse’s blood meal

174
from a person suffering from epidemic relapsing fever. Within about
24 hrs all spirochets have disappeared from the lumen of the gut.
Many have been destroyed, but the survivors have succeeded in
passing through the stomach wall to the heamocoel, where they
multiply greatly, and reaching enormous numbers by days 10-12.
The only way in which humans can be infected with louse borne
relapsing fever is by the louse being crushed and the released
spirochtes entering the body through abrasions or mucus
membranes. The habit of some people crushing lice between the
figure nails, or even the teeth is clearly dangerous if the lice are
infected with relapsing fever or recketisia. The method of
transmission of epidemic relapsing fever must make it very rare for
more than one person to be infected by any one infected louse.
Hence epidemics of louse-borne relapsing fever will rarely occur
unless there are large louse populations.

8.3 Control of louse

Insecticides (permethrin), Personal hygiene, laundering of

garments.

In current times, in situations where there is overcrowding (e.g. due

to poverty, during political & civil unrest, during mass migration & in
refugee situations) laundering of garments

175
and personal hygiene may not be easy or a major priority. Often in
these situations, basic needs such as food, water & shelter are the
priority.

Insecticides

Medications that kill head lice are called pediculicides. All

pediculicides except malathion are applied to the scalp and hair and
left on for 10 minutes, then rinsed off. Pediculicides kill nymphs and
adult lice, but do not destroy nits. For this reason, they may need to
be reapplied 7-10 days after the first application to kill newly
emerged nymphs. Because some pediculicides have significant
toxicities, it is important to follow application directions carefully.

Permethrin – Permethrin is the preferred first-line treatment for head

lice. Permethrin 1% (Nix) is available over the counter, and
permethrin 5% (Elimite) is available by prescription. Permethrin is a
cream rinse that is designed to leave a residue after rinsing that kills
emerging nymphs, so reapplication is usually not needed.

Pyrethrins Plus Piperonyl Butoxide (Rid) – This pediculicide is a

shampoo that can cause an allergic reaction in people who have
plant allergies, especially allergies to chrysthanthemums.

Malathion – Malathion is a prescription lotion that is applied as

Lindane (Kwell). Lindane is available only by prescription. It should
only be used cautiously if a first-line treatment has failed because
several cases of seizures in children have been reported to the hair,
left to air dry, then washed off after 8-12 hours. Because it has a

176
high alcohol content, it is highly flammable and can cause difficulty
in breathing if it is ingested. For these reasons, it should only be
used for resistant cases of head lice.

Oral Agents - Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (Septra, Bactrim) is

an oral antibiotic, given as a 10-day course, which has been shown
to be effective at treating resistant infestations of head lice.
Ivermectin (Stromectol) is an antiparasitic drug given as a single
dose that has also been shown to effectively treat resistant head lice
infestations. However, neither of these drugs is FDA approved for
use as a pediculicide.

Nit Removal
Treatment with a pediculicide kills adult lice and nymphs preventing
the spread of head lice infestation to other people. Removal of nits is
recommended to reduce confusion about the effectiveness of
treatment. Nits within 1 cm of the scalp should be physically
removed by a fine toothed comb. A variety of agents are available to
break down the cement holding the nit to the hair shaft including
distilled white vinegar, formic acid preparations, and enzymatic nit
removal systems. Using one of these agents prior to nit combing
makes it easier to remove nits. Nits that are present on the hair shaft
greater than 1 cm from the scalp are not considered to be viable and
do not have to be removed.

177
Treatment of Head Lice Contacts

According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, if a case of head

lice is identified, all household members should be checked for head
lice. Only those with live lice or eggs within one cm of the scalp
should be treated. It is also recommended that all hair care items
and bedding belonging to the infested person be cleaned.

8.4 Survey methods: As with any other type of survey, a louse

survey involves finding insects or their eggs in a given host
population. Head lice should be sought in the hair while body lice will
be found in the clothing, most commonly on the layer next to the
skin. Crab lice are found in pubic and axillary regions. Given their
limited and specialized habitat, surveys are not normally conducted
specifically for human lice. However, if medical treatment is sought
because of lice, qualified medical practitioners will examine the head
and pubic areas for lice. it's important to inspect the infested
individual's bedding and clothing articles and those of any people
sharing quarters for the presence of lice. Give special attention to
seams of clothing, particularly trousers and to wool blankets for the
presence of both lice and eggs.

Management: it includes delousing individuals and disinfesting

clothing, equipment, facilities, ships, etc. All management operations
for individual treatments for lice infestations are directed and
conducted by medical personnel.

Mass delousing Bulk-issue louse powders are used in mass

delousing with hand and power dusters. Use manual dusting

178
equipment such as plunger-type hand dusters to treat individuals
without requiring clothing removal. This item has a 6-inch metal
extension tube and delivers an even flow of powder. It's a standard
equipment item for many military preventive medicine and
engineering teams. One duster three-fourths full holds enough to
treat about ten people. For best results, do not completely fill the
duster. To treat more than 10 to 12 people at a time, use power
equipment if it is available. A power delouser has a small portable
gasoline engine and air compressor, 10 lengths of hose and 20
dusters. It is easy to detach dusters and attach extra units to aid
refilling while others are in use. A complete unit can delouse 600 or
more people in an hour.

Contingency considerations Individual protective measures

against lice include issuing standard issue louse powder to
individuals and properly laundering uniforms in a laundry unit. Louse
powder is normally stocked by operational units. Use of a standard
laundry unit (operating at 1400 F for 20 minutes) normally ensures
that any nits and living forms are killed. Woolen blankets used by
infested individuals should be thoroughly dusted with louse powder
and aired, but not beaten before they're returned to bunks. Only
trained pest managers should conduct chemical treatments. Mass
delousing is always indicated when louse-borne disease is endemic
and either large numbers of prisoners of war or displaced persons
come under U.S. military forces jurisdiction.
Control Measures Good personal hygiene- Regular and frequent
bathing, Washing and ironing of cloths, Disinfestations of cloths by
boiling or steaming, Sunshine exposure of clothing, Hair hygiene;

179
 Better housing and facilities; Health education; Delousing with
insecticide dusts (10 % DDT dust); Better economy and living
standard.

• Personal hygiene
The most obvious way to eradicate lice from a person is by changing
and washing of clothing, preferably followed by ironing and regular
body bathing. Regular washing and combing hair may reduce the
nymph and adult. Shaving of hair (head and pubic) can eradicate
both the adults and nymph

Review Questions
1. Write the principal diseases transmitted by lice.
2. Describe the mode of disease transmission in lice.
3. Draw the strategy of controlling the epidemic of relapsing fever in
a certain community.

CHAPTER NINE
180
 HEMIPTERA / BED BUGS /

Learning objectives
At the end of this chapter the reader will be able to
- Identify different species of bed bugs
- Describe the life cycle, behavior and habitat of bed bugs.
- Discuss the medical importance of bed bugs

9.1 Introduction
Bedbugs are temporary ectoparasites of human. They are common
in places with poor housing conditions. Bedbugs have a
dorsoventrally flattened body. They are oval in shape with no wing
Shinny reddish to brown in color (after blood meal they become dark
brown) 4 - 7 mm long. They have 3 pairs of well developed legs,
which enable them to crawl rapidly. Both sexes suck blood including
the nymphs

9.2 Adult behaviour

Feed mainly at night (they are nocturnal feeder). While the host is
sleeping .During the ten minute or so feeding period they take 2- 5
times their body weight blood from their host. Once fed, bugs return
to the cracks behind wall paper, furniture and crevices in which they
hide. Bed begs are heavily reliant on passive dispersal from one
home to another. They can with stand starvation for months,
particularly the later nymphal instars attached by the exhaled CO2
9.3 Life cycle

181
¾ Pass through incomplete metamorphosis
¾ Lay 2-3 eggs per days
¾ Hatch in 8-11 days at room temperature ( 20oc)
¾ There are five nymphal stages

9.4 Public Health importance

Biting nuisance
- Intense itching
-Sleepless night
- No evidence that bed bugs are vectors of any diseases under
natural condition

9.5 Control
Difficult to control bed bugs, because they tend to hides deep in to
their harborages.
1. proper house maintenance
- detaching houses
- furniture cleanliness –pouring boiled mater, oven , infested
goods
- Eradicating cracks & crevices in walls. Exposing articles to
sun light
2. Application of insecticide like Carbonyl, Propoxur,
Deltamethrin, Bendiocarb

Review questions

182
1. Discuss the lifecycle, habit of the bedbugs
2. Mention the medical importance of bedbugs
3. Describe the basic control strategies of bed bugs

183
 CHAPTER TEN
BLATTIDAE /COCKROACHES/

Learning objectives
At the end of this chapter the reader will be able to
- discuss the specific features of cockroaches
- describe the different species of cockroaches and their
distributions
- address the medical importance and the control methods of
cockroaches.

10.1 Introduction
There are almost 4000 species of cockroaches. About 50 species
have become domestic pests and the most important medically are
Blattela germanica (the German cockroach), Blattella orientalis (the
oriental cockroaches) and periplaneta Americana (the American
cockroach). Cockroaches are some times called roaches or
steambugs. They have almost a world-wide distribution.
Cockroaches almost certainly aid in the transmission and
harbourage of various pathogenic viruses, bacteria, protozoa and
helminthes. They can be intermediate hosts of certain nematodes.

10.2 External Morphology

Cockroaches are usually chestnut brown or black in color, 1-5 cm
long, flattened dorsoventrally and have a smooth shiny and tough
integument. They have a long and prominent filiform antenna. The

184
cockroach’s mouth parts are developed for chewing, gnawing, and
scraping. In adults of both sexes there are two pairs of wings- they
are not used in flight but serve as protective covers. Cockroaches
are most readily distinguished from beetles by having the fore wings
placed over the abdomen in a scissor like manner. They are adapted
for omnivorous [Link] like warmth and nocturnal in their
activities. During the day they hide among behind radiator, hot water
pipes, behind refrigerator, cupboard, decayed food, fabrics, book
bindings, inner living of shoe soles, their own cast off skins, dead
and crippled cockroaches etc. They regurgitate fluid while feeding.

10.3 Life Cycle

Eggs are laid encased in a brown bean shaped case or capsule
called an ootheca which contains 12-50 eggs. Cockroaches are
often seen running around with an ootheca partly protruding from the
tip of the abdomen. The ootheca are deposited in cracks and
cervices in dark and secluded places. Cockroaches have a
hemimetabolous life cycle. Nymphs are hatching out from the eggs
after about 1-3 months, depending on both temperature and
species. There are usually six nymphal instars. The duration of the
nymph stage varies according to temperature, abundance of food,
and species.

10.4 Public Health Importance

1. Nuisance- the presence of cockroaches in houses and hotels, etc
has for a long time been regarded as highly undesirable because of
their dirty habits of feeding indiscriminately on both excreta and

185
foods, and their practice of excreting and regurgitating their partially
digested meals over food
2. Mechanical disease transmission E.g. Typhoid fever, diarrheal
diseases, etc
The presence of cockroaches in houses and hotels has for a long
time been regarded as highly undesirable because of their dirty
habits of feeding indiscriminately on both excreta and foods, and
their practice of excreting and regurgitating their partially digested
meals over food.
Many of the parasites and pathogens isolated from cockroaches are
spread directly from person to person with out the aid of
intermediary insects because of this it is very difficult to prove that
cockroaches are the prime cause of any disease out break.
Nevertheless because of their unsanitary habits they have been
suspected as aiding the transmission of various illnesses. For
example they are known to carry pathogenic viruses such as
poliomyelitis, protozoa such as entamoeba histolytica and bacteria
such as E,coli, staphiloccocus aureus, shigella and salmonella.
There is little doubt that cockroaches contribute to the spread of a
number of diseases mainly intestinal and they may sometimes be
more important as mechanical vectors than houseflies. However it is
nevertheless difficult to assess their real importance as vectors
because many of the pathogens which cockroaches carry can be
transmitted by many other different ways.

10.5 Control Measures

1. Sanitation
Ensuring that neither food nor dirty kitchen utensils are left out over-

186
night will help to reduce the number of cockroaches but if they are
present in adjoining or near-by houses, good hygiene in itself will not
prevent cockroaches from entering houses.

2. Insecticide application
Insecticidal spraying or dusting of selected sites such as cup-boards,
kitchen furniture and fixtures, stoves, refrigerators and near-by dust
bins is recommended. Various commercial insecticides having a
residual effect can be painted to walls and other surfaces and
remain effective for several months in killing cockroaches. Boric acid
powder (borax) still remains a very safe and useful chemical, acting
both as a contact insecticide and a stomach poison.

Review questions
1. Describe the role of cockroaches in the disease transmission
2. Discuss the possible effective control methods of cockroaches.

187
 CHAPTER ELEVEN
OTHER CLASSES OF PUBLIC HEALTH
IMPORTANCE ARTHROPODS

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this chapter the student (reader) will be able to:
• Describe the control methods for ticks, mites and crustaceans.
• Draw the transmission cycle of guinea worm and schistosomiasis.
• List the different diseases transmitted by crustaceans

11.1. Arachnids

General feature or Identification characterstics

The Arachnids with the exception of certain mites, which adapted to

live in water, are terrestrial or land dwellers. All species under this
class lacks antennae, wings and compound eyes. Their body is
divided into two segments- that is cephalothorax and abdomen. In
place of antennae they have the pedipalps- which do what antennae
do. Respiration is by trachea or “lung books”. All arachnids have four
pairs of legs. Species like ticks, mites, scorpion and spider belongs
to this class.

11.1.1. Ticks

Class Arachnida
Order- Acarina Common Name.
Family - 1. Ixodidae________ Hard tick
2. Argasidae_______ Soft tick.

188
Genus Ixodidae: Species: Common Name.
1. Dermacenter D. andersoni Wood tick
2. Bophilus B. annulatus Cattle tick
3. Amblyomma A. americanum Lonestar tick
4. Rhipicephalus R. sanguineus Brown dog tick.

Genus Argasidae: Species: Common Name:

1. Ornithodorus O. moubata Human tick
O. turica Human tick
O. tholozon Human tick.

General Feature and Identification:

Ticks are the largest acarines and cosmopolitan in distribution. The

majority of them are external parasites of terrestrial vertebrates.
They suck blood from animals and humans, and are important as a
vector for a large number of diseases. All post embroyonic stages,
with few exceptions, feed on the blood and tissue fluids of the host.
There are about a total of 800 species of ticks in the world.

The adult soft ticks are flat and oval in outline and have tough,
leathery and wrinkled bodies. The mouthparts are situated
underneath the body and are not visible from above. Most species
can survive for more than a year with out blood meals, and some for
more than 10 years.
The soft ticks live apart from their hosts and are most common in the
nests and resting places of the animals on which they feed. Species
that commonly feed on humans are found around villages and inside
houses. Their habits are comparable to those of bedbugs.
The adult hard ticks are flat and oval in shape and between 3 and 23
mm long, depending on the species. The mouthparts are visible at
189
the front of the body, differentiating them from the soft ticks. In
contrast to the soft ticks they have a shield like plate or scutellum
behind the head on the back of the body, and there is only one
nymphal stage.
Most species of hard tick feed on three different hosts: one each for
the larva, nymph and adult. For instance, some species feed on only
one or two hosts. The Argasids are a multi-host ticks and therefore,
nymphs as well as adults may take several short blood meals from
different hosts.

Life Cycle and Adult behaviour

Ticks pass through gradual metamorphosis. They have one nymphal
instar and six legged larva. Ixodidae have one eight-legged nymphal
instar, however, the argasidae may have up to eight nymphal
instars. The immature stages resemble the adults and each of them
need a blood meal before it can proceed to the next stage. Adult
ticks live for several months with out food and resist starvation. Both
sexes feed on blood, the males less frequently than the females,
and both can be vectors of diseases.

[Link] Public Health Importance:

In tick species, the female ticks can pass on certain disease agents
to their offspring’s, in addition to transmitting diseases from one host
to another during blood feeding.

1. Nuisance

Ticks can cause discomfort and irritation by their bite. They may
cause local traumatic and inflammatory damage when they puncture
the skin and suck blood.
In public health ticks are important largely because of their activity

190
as vector of pathogenic organisms. Transovarian transmission has
been observed to a greater or lesser extent in the case of all the
major categories of ticks. The majority of ticks are essentially
ectoparasites of wild animals, and humans must be regarded as an
incidental host, for both the ticks and the organisms which they
transmit.
2. Tick borne relapsing fever

The disease is caused by a microorganism of the genus Borrelia. It

is transmitted by the bite soft ticks of the genus Ornithodoros in
many countries in the tropics and sub-tropics. The ticks usually feed
quickly at night in or near houses and then leave the host.

3. Tick borne rickettsial infection

This group of diseases is caused by closely related Rickettsia

microorganisms transmitted by tick bites or contamination of the skin
with crushed tissues or faces of the tick, such as:-
ƒ Spotted fever - caused by Rickettsia rickettsii and R. sibirica and
due to R. conori, and R. australis.
ƒ Q. fever - caused by coxiela burnetii.

The disease is transmitted mostly by Ixodes ticks, commonly, in the

summer when the nymphs are abundant. Some rodents, especially
mice, serve as reservoirs of infection while large mammals serve
principally as hosts maintaining tick populations.

4. Tularaemia

Tularaemia is caused by the infectious agent francisella tularensis

(pasteurella tularensis). The symptoms are headache, chills, fever
and the swelling of lymph nodes. The responsible tick species are
anblyomma americanum and dermacenter.

191
Transmission takes place through the bites of ticks and deer flies, or
as a result of handling infected animals such as rabbits and other
game. Hunters and forest workers are at the highest risk of infection.

5. Tick paralysis

Hard ticks inject in to the body with their saliva certain toxins that
can cause a condition in people and animals called tick paralysis. It
is an acute intoxication characterized by elevation of temperature up
to 400C and difficulty in swallowing and respiration. It occurs
worldwide and is most common and severe in children aged up to
two years.
6. Tick borne viral encephalitides:

It is a group of viral diseases causing acute inflammation of the

brain, spinal cord and meninges. The symptoms vary in severity with
the type of disease. Severe infections may cause violent headaches,
high fever, nausea, coma and death.

These diseases are transmitted by biting ticks and by the

consumption of milk from infected animals. The diseases are usually
transmitted by hard ticks (Ixodes species).

Prevention and Control Methods:

1. Self protection through the application of basic sanitation.

Personal protection measures and animal care in fields, forests, in
the shed, stable and in other places that are infested with ticks
should be taken. Children or adult who walk through tick infested
area should remove all clothing as soon as they return to their home,
and all attached or crawling ticks should be removed to minimize
danger. Some times repellents can be used to prevent ticks from

192
attaching to the body.

2. Application of Insecticides:
Spraying of appropriate chemicals over ticks directly in their natural
habitats such as forests and fields may control them. Large areas
may be treated by ultra-low-volume spraying of liquid acaricide
concentrates. Small areas may be sprayed by means of motorized
knapsack spraying or mist blowers.

11.1.2. Mites

Class - Arachnida
Order- Acarina
Family Genus Species Common name
1. Trombiculidae Trombicula T. akamushi Chigger mites
2. Sarcoptidae Sarcoptes S. scabies Scabies mite.
3. Demodicidae Demodex D. follicle Follicle mite
4. Dermanyssidae Dermanyssus D. gallinae Hen mite.

[Link] General Features:

Mites are generally very small in size and barely visible. They suck
the blood of man and other animals.

ƒ Trombiculidae biology and their medical importance:

Adult trombiculid mites are about 1-2 mm in length, bright red or

reddish-brown in color, and of velvety appearance. Larval
trombiculids commmonly known as chigger or red bugs, are very
small , being 0.15 - 0.3 mm in length, and ectoparasites of
vertebrate and to a lesser extent to arthropod hosts, but the nymphs
193
and adults are free living predator’s feeding mainly on soil
arthropods. After emerging from the egg, the larvae crawl on
grasses or low laying vegetation and leaf litter to wait for an animal
or human host. They attach themselves to the skin of reptiles, birds,
mammals and humans walking or resting in the habitat. On humans
they seek out areas where clothing is tight against the skin, the waist
and ankles being the parts most commonly attacked. The larvae
remain attached to the skin of the host between two days and a
month, depending on the species. They then drop to the ground and
enter the soil to develop in to the harmless nymphal and adult
stages.

Generally over 700 species have been described and about 20 of

these are important either as a cause of dermatitis (scrab- itch) in
man or as a vector of human pathogens.

Scrab-itch in man, which is the result of an allergic reaction to the

saliva of the chigger, can be caused by many trombiculid species.

ƒ Prevention and Control measure

1. Treatment of infected person with tetracycline or its derivatives.

2. Prevention of bites and application of repellents.

Biting can be prevented by avoiding infested terrain and applying

repellents to skin and clothing. Chigger mites can be prevented by
treating clothing, particularly socks or stockings, cuffs and collars
with mite repellents. The most efficient chigger repellent is diethyl
toluamide, but also dimethyl phthalate, dibutyl phthalate and benzyl
benzoate are efficient.

194
3. Removal of vegetation:

The control of mites by killing them in their habitats is very difficult

because of the patchy distribution of their population. It may be
possible or advantageouse to remove vegetations that harbor larval
mites by cutting or burning and then scrape or plough the top soil.

4. Application of insecticide:
Mite infested land (vegetation can be sprayed with suitable residual
insecticides. Compounds like diazinon, fenthion, malathion, propoxur
and permethrin are a suitable chemicals against mites.

ƒ Sarcoptidae biology and medical importance:

The sarcoptids are skin parasites of warm blooded animals. They
are between 0.2 and 0.4 mm long and virtually invisible to the naked
eye. It has world wide distribution.

► Life Cycle:
Practically the scabies mite spent its life cycle on and in the skin of
humans. In order to feed and lay eggs, fertilized females burrow
winding tunnels in the surface of the skin. It takes about two weeks
to complete the cycle.

The scabies mites are commonly found where the skin is thin and
wrinkled, for instance between the fingers, on the sides of the feet
and hands, the bends of the knee and elbow, the penis, the breasts
and the shoulder blades.

► Public Health Importance

The scabies mite, sarcoptes scabies, infest mammals like humans
and cause an itching condition of the skin known as scabies. There
are different forms of mites occurring on different mammalian host.
Scabies is usually transmitted by close personal contact, as between

195
people sleeping together, and during body contact. Transmission
mostly takes place within families. Scabies occurs throughout the
world in persons of all ages and social groups. In developing
countries like ours, up to a quarter of the population may be
affected. It is most common in young children.

► Prevention and Control methods

1. Treatmentofcases:

For the control of scabies mite acaricide such as benzyl benzoate

25% emulsion splash or painted over the body can be used.
Treatment of all family members is necessary to prevent re-
infestation.

► Demodicidae and Its Public Health Importance

These mites commonly known as follicle mites. The members of the

genus Demodex burrows into the hair follicles of mammals and feed
on subcutaneous secretions. Treatment of this mite is rarely
necessary because cleanliness is enough to get rid of the mite.

But it can be noted that a case of scalp demodicidosis was easily

cured with an ointment containing 10% sulphur and 5% peruvian
balsam.

► Dermanyssus Gallinae and Its Public Health Importance

This species is commonly known as the red mite of poultry, and is

an obligatory blood sucking parasite with a wide host range amongst
wild and domestic birds. In temperate regions it is an important pest
of poultry, turkeys. This mite may also attack man, causing a sever
irritation and it may cause a skin ailment resembling animal scabies.

196
11.1.3. Scorpion

Class - Insecta
Order - Scorpionida
Family Genus Species:
1. Buthidae Buttus B. occitanus
B. androctomus australis
2. Diplocentridae Diplocentrus D. whitei
3. Scorpionidae Opisthocanthus Op. lepturus
4. Chactidae Euscorpius Eus. flavicandis
Chactidus Ch. suffusus
Ch. limpidus
5. Vejovidae Vejovis V. spinigerus

General features

Scorpions are relatively large heavily arachnids in which the

prosoma is covered dorsally by a compact shield. They are
carnivorous and occur most commonly in the warmer parts of the
world. They are nocturnal and they feed principally on insects and
other arthropods. Scorpions do not attack man spontaneously and
even the most dangerous species can be allowed to walk over the
back of the hand with little risk. Accidents occur commonly when
scorpions hide themselves in clothing and when dark corners are
being cleared of rubbish.

Scorpions have a long upturned tail and they can live in different
habitats such as under stone, in crevices, under rubbish, under
leaves, in barns etc. They are sensitive to climatic change and
usually live alone. They feed on chilopoda, diplopoda, spider, etc.
Ants and baboons are the dangerous enemies of scorpions.
The medical importance of scorpions varies considerably and is

197
dependent on their habits and venom potency rather than on their
size. The nature and effects of venom on man are not the same. In
general there are two type of venom:-
1. The one that produces a local reaction of varying severity with
only mild or with no systemic effects. There is very little danger
of death from stings of scoropions with venom of this type.
2. The second type of venom is the production of neurotoxin and
its effects can be lethal particularly in children.

Most scorpions under family Buthidae have a dangerous neurotoxin

venom. But there appear to be a considerable biological differences
between scorpions of family Buthidae. The venom of the north Africa
and middle eastern populations is much more toxic to man and in
these regions a number of deaths were recorded to the sting of
scorpions.

► Treatment of scorpion sting

Symptomatic medication has been reported to be of little value for
the treatment of scorpion stings of the neurotoxic type and it can
even been harmful because certain drugs can synergise the venom.
Antivenins are very effective when administered early and in
sufficient quantity.

11.1.4. Spider

► Biology and Habits of Spider

The specialized and microhabitats and food resources available in

and around the house hold environment are often utilized by spiders.
The basic structural features of houses and other buildings, such as
the corners and overhangs adjacent to out door lights, and

198
undisturbed areas. Indoors provide adequate harbourage and
hunting grounds for the predatory arthropods. Insects and other
arthropods that invade household habitats are their foods.

The prosoma is joined to the opisthosoma by a narrow pedicel. The

genital orifice is located on the suck-like opisthosoma. The openings
of the abdominal silk glands are situated ventrally on the
opisthosoma. Antennae and wings are absent. They exhibit gradual
metamorphosis and have four pairs of legs. Size seems to
determine the number of eggs produced by the female. Some of the
very large spiders produce thousands of eggs a time, while small
ones rarely lay more than 12 legs.

The copulatory procedure among spiders involves the transference

of sperms to the female genital orifice by the use of the specially
modified first pair of legs of the male. Copulation is a hazardous and
some times fatal for the male.

► Public Health Importance

Spiders are equipped with a pair jaws (chelicerae) and possess
venom glands. The immobilization of prey is assisted by the use of
silk and by the injection of venom in the body cavity of the captured
animal. Spiders can not ingest solid food. They have a low rate of
metabolism compared with other arthropods of equal body.

The danger of spiders bite is largely over stated. The majority of

spiders, whether indoor or out door species, are harmless to man
because their mouth part can not penetrate human skin or because
their venom is not toxic to man. Of all spiders species the
Lactrodactus mactans (black-widow-spider) and Loxoceles species

199
are the most important spiders that have a neurotoxin and mouth
parts are strong enough to threaten human life.

► Control measures
The distraction of spiders hiding place in the indoor environment
through proper house cleanliness may decrease the abundance of
spiders. Removing spider egg sacs when they appear may also
decrease their population. Application of insecticides to the food
sources (insects) of spiders and the spider themselves.

11.2. Centipedes

Class - Chilopoda ( Centipedes)

Order- 1. Scutigeromorpha
2. Scolopendromorpha
3. Geophilomorpha.
Family. Genus Species Common
name.
1. Scutigeromorphidae Scutigera Su. coleoptrata House
centipeds
2. Scolopendromorphidae Scolopendra Sco. cingulata
Sco. meorsitants
3. Geophilomorphidae Geo. epimorpha

General Information

Centipeds are elongated, many legged, one leg per segment, worm,
like animals. They have one pair of antenna with gradual
metamorphosis. Their distribution is world wide and have chewing
mouth part.

200
They live in damp dark habitats such as under stone, in crevices of
the upper layers of soil, in forest litter and under the bark of trees.
Some are cave dwellers and a few are marine dwellers. The majority
are nocturnal predators feeding mainly on insects and other small
arthropods which they capture and kill with their poison claws.

For species of this group living in temperate zones are able to pierce
human skin with their poison claws. The large scolopendromorphs
which are abundant in tropical and subtropical regions are generally
regarded as venomous. No centipede bite caused serious effects
and many suffering centiped victims were quickly relieved after local
anesthetics were injected in the vicinity of the bite.

11.3. Millipedes

Class - Diplopoda

The millipedes are elongated tracheate arthropods with a distinct

head and a clear trunk composed of a large pair of legs. The head
bears a single pair of antennae, a pair of mandibles and maxillae.
They have bright color and simple eye-ocelli.

Millipedes are predominantly saprophagous and lack the poison

claws of the centipedes. These species have a secretion which is
unpalatable to predators and in the case of some large tropical
species the secretion have been reported to have a strong caustic
action. Pentazonia, colobognata, julida etc., are some examples of
order diplopoda.

11.4. Crustacean

201
General Features:

Their body is divided in to prosoma and opisthosoma, and have 5

pairs of legs and 2 pairs of antennae. They have a compound eye-
called ommantidia. Crustaceans are aquatic arthropods and breath
by means of gills or through general body surface. Cyclops are tiny
crustaceans of the family cyclopidae, also called water fleas. They
are usually found in stagnant bodies of fresh water such as wells
and ponds in poor agricultural communities in rural or peri-urban
areas.

Public Health Importance:

1. Poisoning
Many crustaceans particularly decapods are eaten by man and a
number of them are known to cause poisoning when eaten raw due
to the phenomena called biological magnification. Lobsters, crab and
shrimps are good examples of crustaceans that cause poisoning.

2. Transmission of human parasite:

a. Lung fluke (Paragonimiasis)

The causative agent for the disease is paragonimus westermani and

the decapoda species are the secondary intermediate host. The first
intermediate host is snail. Men get infected by eating uncooked
infected river crabs and fresh water cray fish.

b. Diphyllobothriasis:

202
The responsible parasite Diphyllobothrium latum ( broad fish tape
worm of man ) is acquired by eating fish that have swallowed
cyclopid, capepods infested with the second stage of the developing
worm.

C. Guinea-worm disease (Dracunculiasis):

Guinea worm disease is rarely fatal but is severely debilitating. The

lower limbs are most commonly affected, but the worms, which are
up to a meter in length, can emerge from any part of the body.

For the (Source: Jan A. Rozendaal: WHO 1997) disease

203
to be transmitted, Larvae of the guinea worm enter the human body
when people drink water contaminated with cyclops containing
infective larvae. Cyclops infected with guinea-worm larvae also
suffer from the infection and tend to sink to the bottom of the water.
As a result, people in humid savanna areas in sub-saharan Africa
are most likely to become infected during the dry season when water
levels are lowest and they scoop to the bottom of ponds or wells in
order to obtain water.

Prevention and Control Measures:

1. Cook food:

Avoid eating of uncooked crustacean to prevent the possible

transmission of parasitic diseases and poisoning.

2. Avoid drinking of water from suspicious sources:

In guinea worm disease the only available treatment is to extract the

worm. This has to be done very slowly to prevent the worm from
breaking.

3. People with an emerging guinea worm should never put any part
of their body in to water used for drinking.

4. Installation of safe drinking water supplies.

5. Filtration of drinking water.

6. Application of larvicides:

Cyclops and other crustaceans can be killed by treating water

sources with temephos, an insecticide that is safe to apply in
drinking water if used at the correct dosage.

204
7. Boiling of drinking water:

Boiling is a simple and effective method for killing Cyclops in

drinking water.

Molluscus
Many species of fresh water snail belonging to the family
planorbidae are intermediate hosts of highly infective fluke
(trematode) larvae of the genus schistosoma which cause
schistosomiasis in Africa, Asia and the Americas.

The snails are considered to be intermediate hosts because humans

harbour the sexual stages of the parasites and the snails harbor the
asexual stages. People serve as vectors by contaminating the
environment. Transfer of the infection requires no direct contact
between snails and people.

Most intermediate hosts of human schistosoma parasites belong to

three genera, Biomphalaria, Bulinus and Oncomelania. The species
involved can be identified by the shape of the outer shell. The snails
can be divided in to two groups by way of habitat.
1. Aquatic snails that live under water and can not usually survive
else where (Biomphalaria, Bulinus), and
2. Amphibious snails adapted for living in and out of water
E.g. Oncomelania

Life Cycle:

All species of Biomphalaria and Bulinus are hermaphrodite,

possessing both male and female organs and being capable of self
or cross-fertilization. A single female specimen can invade and
populate a new habitat. The eggs are laid at intervals in batches of 5
- 40, each batch being enclosed in a mass of jelly-like material. The

205
young snails hatch after 6 - 8 days, and reach maturity in 4 - 7
weeks, depending on the species and environmental conditions.

Public Health Importance:

1. Schistosomiasis:

Schistosomiasis is one of the most widespread of all human

parasitic diseases, ranking second only to malaria in terms of its
socioecomonic and public health importance in tropical and
subtropical areas.

The transmission route of the disease is eggs are released into

water body from feces of an infected person; after the eggs hatch
taken by snail host and continue the development inside the host.
Then thousands of the new cercariae break out of the snail and
swim in the water. The cercariae after being released into water,
they must penetrate the skin of human being within 48 hours to
continue their life cycle. Within seven weeks the young parasite
matures to an adult male or female worm.

206
( Source: Jan A. Ronzedaal: WHO 1997)

207
Prevention and control
1. Detection and treatment of sick people
2. Safe disposal of human excreta through the provision and proper
utilization of sanitary latrine.
3. Provision of safe drinking water:
Individual protection from infection can be achieved by avoiding
contact with unsafe water.
4. Snail control through environmental modification:
Reduction of snail habitat by removal of vegetation; alteration of
water levels and flow rates, etc. helps to reduce the number of
snail host.

Review Questions

1. List at least two control methods against ticks.

2. What are the diseases or health problems caused by mites.
3. Write the medical importance of crustaceans.
4. Write the possible control and preventive measure against
Guinea worm infection.
5. Write the transmission route of schistosomiasis and list the
possible control technique for it.
6. Practical Exercise:
Go to the field and collect insects and other arthropods
regardless of their public health importance. Classify the
collected arthropods by their class and order. Finally Sort out the
public health importance insects from the collected species.

208
 CHAPTER TWELVEE
RODENTS

Learning objectives
At the end of this chapter the reader will be able to
• discuss the similarity and difference between black rats, brown
rats, and house mouse
• investigate the presence of rats and mouse in a given area
• identify the medical importance and possible control techniques
against rats and mouse.

12.1 Identification characteristics

Class – Mammalia;
Order – Rodentia;
Family – Muridae;
Genus- Rattus and Mus;
Species-Rattus rattus (Roof rat), Rattus norvegicus (Norway rat),
and Mus musculus (house mouse).

Rats are identified by their peculiar shape and arrangement of the

teeth. They have no canine teeth but two pairs of strongly developed
incisors (a pair on each jaw). Rats have diastema between the
incisors and the molors. These 4 teeth (incisors) grow continuously
throughout the life of the rats.
The growth rate is reckoned to be around 13 cm per year. In order to
keep them short and fit, the rats have to gnaw persistently any

209
material in their access. If they don not do this, then their incisors
would grow through their lips, exposing them to the risk of death. The
gnawing capacity of the rats is remarkable. They gnaw and at the
same time destroy wooden materials, wood floors, plastic materials,
fabrics, bed mattresses, valuable cloths, skins and hides, crops ,
plants, grain in sack, electric wires etc. In fact the presence of rats in
premises may be detected by the finding of gnawed material. This
gnawing habit makes the rats the most destructive enemy of
humans.

Table 12.1 Field identification of the three murine rodents: Rattus

rattus, Rattus norvegicus and Mus musculus are shown in the
following table.
[Link] Character Rattus rattus Rattus Mus
norvegicus musculus
1. Average adult 8 – 12 16 1/2
weight.
2. Fur Black brown gray
3. Body Slender Heavy set Small
4. Muzzle ( mouth Pointed Blunt Slender
part, nostril) ( sharp)
5. Tail Longer than Shorter than Equal to
body + head. body + head body +
head.
6. Ears Large and Small closely Very large.
prominent. set.
7. Fecula Round and 1/2 Capsular and Round and

210
 of an inch. 3/4 of an inch. 1/8 of an
inch.
8. Sexual maturity. 3 - 5 months. 3 - 5 months. 11/2 month.
9. Gestation 22 days. 22 days. 19 days.
period.
10. Number of 4 - 6 / year. 4 - 7 / year. 8 / year.
gestation.
11. Number of litter/ 6-8 8 - 12 5-6
gestation
12. Life span. One year. One year. 1 year.
13. Harbourage Above ground Under Both.
ground.
14. Home range. 100 – 150 ft. 100 - 150 ft. 10 - 30 ft.
15. Feeding Omnivorous Same Same.
16. Water 15 -20 ml/ day Same Same.

If all the offspring were to survive, one couple of rats could-

theoretically produce 350 million descendants within 3 years on the
bases 6 litters annually. Fortunately, rat survival rate is low due to
natural pressures such as scarcity of foods, competition among rats
for food and shelter and humans relentless attack on their species.

Rats are nearly omnivorous, but they would prefer grains if choice
are possible. They are attracted to indiscriminately dumped garbage,
carelessly exposed foods and other materials. They can travel a long
distance in search of food and shelter from their breeding sites. Food
intake of an average adult rat is estimated to be about 28 grams of
dry food and about 15 to 25 ml of water per day. They destroy far
more than they consume.

211
A number of vertebrate animals will invade domestic and
commercial premises in search of food and shelter. In doing so, they
may be involved in the transmission of disease, soiling and
destroying commodities. The most important of these pests are
undoubtedly the rats and mice.

To know the vast infestation a careful inspection of premises should

be carried on the surrounding building and open space, as well as
sewers and drains. Signs to look for are damage caused by gnawing
and feeding, holes, dropping.

12.2 Investigation of rodent infestation

The presence of rat in a given house can be investigated by
1. Rat fecula (droppings)
A fresh fecula is soft, moist and bright in color while old fecula is
dry, hard and fray to touch. Generally the color and size of rat fecula
depends on what the rat has eaten and the type of rodent species
respectively.
2. Foot print and tail marks – for fresh fecula the foot print and tail
mark is clean and greasy, where as for old fecula it is old and dusty.
3. Rat run ways – if a given area is infested by rats there exist a
greasy markings on the pipe, beam, wire, floor, wall, rafter etc.
Habitually rat follow the same run way between food, water, and
harborage.
4. Distraction marks- rat distract human properties like furniture,
food, and clothing’s due to their gnawing property.

12.3 public health importance

212
Rats are capable of transmitting several important diseases to human.
These diseases can be grouped into three categories: Those diseases
or injuries which are directly caused by rats.
Rat bite: Bites inflicted by rats can cause serious injuries to the
victims. Infants, children and adults may be exposed to the risk of
rat- bite,
Rat - bite fever: This is a disease caused by a spirochete organism
which may be harbored in the mouth, particularly on the gum of rats.
The organism enters through wounds inflicted by the rat - bite.
The organism does not affect the rodent; those diseases which are
transmitted indirectly by foods or water contaminated by the rat’s
excreta and urine- e.g. Salmonellosis: - a common food borne
disease due to contamination of the food by faeces / urine
containing salmonella organism, Trichinosis: is contracted by eating
infected pork. The pig acquires the disease from rats, either by
ingesting dead infected rat or through contaminated rat excreta or
urine,

Leptospirosis: a spirochetal disease contracted by handling or eating

food infected with faeces or urine of domestic and wild rodents;
Those which are spread by insects, fleas etc for which rats act as
reservoir- e.g. Plague: caused by the bacillus pasteurella pestis by
the bite of rat flea known as xenopsyella cheopis,
Murine typhus:- caused by a rickettsial organism transmitted by the
bite of or excreta of rat flea (xenopsylla cheopis).

12.4 Control Measures of Rodents

213
Before selecting a control method it is necessary to make a survey
of the place in order to: Determine the species and population
density of rats in the area; determine the frequency of occurrence of
rats’ infestation, their harborages, food sources etc. Once the survey
data are compiled, the following control methods can be applied:
Environmental management (control) to deprive rats’ food, water
shelter and harborage, Rat proofing and rat stoppage, Rat trapping:
snap or cage trap, Poisoning using rodenticides of acute or chronic
actions.
Acute poisons include compounds of arsenic, strychnine,
phosphorous, barium carbonate- they kill rats in less than 24 hours.
Chronic poisons include such as warfarin which is anticoagulant
that needs to be ingested at intervals for a period of days or weeks.
Here it should be noted that poisons are to be used with the highest
precautions to prevent danger of poisoning man and other domestic
animals, and use of natural enemies like cats.

Review Question
1. Write at least four points that help to investigate rat infestation.
2. List the public health importance of rats and mouse.
3. Discuss the identification features of different species of rats.

214
 CHAPTER THERTEEN

CONTROL OF DISEASE VECTORS-

CURENT PERSPECTIVE

Learning objectives

At the end of this chapter the reader will be able to

-Discuss the different approaches in controlling disease vectors
- Differentiate between the different classes or types of insecticides
- Describe the ways of insecticide formulations
- Describe the different types of manually operated and power
operated sprayers.
- Discuss the possible safety measures during insecticide handling

13.1 Introduction

The use of pesticides in public health has been mainly to control

vector-borne diseases. Vectors are small animals, mostly insects
that transmit pathogens from one host to another. Insects were
incriminated as vectors of human disease as early as 1878, when
Manson connected mosquitoes with filariasis. Soon afterwards,
Ross and others showed that mosquitoes transmitted malaria some
of the tropical diseases that most affect human well-being are vector
borne.

215
Table 13.1 Prevalence and distribution of some vector-borne
diseases of humans.

Most of these diseases are associated with bloodsucking insects,

and many are associated with water, because the vectors spend all
or part of their life cycles in or near it. For example, culicine
mosquito vectors of filariasis and Japanese encephalitis breed in
water, ranging from organically polluted drains to rice fields;
anopheline vectors of malaria in seepage puddles, ponds, and
streams; Cyclops, the intermediate host in guineaworm disease, in
wells and ponds; Bulinus, Biomphalaria, and Oncomelania snails,
the intermediate hosts in schistosomiasis, in streams, low earth-dam

216
reservoirs, and rice-irrigation systems; and Simulium vectors of
onchocerciasis (river blindness) in fast-flowing waters including
spillways of dams.

Other vector-borne diseases that have caused disastrous epidemics

are typhus (Rickettsia prowazeki), transmitted by body lice
(Pediculus humanus), and bubonic plague (Yersinia pestis),
transmitted from rodents to humans by fleas (Xenopsylla cheopis
and Pulex irritans). These diseases are not major problems now, but
they continue to threaten; typhus, especially, soon becomes
epidemic in times of war, famine, and overcrowding.

Once their role was established, it was soon realized that the most
effective way to control the diseases was to control their vectors. In
earlier times, yellow fever was controlled by draining, destroying,
oiling, covering, or burying all water containers in which Aedes
aegypti could breed. Malaria was controlled by draining the marshes
that the Anopheles larvae inhabited, applying the larvicide Paris
Green (copper acetoarsenite), releasing larvivorous fish (Gambusia),
and screening windows.

13.2 The insecticide era

Although dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane (DDT) was only

discovered to kill insects in 1939, by 1944 this insecticide was being
used to control typhus and malaria, and its use soon became
worldwide to control pests and vectors of all kinds. For the control of
malaria, houses and cattle sheds were sprayed twice a year with
DDT wettable powder (WP) to kill resting Anopheles adults.

217
World Health Organization (WHO) inaugurated a global malaria-
eradication program. By 1958, 75 countries had joined and, in 1961-
1962, at the peak of the campaign, 69 500 t of pesticides, mainly
DDT, were applied each year by 130 000 spraymen to 100 million
dwellings occupied by 575 million people. The number of people
contracting malaria fell from about 300 million/year before 1946 to
about 120 million/year by the late 1960s; in a population that had
doubled in size, malaria was eradicated from 10 countries.

After 1965, however, malaria made spectacular "comebacks" in

many countries, especially India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Between
1972 and 1976, the number of malaria cases increased 2.3 times
worldwide, although the late 1970s saw some improvement as
control campaigns were revived. The resurgence of malaria was due
to a variety of factors, including

·Premature slowing of the eradication campaigns;

·Poor management and unsustainable approaches;

· Inadequate understanding of the habits of the mosquitoes (many

spent too little time indoors to be vulnerable to the spray deposits);
and · Insect resistance.

By 1980, resistance to at least one insecticide had been reported in

over 150 species of arthropods of public-health importance,
including 93 species of mosquitoes (WHO 1984). This led to failure
of some control programs and a switch to alternative insecticides,
although "in some instances, resistance has become a convenient

218
scapegoat for failures due to other factors" (Davidson 1989). DDT
has been banned in some countries, but is still used for vector
control in others. Where resistance has become a problem, DDT has
been replaced by organophosphates (e.g., malathion and
fenitrothion), carbamates (e.g., propoxur and bendiocarb), or
synthetic pyrethroids (e.g., permethrin and deltamethrin). These
insecticides are, for the most part, less persistent and much more
expensive than DDT. Antimalaria campaigns continue in many
countries, but the goal is no longer eradication, just control.

Other vector control campaigns have also been based mainly on

insecticides. Attacking larvae with the organophosphate temephos
and perifocal spraying (for emerging adults) with another
organophosphate, fenthion, supplemented during dengue epidemics
by fogging or aerial spraying with malathion.

Many countries have promoted house-spraying with dieldrin and

other residual insecticides to control house hold insects and tsetse
flies by aerial spraying, especially with endosulfan.

The most successful campaign using insecticides in recent years

was the onchocerciasis control program in West Africa, which now
covers 14 000 km of rivers in 11 countries. Launched in 1974, the
program has involved aerial spraying of blackfly-breeding sites with
the organophosphate insecticide, temephos, now replaced in some
areas by Bucillus thuringiensis because of resistance to temephos.
Onchocerciasis control has been good in the central area, but
reinvasion by black flies in the periphery is still a problem.

219
An international campaign against guineaworm involved treating
drinking-water sources with temephos to kill Cyclops, the
intermediate host.

13.2.1 Side effects of pesticides used in public health

In spite of the millions of houses sprayed with DDT for malaria

control, no accidental deaths of spraymen or householders due to
DDT poisoning have been reported. However, some domestic
animals were killed, especially cats, with the result that rat
populations increased in some sprayed areas. Bedbugs,
cockroaches, and other household pests soon developed resistance
to DDT, and became more abundant because the DDT had killed
many of their predators. This led some householders to oppose
spraying.

In the past, it was claimed that environmental contamination by DDT

used in malaria control was relatively minor because it was sprayed
inside houses, and the quantities were much smaller than those
used in agriculture. However, washing of equipment, containers, and
overalls, and the unauthorized use of DDT for other purposes (e.g.,
fish poisoning) spread the substance outside the houses. DDT used
for malaria control accounted for an estimated 8% of global DDT
contamination. Where pesticides are stockpiled for use in epidemics
(e.g., dengue), environmental contamination due to leaking
containers (some insecticides are highly corrosive), fire, theft, war,
or natural disasters is always a danger.

Extensive studies in the effects on non target organisms of aerial

220
spraying of endosulfan against tsetse flies and temephos used in
rivers against blackfly larvae have revealed no permanent damage
to treated ecosystems. In the case of tsetse fly control, it has been
argued that any changes to the ecosystems caused by spraying are
insignificant compared to the changes that will follow human
settlement of tsetse-cleared land. However, there is no need for
complacency in these matters, and further studies are required.

13.3 Agriculture and vector-borne diseases

The links between agricultural development and human health are

poorly documented and "the health sector has up to now had
minimal involvement in agricultural policies or projects". However,
people who clear forests for cultivation are at a high risk of infection
with diseases such as malaria, leishmaniasis, African
trypanosomiasis, and other diseases, because of increased
exposure to the vectors. Moreover, insecticide resistance in
mosquito vectors has been induced by the use of the insecticides in
agriculture. Selection acts upon the mosquito larvae as they develop
in insecticide-contaminated waters. Particularly implicated in this
context have been dieldrin, DDT, malathion, parathion, and propoxur
(used mainly on rice and cotton crops). Irrigation presents a special
problem, because many vectors live or develop in water. Some
vectors develop directly in irrigated fields, others in canals,
seepages, artificial lakes, or dam spillways. Increasing vector
populations and more human contact with them have increased the
transmission of malaria and schistosomiasis..

Poorly planned resettlements of people displaced by artificial lakes

221
have also increased the transmission of vector-borne diseases.

13.4 Integrated vector control

From 1945 on, DDT, lindane, and other residual insecticides

provided a single, highly effective method of vector control that
eclipsed all other methods until about 1970. Since then, the
development of resistance, concerns about environmental
contamination and human safety, and the high cost of alternative
insecticides have led to a revival of interest in other methods of
vector control. Some of these methods were already known, but
were neglected during the DDT era: personal protection (e.g.,
screens and repellents), source reduction (e.g., draining or removing
artificial breeding sites), the use of fish to prey on mosquito larvae,
and community-based health education. Other methods, such as
genetic control, synthetic attractants, insect growth regulators, and
the use of remote sensing by satellite to detect vector habitats have
also been attempted experimentally and in endemic situations.

Integrated vector control has been defined as "the utilization of all

appropriate technological and management techniques to bring
about an effective degree of vector suppression in a cost-effective
manner" (WHO 1983). It demands an adequate knowledge of the
biology, ecology, and behaviour of the vector, non target organisms,
and the human population to ensure not only effective control of the
vector, but also human safety and prevention of other unacceptable
side effects, including environmental damage. Although there are
many integrated approaches to vector control, only some of the
more promising ones are considered here, with emphasis on those
222
that could be used in community programs to achieve greater
sustainability.

1. Pesticides

Although DDT and other organochlorines have been banned in many

countries and replaced in others because of vector resistance or
adverse effects, many other synthetic insecticides are still available.
WHO listed 37 compounds in common use for the control of vectors
and pests of public-health importance. In some places, such as vast
amounts of insecticides are still used each year for mosquito control.
DDT was replaced initially by organophosphates, such as malathion,
and more recently by synthetic pyrethroids, such as permethrin, which
are costly but effective at very low doses. Unfortunately, there are
already many reports of mosquito and biting-fly resistance to
pyrethroids, some of them also because of cross-resistance to DDT.

Table 13.2 some pesticides used in public health.

223
2. Biological Control

224
Pathogens

Some effective microbial pesticides are now available for vector

control especially spore/crystal preparations of B. thuringiensis
serotype H-14 var. israelensis (Bti) and B. sphaericus. These
microbials are highly toxic and specific to the targeted larvae of
mosquitoes and blackflies. However, they are relatively expensive
and difficult to formulate because the toxic crystals sink and become
inaccessible to most larvae, although floating, slow-release
formulations of Bti are now available. Bti is widely used in the
onchocerciasis control program in West Africa and, increasingly, for
mosquito control. Because these microbial pesticides are virtually
nontoxic to mammals, they can be applied by community volunteers.

Plant extracts

Endod, an extract of seeds of the Ethiopian plant Phytolacca

dodecandra, and damsissa, a product of Ambrosia maritima in
Egypt, are effective against the snail intermediate hosts of
Schistosoma. Other local natural products could be developed for
vector control. For example, fruit pods of the tree Swartzia
madagascarensis, widely used in Africa as a fish poison, were also
found to be toxic to Anopheles larvae and Bulinus snails; Alpha T
from the marigold flower (Tagetes) is toxic to mosquito larvae.

Predators

Larvivorous fish such as Cambusia affinis have been used for

225
controlling mosquito larvae for many years. Among the more
promising recent developments is the use of young Chinese catfish
(Clarias fuscus) to control Ae. aegypti in household water containers
in China and a community-based malaria-control scheme in India,
which paid for itself by selling carp and prawns that were reared in
the same group of ponds as the guppy fish used for controlling
mosquitoes .

Many other organisms have been tested for the biological control of
vectors. Candidates for controlling larvae of Ae. aegypti and other
mosquitoes that develop in small containers are dragonfly larvae,
the copepod crustacean Mesocyclops aspericornis, and the
predatory mosquito species, Toxorhynchitis

3. Personal protection

Personal protection includes all measures taken at the individual or

the household level to prevent biting by vectors. Anklets
impregnated with repellents significantly reduced biting rates of
mosquitoes. Washing with soap containing a repellent (diethyl
toluamide, DEET) or an insecticide (permethrin) reduced mosquito
biting rates. Bed netting has been used for centuries to give
personal protection against biting insects. When impregnated with
insecticides, the netting provides community protection as well;
mosquitoes rest on the treated fabric and are killed. In numerous
large-scale trials in various parts of the world, malaria transmission
appears to have been reduced by the systematic use of nets
impregnated with permethrin or deltamethrin. House improvements
such as screening, insecticidal paints , and filling in cracks in the
226
 walls could provide definitive measures against some house hold
insects.

4. Trapping

Mechanical and other types of traps have been used to reduce

populations of tsetse flies. Several designs have been developed,
some of them incorporating chemical attractants and insecticides. In
Uganda, an effective tsetse trap has been made from old tires and
locally available plant materials. Light traps, installed in pig sites,
have been tested for the control of Culex tritoeniorhynchus in Japan.

5. Environmental management

Changing the environment to prevent vector breeding or to minimize

contact between vectors and people can be an effective control
mechanism. Environmental management methods include:

· Environmental modification, i.e., any permanent or long-lasting

change in land, water, or vegetation, such as filling, draining, or
forest clearance;

· Environmental manipulation, e.g., flushing streams, changing water

salinity, and removing shade plants; and

· Modifying human habitation or behaviour, e.g., locating new

settlements away from vector populations, modifying house design,
and changing water supply and waste disposal.

Intermittent irrigation was used to prevent the development of

227
mosquito larvae in rice fields and layers of expanded polystyrene
beads prevented Culex quinquefasciatus from laying their eggs in
wet pit latrines. Much environmental management work can be done
by community volunteers with guidance in the initial stages from
vector-control specialists.

6 Training and education

Integrated control strategies require more people trained in vector

biology. In addition to the usual sources of health education, such as
schools and clinics, information can reach the public through
billboards, newspapers, radio, and television.

The role of the community

Many problems and failures in vector control have been due, not
only to technical difficulties, poor management, and lack of
continuity, but also to the fact that not enough attention had been
paid to the beliefs and attitudes of the affected communities. For
example, many Ae. aegypti control campaigns in the past 20 years
have relied too heavily on ultra-low-volume spraying, which is not
always effective. The use of this method has given people a false
sense of security, reinforced their belief that Ae. aegypti control is
the government's responsibility, and taken away the pressure to get
rid of larval habitats in their own backyards.

A recent WHO report, explores the ways in which more

responsibility for vector control can be transferred from the
national to the district level and ways of getting people more

228
involved in protecting themselves against vector-borne diseases
because "community participation makes people more aware of
their ill-health and general underdevelopment and of how they can
overcome these problems." Vector control at the community level
has to compete with more basic needs, such as food, shelter, and
employment, and the need for it may not be appreciated during
periods of little or no disease.

Nevertheless, examples of successful community participation

include: setting tsetse traps; draining, filling, or clearing weeds from
mosquito breeding sites; rearing larvivorous fish; source reduction of
Ae. aegypti; and distribution of nylon filters to keep Cyclops out of
drinking water. Vector-control campaigns should work closely with
primary health-care programs to achieve greater effectiveness and
sustainable results.

Despite promising results, long-term community participation in

vector control must be secured, because operations, such as the
control of container-breeding mosquitoes, may have to be continued
indefinitely. Little is known about extending pilot projects into
permanent national programs. Community volunteers may become
victims of political struggles or professional rivalries if their work is
not given proper recognition. The best chance of maintaining
community support seems to lie in integrating vector control into the
primary health-care system, which is now established in many
countries. More research is also needed on how to coordinate vector
control with work in agriculture, forest and water management, and
on the role of migrant workers in disease ecology and control.

229
Community-based vector control is not a way to reduce government
spending. Although local initiatives should be encouraged, each
country will still need teams of professional vector-control workers,
using well-established methods, to meet its obligations under
international health regulations.

13.5 Research on community strategies for vector control

Building research capacity, producing new knowledge, and creating

linkages among researchers are perceived as essential components
of development by the International Development Research Centre
(IDRC). However, IDRC-supported projects must contribute to
improving the welfare and standard of living, particularly of the poor
and disadvantaged who are to be the ultimate beneficiaries of the
research. IDRC tries to ensure that the activities it supports meet the
long-term goals of development as viewed from the perspective of
these beneficiaries: sustainable growth, equity, and participation.

Conclusions

Disease vectors will probably remain with us indefinitely. Optimizing

use, doses, and safety of control measures and balancing vector
control with consideration for the environment is a challenge we
must face. Future considerations must include such questions as
whether an insecticide-free environment is possible, or desirable. All
development projects should include ecological planning to prevent
increases in vector-borne diseases. Environmental management
must be considered on both the large and small scale. The role of
the primary health-care system must be defined and inter-sectoral

230
cooperation obtained. The goal is to ensure that vector-control
strategies satisfy ecological requirements as well as local needs and
priorities, that they are shaped around people's lifestyles and living
patterns, and that they promote community self-reliance with respect
to ongoing development.

Roles of different controls for insect pests and diseases

This section provides background information on the different

methods for control of insect pests, diseases as a basis for research
on, and implementation of integrated pest management (IPM). It
links in particular to Technical/Socio-economic activities, and
Advantages of the IPM Approach.

Significance of different controls

In general, the conventional or traditional control components

available for an IPM programme are the same for insect pests and
diseases - (i) cultural and mechanical; (ii) biological; (iii) host plant
resistance; and (iv) chemical. In addition, there are novel controls
which are specific to a particular kind of pest, for example
behavioural or sterilization controls against some insects. Therefore
the same set of tools is available for implementing IPM of the
different types of pests, but its relative significance varies greatly
according to the pest. The nature of the pest fundamentally affects
the significance of different control mechanisms. diseases and pests
cause direct damage. In general, pathogens have a much more
intimate relationship with the host than do insect pests.

231
Role of different IPM control components

In an IPM approach, it is vital to recognize that absolute resistance,

for example immunity, is not necessarily the goal; in fact it may well
be the wrong goal because of the likelihood of resistance breaking
down. Small degrees of resistance can make other components of
the IPM armory much more effective than would be expected from
purely additive effects.

Cultural and mechanical controls- These have been the

cornerstones of many pest control practices, particularly in arable
agriculture throughout the world. They remain the single most widely
used control method in both industrialized and developing countries,
even though the use of many such controls has been eroded
through the substitution of pesticides.

In conclusion, much more attention must be paid to the whole range

of cultural controls, especially as they have so often tended to be
disregarded because their value has not been appreciated, or
because it has seemed easier or more effective to replace them with
pesticides.

B Biological controls- The value of biological control is also

demonstrated by the resurgence phenomena associated with the
use of broad-spectrum insecticides, which kill not only the pest, but
also its natural enemies. If the pest is one that re-establishes itself
more quickly than its natural enemies, a single treatment of a crop
with the pesticide will be followed by a more intensive attack,

232
requiring a further spray, and creating an even greater problem.

Proper understanding of the management of indigenous natural

enemies of pests is one area of research which could lead to far
more environmentally desirable procedures for pest management.
Biological control by indigenous natural enemies of pests is not only
environmentally desirable, but is generally compatible with other
control procedures, such as cultural controls, host-plant resistance,
and proper use of pesticides.

Our understanding of the biological control of pathogens is still in its

infancy. There is good evidence that competitors have a major
impact on rust pathogens, and cultural controls often work effectively
because of their influence on soil-borne pathogens. Retention and
enhancement of natural biological controls against most pests must
be a major factor in desirably safe and sustainable pest
management practices. Much research needs to be done to enable
them to achieve their full potential.

Chemical controls-The vast array of pesticides now available, firstly

insecticides and then herbicides and fungicides, has transformed
pest management. Their very success has led to well-known serious
misuses and to a damaging reputation, the context in which IPM
developed. However, this has sometimes led to over-reaction: the
actual and potential value of chemical pesticides must be
recognized, both for food production and for disease control. We
must accept that many pesticides have an important role in the IPM
armory. The key question is how to use them rationally, as a

233
component of IPM, as and when necessary. At present there are no
new alternatives. Moreover, some emerging technologies such as
those based on genetic engineering and the use of pathogens may
have more serious disadvantages for man and the environment than
many currently used synthetic pesticides.

Certain insecticides must be seen as environmentally hazardous

through their toxic effects on man and on various biological systems.
Many of the worst have been phased out; however there are ironical
situations in some countries, whereby some pesticides highly toxic to
man are still being recommended, while relatively safe alternatives
have been banned because they are harmful to natural enemies of
pests. In the foreseeable future, pesticides must be recognized as
essential components of many IPM practices. In many cases they
are being excessively used or badly applied, and one of the main
priorities, often the first priority of an IPM program, is their rational
use.

The above comments indicate the vital role of the traditional control
components for IPM implementation programs. Such controls are
fundamental to any pest management system, though it is
disappointing that other kinds of control have so far made relatively
little impact on the pest management scene. At present, we must
therefore rely heavily on the four basic methods listed above, and on
improvements in their integration.

13.6 Insecticides

234
13.6.1 Introduction
Insects and other arthropods control measures in use today fall in to
two broad categories; namely-the chemical and biological control
methods. In practice they may be used separately or in an integrated
manner.
Insecticides are substances or an agent that kill insects and other
arthropods. Theoretically insecticide should have the following
characteristics. It has to be cheap in terms of cost, easily prepared
for use, on-corrosive and non-odorous. However at present there is
no such perfect insecticide that fulfills all the standards mentioned
above.

13.6.2 Types of Insecticide

Chemical insecticides are the predominant materials in use today to
control insects. They are generally classified in to seven categories
based on their chemical composition (formula).

1. Inorganic insecticides

These are one of the oldest group of chemicals employed to control

insects, but with certain exceptions, they are not in a widespread
use today. One of these exception is the group of arsenical
insecticides, the most common one is lead arsenate. Soluble
arsenicals, like sodium arsenite are incorporated in to dipping baths
for the control of ectoparasites, or in to poison baits for different
insects. Various fluorine compounds such as sodium fluoride (NaF)
which is water soluble, barium fluosilcate (cryolite), which are
insoluble in water, have a similar insecticidal action as that of

235
sodium arsenite.
Elemental sulphur and inorganic sulphur compounds have some
insecticidal properties but they are better used as acaricides and
fungicides. Lime sulphur, which is a mixture of calcium polysulphides
and calcium thiosulphate, and mercurous chloride (Hg2 Cl2)are also
have insecticidal effect under inorganic insecticides.

2. Botanical insecticides
It has been known for many years that plant extracts have
insecticidal properties which cover a wide range of chemical types
Alkaloids are one of the best known botanical insecticides, which are
basic, cationic compounds containing nitrogen, often in a
heterocyclic ring.
Those extracts known as sabadilla, Reania and Quassia give several
insecticidal alkaloids. For example when the seeds of sabasilla is
crushed and extracted with organic solvent yield a mixture of several
insecticidal alkaloids known as veratrin. Ryanodine is the principal in
alkaloid present in the stems and roots of the shrub Ryania species
while quassia is extracted from the food of the tree Quassia amara
These the above extracts have relatively a minor commercial
importance today.
The insecticide based on Nicotine, Rotenone and pyrethrum are
much more familiar and of these, nicotine has been in use
predominantly. It is extracted from the leaf of several nicotine
species.

Pyrethroids are some what expensive to produce, and deteriorate

rapidly on exposure to air . They have a wide use an insecticide,

236
especially against house hold insects. They are most often
formulated as aerosols ad have a rapid paralytic or “Knock-down”
effects on insects. They are harmless to man when ingested or
touched.

3. Organochlorine Insecticides
DDT (Dichloio-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane) was the first commercially
produced chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide and is still one of the
most important substances used in insect control.
The toxic property of DDT, Unlike some of the botanical insecticides
persist for some time after application this is because it is non-
volatile insoluble in water and not particularly lead to oxidation.
Benzene hexachloride (BHC) is also one of the organochlorine
insecticides. The crude product is a mixture of about seven isomers
and it has unpleasant odour. Due to this unpleasant odour, BHC is
best substituted y other product called Lindane, (which is similar with
BHC) Toxaphene (chemically quite different from BHC), Chlordane,
Heptachlor, are also widely used for the control of house hold
insects. Endosulphan, Aldrin, Dieldrin and Endrin (Cyclodi-enes are
based on naphthalene), etc. are another examples of organochlorine
insecticides.

4. Organophosphorous insecticides:
Tetraethyl pyrophosphate (TEEP) is the organ phosphorus
compound demonstrated by Schrader of Germany. This compound
has an oral M.L.C to rate of about 1.0 mg/kg, but because it is

237
rapidly hydrolysed by moisture, it is rendered inactive within a few
hours of application. Generally Dimefox, Durbsa, Couaphos,
Dichlorovos, Parathion, Diazinon, Malathion, Trichlorophos,
fenchlorophos, etc, are some examples of insecticides under this
group.

5. Carbamate insecticides:
Generally carbamate insecticides are an insecticide that contains
esters functional group in common in their chemical structure.
Physiostignine, Dimetan, carbaryl, butacarb, isolan are some of the
representative insecticides under this group. As with DDT, the first
commercially produced carbamate insecticides is esters of dimethyl
carbamic acid. Its earliest product was known as Dimetern.

6. Dinitrophenol insecticides:
These insecticides have been known fro a number of years to have
insecticidal Properties. All insecticides under this group have a
phenol ring in common.

DNOC (Dinitro- ortho- cresol), Dinex (Acyclohexyl phenol derivative),

Dinsoeb (An ethyl-n-propyl derivative) etc. are examples of this
group of insecticides.

7. Organothiocyanate insecticides
Organothiocyanates were originally developed as possible
alternatives to the pyrethrins but have found only a limited market
because the pyrethrins can be produced more easily and cheaply.

238
There are two main groups of insecticides, the various lethanes and
Thanite. The lethanes are of moderate toxicity but Thanite is quite
safe with an oral M.L.C. of 1600 mg/kg to rats. They are used as
“knock-down” agents in aerosol formulations for household and dairy
application and as sprays for the control of human lice and bed
bugs.

13.6.3 Insecticide formulation and Application

The addition of substances (solvent or diluent) which enable a given
chemical insecticide to be used to the greatest advantage in any
given situation is known as formulation. The active ingredients of
insecticidal products are expensive to produce and it is toxic at low
concentration. In order to apply small quantities accurately to the
target area, there are many practical difficulties to the distribution of
only a few chemicals on the area, therefore, to overcome these
difficulties diluting the material until it reaches a manageable volume
that is easy to operate is needed.
Generally there are three types of formulation;- liquid, dry (dust) and
gaseous formulations.

1. Liquid Formulations
Water, because of its relatively low cost and ease of availability, is
most commonly used as a diluent for liquid formulations.
Unfortunately, many organic compounds are insufficiently soluble in
water. To solve this problem insoluble solids may be formulated as
wettable powders, it is a process which entails their being mixed
intimately with an inert carrier, which is easily suspended in water.
The application of such formulation could be by dipping, or by

239
 forcing out the liquids through fine nozzle so that it emerges as
droplets (small diameter size suspend in the air while others drop).

2. Dry (dust) Formulation:

It should be noted that with dry formulations the diluent and
insecicide are mixed at the time of manufacture rather than at the
site of application. This helps in saving of time. Dusts are usually
acceptable for personal application when it is necessary to cntrol
human ectoparasites. The disadvantage of dry formulation is dust
diluents can be much more expensive than water and also diluents
are bulky to transport.

3. Gaseous Formulations:
Certain insecticides which are solids or liquids at normal teperatures
can be formmulated so that they can be dispersed or exert their toxic
effects in the vapor phase. A heat source is usually required for
volatilization and in some case this can be generated by the
incorporation of pyrotechnic chemicals in to the formulation. Vapors
produced by this methods cool in to aerosol - type droplets which
eventually crystallize on cold surfaces if the active ingredient is a
solid.

13.6.4 Dilution Formula for Mixing Insecticides

Technical grade insecticides:- are an insecticides that exist in its
purest commercial form. These insecticides must be made in proper
strength solutions, emulsion, suspensions or dusts before
application. Liquid sprays are often purchased as concentrated
solutions or emulsifiable concentrates.

240
Concentrated solution, therefore, may be diluted with oil and
emulsifiable concentrates with water to prepare a solutions or
emulsions with appropriate strength. Dusts are often diluted with
talc, pyrophylite of flour, wettable powders are mixed with water to
form suspensions of desired concentration. The following formulae
can be used to prepare a finished spray insecticides with desirable
concentrations.

A. Formula Number one : ( Subtraction formula):- used for

mixing liquids with liquids or solids with solids.

I. X = C – S/S, where: C = Percentage of the available

concentrate
S = Percentage of the finished spray or dust desired
X = Number or parts of diluent added.

II. X = C/S- 1.i.e., Available % - 1

Desired %
Example: - 1. Dilute 25 % lindane emulsifiable concentrate to
0.25 % finished spray emulsion.
Solution:
C - 1 = 25% - 1 Answer = 1: 49.
S 0.5%
2. Make 50 gallons of 1% lindane spray using 25% lindane
concentrate and water. How many gallons of lindane
concentrate should be used?
B. Dilution formula Number Two: (“ SAC “ used for mixing
liquids with liquids or solids with solids).

241
 Q = S x A = (Desired ) ( Amount wanted )
C available %
Where:- Q = Quantity of a concentrate to use ( gals or lbs )
S = % of active ingredient required in the finished spray or dust.
A = amount of spray or dust to be prepared (gals or lbs)
C = % of active ingredient in concentrate.
Example 1: Prepare 100 kg of 2% chloridane dust using talc and 5%
chloridane dust.

Given: Solution:
S = 2% Q = S x A = 2% x 100 kg. = 40 kg = Active ingredient.
C = 5% C 5%
A = 100% The amount of diluent ( talc ) = 100 - 40 kg = 60 kg.

N.B: The result can be interpreted as, to get 100 kg of 2%

chloridane dust add 40 kg of 5% chloridane dust and 60 kg
of talc.

C. Dilution formula Number Three: ( “SADSAC” formula ) for

mixing liquids with solids.

This dilution formula may be used to prepare a solution or

suspension using either the technical grade insecticide or a
concentrate.
Q=SxAxD, where Q = quantity of concentrate to use. (lbs)
C S = % of active ingredient desired in finished spray
A = Amount of spray to be prepared (gals)
C = Density or weight of diluent ( lbs/gals )

Example:

242
 1. Make 50 gallons of a 2.5 % DDT solution in deodorized
kerosene. The kerosene weighs about 6.6 pounds per
gallon. Use a technical grade DDT.
Given: Solution:
S = 25% Q = 2.5% x 50 gals x 6.6 lbs/ gals = 8.25 lbs.
A = 50 gals.
D = 6.6 lbs / gals
C = 100 %
N.B: To prepare 50 gallons of 2.5 percent DDT mix 8.25 pounds of
DDT with sufficient kerosene to reach the 50 gallon mark on the
drum or other container used.
2. Make 100 gallons of BHC suspension containing 1.25 percent
BHC use the 75 percent water wettable BHC powder. The water
weighs about 8.3 pounds per gallon.

Solution:
Q = 1.25 % x 100 gals x 8.3 lbs/ gal = 13.8 lbs. Therefore, to make
100 gallons of BHC suspension containing 1.25 percent BHC add
13.8 poundss of 75 percent water wettable BHC to a tank partially
filled with water, while agitating the mixture until the 100 gallon level
is reached.

N.B: The malaria control program of Ethiopia uses 133 gram of 75%
water wettable DDT concentrate for every liter of water in order to
prepare 10% water wettable suspension, which is the normal
finished spray.

13.6.5 Health Impacts of Insecticides:

243
The effect of insecticides on human health can be divided in to two
categories.
A. Short term effects; include acute poisoning and illnesses caused
by relatively high dose and accidental exposures, and
B. Long-term effects; suspected to include cancer, birth defects,
immunological problems, etc. The long term health effects may
be caused by very low doses of a variety of different chemicals.
According to World Health Organization (WHO) estimate that some
one million people suffer acute pesticide poisoning and at least 20,
000 die each year. It is further estimated that two-thirds of this illness
and death results from occupational exposures in developing
countries where people use insecticides without proper wearing of
protective clothing.

13.6.6 Classification of Insecticide by Mode of Action

Insecticides can also be classified by their mode of action (ways in
which insecticides actually kill insects) or by the ways in which they
enter the insect system and cause them to death. This is not the
best ways of classification, in that different formulation of the same
chemical may penetrate an insect by more than one route.

1. Contact Insecticides (poisoning):

These are insecticides that are able to pass through his insect
exoskeleton or egg shell on contact with the organism body wall or
tarsi. Death of the insect is either due to the concentration of the
poison or due to area of the insect body contaminated.

This contact insecticide may be in the form of air borne droplets

(mist, fog ) or particles which either fall directly on to the insect from

244
the applicator or in to which tthe insect flies of its own accord.
Aerosols are good examples of conact insecticide that has a rapid
“knock down” effect .

Sulphur containing insecticides, mercury groups such as

mercureous chloride (calomel) and alkaloids are some
representative examples of contact poisoning. Surface deposits on
the other hand act as protectants in that they will control infestations
which arise after application, and the duration of the deposit.
Organochlorines are good examples of protectant insecticides.

2. Stomach poison insecticides

These are type of insecticides (poisons) taken in by insects during

the coarse of normal feeding activities. The poison must be
swallowed to cause death. The death of victim depends on the
concentration of poison and on the amount eaten. Mandibulate
insects are conveniently controlled by applying toxicants to their
natural food material or synthetic baits.

Inorganic insecticides, mainly the arsenicals, and lead, copper,

calcium etc are good examples. Both organochlorine and
organophosphorous in nature can also be used as stomach poisons.
What is important here is, insecticides of this type must not have a
repellant effect and must be absorbed from the gut of the insects.
3. Fumigant insecticides

For this type of insecticide the external openings of the respiratory

system are the main access points for fumigants although some may
pass in across the general cuticular surface, particularly of the egg
stage. The entry of the fumigant is thus independent of the structure

245
of the mouth parts. Fumigants do not require an insect to move over
a treated surface in order to exert their effect.

The main objective of fumigation is thus to get the fumigant in to the

tracheal system, and to do so the spiracles required to be open
during treatment.

13.7 Equipment for Insecticidal sprays and safty

measures
13.7.1 Equipments for liquid Application

Equipments for chemical application can be sub-divided in to

manually operated and power operated equipment’s.
Manually operated- sprayers:

1. Hand-carried sprayers:
These sprayers are both held and operated in the hand or hands.
They are usually constructed of brass, mild steel, stainless steel or
plastic. The liquid capacity varies from 1/4 pint (0.15 litre) to 1 gallon
(4.5 litres), but the usual size varies from 1to 2 pint (0.5 - 1 litre).

246
 ( Source: Equipment for Vector Control: WHO-1964)

According to the method of operation, hand carried sprayers are

divided in to intermittent sprayers and continuous or compression
sprayers. The formers are those operated by a simple pump, which
may be either a solid piston or a plunger type with a cup leather. And
the latter type of sprayers operate on the same principle as the well
known knapsack sprayer. The container is filled to approximately
two-thirds of its capacity and the remaining air space is then
compressed by means of a small built- in air pump of the plunger
type. The container has to be sufficiently robust to withstand the
pressure required to expel the liquid contents from the nozzle via a
suitable trigger control valve.

2. Bucket sprayers:
The container for this type of srayer is a bucket or similar convenient
receptacle, such as empty oil can or drum. The materials of
construction are usually brass or plastic or a combination of the two.
The pumps used are:-

247
i. Lance, trombone or slide pump:
In here, the pump is operated with hands, one hand steadying and
directing the spray and the other operating the pump. These pumps
are usually double-acting, i.e., pressure is applied to the liquid on
both the forward and backward strokes. The pumps are nearly
always continuous in action, but occasionally a single acting pump is
employed, in which case the spray production is intermittent.

ii Stirrup pump:
These are of two type: the plunger or piston type pump that may be
used in which there is a suction valve and strainer at the lower end.
This is lowered in to the liquid in the bucket and held in place during
operation by placing the foot on the flat stirrup provided.
The second version of this pump is fitted with a length of suction
hose and strainer intake which enables it to be used with a much
deeper container than is possible with the first type.

3. Knapsack or shoulder-slung sprayers:

There are different types of knapsack sprayers, but almost all have
the same sprayer unit and one is differ from other only in the method
of carrying the sprayer. Generally they are subdivided according to
the method of operation.

i Lance, trombone or slide pump:

The same type of pump as described under bucket sprayers us used
in conjunction with either a knapsack or a shoulder-slung container.
The containers may be made of plastic materials, which may be
either flexible or rigid, or from metal. The flexible plastic types are

248
usually shoulder slung and are often used in conjunction with a
pump of simple manufacture which may also be made of a plastic
material. These type are inexpensive sprayers intended only to last
for a limited period of use ( one season).

ii Lever-operated plunger pump:

A conventional plunger pump is either mounted on the outside of the
container or placed inside the container and immersed in the liquid
content. The pump is operated by hand lever, which may either be
so placed that in use it comes under the arm and is moved up and
down by the hand, or it may pass over the shoulder and have a short
chain or rod with a handle at the end which is pulled and released to
operate the pump.

iii Lever operated diaphram pump:

The pump may be mounted externally on the container, in which
case it is usually placed with in the protective skirt around the bottom
of the container, or it may be mounted inside and immersed in the
liquid contents.
The operating lever of this type is invariably of the under arm
pattern, and it is uncommon to find provision for changing the lever
from one side to the other. A small air vessel is again provided to
even out the pump impulses and to maintain spraying pressure
between the pump strokes.

4. Compression sprayers:

The essential feature of this type of sprayer is that the container is a

pressure vessel. Normally, the container is filled with the liquid to be

249
sprayed to about three quarters of the total capacity. The container
is then closed and compressed air is forced in to the space above
the liquid by means of a plunger type pump. It is this stored pressure
which expels the spray liquid from the bottom of the container
through a hose to the cut-off valve, lance, and nozzle. The capacity
of the container varies from 1 - 6 gallon (4.5 - 27 litres).

5. Stretcher or pole-carried sprayers:

These sprayers are designed to be transported from place to place

between two persons, either carried with the hands by the stretcher-
type handles provided, or carried on the shoulders by poles placed
through lungs or loops on the sprayer. The container is usually
separate and is often provided locally or improvised. The pumps are
usually of the plunger, solid-piston, or diaphragm type. These
sprayers designed for operation from a fixed position with one or
more hoses of lengths up to about 60 ft (18 meter). The pump has a
hand lever which is usually double acting.

6. Barrow sprayers:

These type of sprayers are mounted in a light wheel barrow frame,

with single or double wheels, so that they can be either pushed or
pulled in to the vicinity of the area in which it is desired to spray. The
container capacity ranges between 10 - 45 gal. (45 - 200 liters). The
three pumps, the plunger, piston and diaphram type are used and
operated by a hand lever.

13.7.2. Power operated sprayers:

Power operated sprayers are almost identical in design to the
previously described manually operated sprayers, except that they

250
all utilize power driven plunger, solid piston, diaphragm or rotary
type pumps. When high pressures are required either the plunger or
solid piston pump is used. Electric motor or internal combustion
engines are used to power these type of equipments.

Power operated stretcher carried sprayer, power operated barrow

sprayer and tractor sprayers are good examples.

1. Tractor sprayers:
Tractor sprayer are of two type, i.e. the mounted type, in which the
sprayer is attached to the tractor and completely carried on the
tractor both in and out of operation, and the trailed type of tractor
sprayer, which is larger than the mounted type and designed to be
drown but not carried by a tractor.
2. Vehicle sprayers:
These type of sprayers are intended to be mounted on any suitable
vehicle. The equipment is frequently provided with skids to facilitate
loading. Some times the equipment is trailed behind the vehicle.
3. Air craft sprayers:
All equipment of the hydraulic type is included under this heading,
the basic essentials being the container or containers, a pump, and
a spray bar or boom to carry the nozzles. The container may be
placed inside the air craft or may be carried externally as panniers
on the fuselage, as is common practice on small rotary wing aircraft.

13.7.3. Choices of Applicator Selection:

The choices of applicator are usually carried out based on the size,
durability, explode and spare part availability. The capacity of the
tank is very important for choosing applicators. For easy operation

251
the maximum recommended size of an application is 50 liter.

13.7.4 Safety Measure during Insecticide Handling:

Insecticides are toxic to both pests and humans. However, they

need not be hazardous to humans and non-target animal species if
suitable precautions are taken. Most insecticides will cause adverse
effects if intentionally or accidentally ingested or if they are in contact
with the skin for a long time. Insecticides particles may be inhaled
with the air while they are being sprayed. An additional risk is the
contamination of drinking water, food or soil. Care in handling
insecticides, particularly in relation to spray man and people live in
sprayed houses, should therefore, be routine practice and should
form an integral part of any program involving the application of
insecticides.

Special precautions must be taken during transport, storage and

handling. Spray equipment should be regularly cleaned and
maintained to prevent leaks. People who work with insecticides
should receive proper training in their safe use. It is important to take
in to consideration both the nature of the insecticide, including its
formulation and the proposed method of application before use. The
following factors may influence chemical hazards: type of
formulation, type of ackaging, concentration of the insecticide,
method of application, amount of surface or area to be treated
dosage required, association of human or animal populations with
treated surface or area, and the species or animals exposed, their
age, sex and condition.

The planning of a vector control campaigns must include provision

for the safe transport and secure storage of insecticide concentrates,
which should not be stored in rooms in which people live or in food

252
storage. They should be stored out of direct sunlight and protected
from rain and flooding. Protection against theft, misuse and
unaccessibility to children must be noted.

13.7.5 Precautions

1. Insecticides should be packed and labeled. The label should

be in English and in the local language, and should indicate
the contents, safety instructions and possible measures in the
event of swallowing or contamination.

253
(Source: Jan A. Rozendaal: WHO 1997)

254
2. Store insecticides in a place that can be locked and is not
accessible to unauthorized people or children.

3. Left over insecticide suspension can be disposed of safely by

pouring it in to a specially dug hole in the ground or a pit
latrine. It should not be disposed of where it may enter water
used for drinking or washing, fish ponds or river.

4. Do not eat, drink or smoke while using insecticides. Keep

food in tightly closed boxes.

5. Spray workers should wear, overalls or shirts with long

sleeves and trousers, a broad-brined hat, a turban or other
headgear and sturdy shoes or boots. The mouth and nose
should be covered with a simple device such as a disposable
paper mask, a surgical-type disposable or washable mask, or
any clean piece of cotton. Furthermore, training in the safe use
of insecticides should be given to the workers. The training
should include the techniques of spraying, safety precautions,
protective equipment, recognition of the early signs and
symptoms of poisoning, and first aid measures.

6. Clothing should be kept in a good state of repair and should

be inspected regularly for tears or worn areas through which
skin contamination might occur. Protective clothing and
equipment should be washed daily with soap, separately from
other clothing.

255
(Source: Jan A. Rozendaal: WHO 1997)

256
Review Questions

1. List the different types of hand carried sprayers, Bucket sprayers

and knapsack sprayers.

2. Write the difference and similarity between knapsack and

compression sprayers.

3. List at least 4 safety measures (precautions) during insecticide

handling.

257
 GLOSSARY

1. Aedegous- genital organ of male insect

2. Aerosol: suspension of colloidal particles in gas.

3. Appendages: is any part of the body of insects or

arthropods that is attached to the main structure. For
instance, wing and legs are the appendages of insect
thorax.

4. Autogeny: means spontaneous generation.

5. Bilateral Symmetrical Body: - is a body, which is divided in

to two equal parts like that case of arthropods.

6. Dichoptic :- means a bit far apart.

7. Complete metamorphosis (holometabolous): type of

metamorphosis by which an insect in its life cycle passes
through egg, larva, pupa to reach to the adult stage.

8. Holoptic: nearer to each other.

9. Dorsoventrally flattened insects: - are insects that have a

flat anatomical structure at the back and front side of their
body.

10. Epiphytic plants: a non-parasitic plant that grows on

another plant but gets its nourishment from the air.

11. Incomplete Metamorphosis (hemimetabolous): type of

metamorphosis by which an insect pass through egg, and
nymph only during its life cycle to reach to adult.

258
12. Integument: - is the enveloping membrane of insect body.

13. Larvicides: chemical agents that specifically used to kill the

larvae of insects.
14. Lymphadenopathy: - is the enlargement of lymph nodes.
15. Lymphatic filariasis: is a disease caused by filarial worm
which affects usually Lymph vessels at lower extremities.
16. “Lyre” shape: U-shape.

17. Laterally flattened insects: - are insects that have a flat

anatomical structure at the right and left side of their body.

18. Minimum lethal concentration: - is the minimum

concentration of a chemical that has a lethal effect on
experimental animal.

19. Myiasis: - is an affection due to the invasion of the tissues

or cavities of the body by the larvae of dipterous insects.

20. New World: the western hemisphere or countries or regions

in the Western hemisphere.
21. Non-residual Insecticide: an insecticide that can’t stay in
the environment for long period of time after spraying.

22. Old World: the Eastern hemisphere; the World of Europe,

Asia and Africa.

23. Respiratory Trumpet: is a breathing tube that is located on

the cephalothorax of mosquito pupae that used to take in air
from the atmosphere.

24. Rodenticides: - are chemical substances or agents that

ormally kills rodents.

25. Residual Intecticide: an insecticide that can stay in the

259
 environment for longer period after application or spray with
out changing its chemical property.

26. Reservoir: a living or non-living things where disease

causing microorganisms or agents normally live, multiply
and transferred to organisms.

27. Rodent: any of several mammals, as rats, mice, rabbits,

squirrels, etc characterized by constantly growing incisors
adapted for gnawing or nibbling.

28. Savanna habitat: a habitat where there are grass land

which characterized by scattered trees, specially in tropical
or subtropical regions.

29. Scutellum: - a structure that located in between thorax and

abdomen of some insects.

30. Transovarian transmission: transfer of disease causing

agent from adult animal, particularly of insects to the egg
and when the egg reach to adult stage, become infective.

31. Twi-light: is a light after the sun-set and before dark.

32. Zoonosis: is a disease, which can be transmitted from

animals to humans.

260
 REFERENCES
1. Jan A. Rozendaal: Vector Control- Methods for use by
individuals and Communities: WHO- 1997.

2. Y. Anthony and W. service Mike: Pest and Vector Management

In The tropics: Longman group Ltd., 1983.

3. Robinson H. William: Urban Entomology: Chapman and Hall,

1996.

4. R.C. Read: Insects and Insecticides : Ouver and body Ltd.,

1969.

5. World Health Organization: Equipment for Vector Control- A

Guide to Major items, Specifications, Use, Descriptions - Field
Tests. WHO-Geneva 1964.

6. M.R.H. Burgess: Public Health Pests; A guide to Identification,

Biology and Control; Chapman and Hall - 1990.

7. Taylor. B. Norman: Stedman’s Medical Dictionary, 1957.

8. Allaby. Michael: Oxford Concise Dictionary Of Ecology: 1994.

9. Ministry of Health; malaria and Other vector Borne disease

control Unit. Department of Epidemiology and AIDS
department.
10. [Link] and [Link]; the insects an outline of
Entomology
11. Howard [Link]; Insect Biology
12. Will iam [Link] Parasitology and vector Biology

261
13. MACMILLAN, Mediical Entomology

14. Herms W.B 1923;Medical And VETERINARY Entomology

15. [Link]’Medical Entomology of students

16. Solomon Tassew, Vector and Rodent control for Environmental

health students, Lecture note series.

17. Gebremanueal Teka; Food hyigene

262