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in/forum 9/18/2017

Basic principles of refrigeration

Heat A Form of energy : Thermodynamics is the field of
science that studies and deals with the mechanical
action of heat.
Cold Absence of Heat : Lower intensities of heat have
atoms oscillating slower, the material considered
cold or cool

How heat flows

The second law of thermodynamics states that heat always moves
from the warmer body to the colder object.
HVAC (Heating, Ventilation and How heat Measured
Air-Conditioning) It can be measured only by measuring the effect it has on a material, such
as a change in temperature, state, size, color, etc. This measurement is
sometimes referred to as work, heat content or quantity of heat.
[Link]
Measurement of heat is done in calories. One calorie is the amount of
[Link]
energy required to raise one gram of water one degree Celsius.

Basic principles of refrigeration How Heat Flows

There are three ways heat flows, passes, moves or transfers between bodies
Temperature Temperature is a property of matter that
indicates the concentration or intensity of  Conduction: the
heat in a material.
transmission of heat
Temperature Scale from one molecule to
another within a
Temperature scales are based on effects material or from one
of heat on water with references to boiling material to another
and freezing points of water. when they are held in
The Fahrenheit temperature scale has direct contact.
water boiling at 212° and freezing at 32°
with absolute zero at –459°.
The Celsius temperature scale has
water boiling at 100° and freezing at 0°
with absolute zero at –273°.
Scientists and engineers use the Kelvin Convection: the transfer of heat by Radiation: heat moves on waves of
and Rankin scales with 0° reference energy carried by photons of light in the
point at absolute zero. Kelvin scales uses another agent, such as air or water.
infrared and visible portions of the
Celsius increments, and Rankin uses heat passes by direct contact between the
[Link]
Fahrenheit increments. electromagnetic spectrum and does not
[Link]
bodies, from molecule to molecule
rely on molecules.

Heat Energy Refrigeration

Specific Heat Refrigeration is the process of removing heat from an enclosed space or
from a substance for the purpose of lowering the temperature.
The specific heat is the amount
of heat per unit mass required to raise
the temperature by one degree Celsius. Types of Refrigeration System
1. Vapor Compression Refrigeration System
2. Vapor Absorption Refrigeration System
3. Vapor Ejection Refrigeration System
4. Air Cycle Refrigeration
5. Vortex Tube Refrigeration
There are two types of heat categorized by the effect heat has on a material 6. Thermo-electric Refrigeration
Indicates heat absorbed or rejected by a material that 7. Thermo-acoustics Refrigeration
Sensible Heat accompanies or causes a change in temperature.
This change can be detected by the sense of touch 8. Magnetic Refrigeration
and measured with a thermometer. 9. Cascade System
10. Cryogenics
Latent Heat indicates heat absorbed or rejected by a material
that accompanies or causes a change of physical
state and seems to disappear or hide into the
[Link] [Link]
material without having an effect on its temperature.
This is also known has ‗hidden‘ heat.

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Vapor Compression Refrigeration

Refrigeration cycle
System
The Vapor-Compression Refrigeration
Vapor Compression Refrigeration System Major Components: (i)
Compressor, (ii) Condenser Coil, (iii) Expansion Valve and (iv) Cycle is comprised of four steps
Evaporator Coil. Chemical Refrigerants such as R-12, R-22 or R-
134a are used to provide refrigeration effect. Part 1: Compression : In this stage,
the refrigerant enters the compressor
as a gas under low pressure and
having a low temperature. Then, the
refrigerant is compressed, so the fluid
leaves the compressor under high
pressure and with a high temperature.

Part 2: Condensation : The high pressure, high temperature gas releases

heat energy and condenses inside the "condenser" portion of the system. The
condenser is in contact with the hot reservoir of the refrigeration system. (The
gas releases heat into the hot reservoir because of the external work added to
the gas.) The refrigerant leaves as a high pressure liquid.
[Link] [Link]

Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle

Refrigeration cycle Refrigeration system Component

The main components of a refrigeration system are the condenser, the
Part 3: Throttling : The liquid refrigerant is compressor, the evaporator and the expansion valve.
pushed through a throttling valve, which
causes it to expand. As a result, the
refrigerant now has low pressure and lower Compressor – Heart of the System :
temperature, while still in the liquid phase. A compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by
(The throttling valve can be either a thin slit reducing its volume. There are basically 5 types of compressor that are
or some sort of plug with holes in it. When
the refrigerant is forced through the throttle, commonly used in the HVAC industry:
its pressure is reduced, causing the liquid to 1. Reciprocating.
expand.) 2. Scroll.
3. Screw.
4. Rotary.
5. Centrifugal.
Reciprocating or Piston Compressors
Part 4: Evaporation : The low pressure, low temperature refrigerant enters the
This is the most widely used of all types of
evaporator, which is in contact with the cold reservoir. Because a low pressure is
compressors. It uses a piston that moves
maintained, the refrigerant is able to boil at a low temperature. So, the liquid
up and down inside a hollow cylinder to
absorbs heat from the cold reservoir and evaporates. The refrigerant leaves the
compress the refrigerant (much like a
evaporator as a low temperature, low[Link]
pressure gas and is taken into the compressor [Link]
typical car engine works).
again, back at the beginning of the cycle

Scroll Compressor Screw compressors

Scroll – This type compresses Screw compressors : use a pair of helical rotors or screws
the refrigerant using orbiting and which mesh together to compress the refrigerant between
fixed scrolls, which squeeze the them. They can produce high pressure for a small quantity of
gas into 6 chambers, which gas and consume less power than reciprocating compressors.
decrease in volume as the scroll They have low to medium initial and maintenance costs and
rotates. few moving parts. However, they have difficulty in dirty
environments, high rotational speeds, and shorter life
expectancies than other designs

[Link] [Link]

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Rotary Compressors Centrifugal compressor

 Rotary compressors have two Centrifugal – The centrifugal compressor increases the refrigerant
rotating elements, like gears, pressure by throwing it at high velocity (like an ordinary house fan
between which the refrigerant is throws air) using a rotating impeller inside a stationary housing.
compressed. These compressors
are very efficient because the
actions of taking in refrigerant
and compressing refrigerant
occur simultaneously. They have
very few moving parts, low
rotational speeds, low initial and
maintenance costs, and are
forgiving in dirty environments.
However, they are limited to
smaller volumes of the gas and
produce less pressure than other
[Link] [Link]
types of compressors.

Condenser Condenser
1. Air cooled condenser Water cooled condenser :
2. Water cooled condenser Water is used as the heat
transfer medium in place of
Air cooled condensers (coil air. Water flows through a
condensers ) are used in small heat exchanger where
units like household refrigerators, refrigerants contained in
deep freezers, water coolers, separate piping give up their
window air-conditioners, split air- heat to the water.
conditioners, small packaged air-
conditioners etc. These are used
in plants where the cooling load is Air cooled condensers are of two types:
small and the total quantity of the [Link] convection
refrigerant in the refrigeration [Link] convection
cycle is small. Air cooled In the natural convection type, the air flows
condensers occupy a over it in natural a way depending upon the
comparatively larger space than temperature of the condenser coil. In the
water cooled condensers. forced air type, a fan operated by a motor
[Link] Three different Water cooled condenser
[Link]

blows air over the condenser coil

Evaporator Expansion valves

Expansion valves are devices used to control the
An evaporator is used in an air-conditioning refrigerant flow in a refrigeration system. They help
system to allow a compressed cooling to facilitate the change of higher pressure of liquid
chemical to evaporate from liquid to gas refrigerant in the condensing unit to lower pressure
while absorbing heat in the process. It can gas refrigerant in the evaporator.
also be used to remove water or other Types.
liquids from mixtures. 1. Automatic Exp. Valves
There are two types of evap.: regulates the flow of refrigerant from the liquid line
Forced Convection Type uses a fan or to the evaporator by using a pressure-actuated
pump to force the liquid being cooled over diaphragm. It maintains a constant pressure in the
There are three types of evap.
the evap. evaporator.
1. Bare-Tube
Natural Convection Type has the liquid 2. Thermostatic Exp. Valves : uses a valve mechanism to control the flow of liquid
2. Plate Surface
being cooled flows naturally to the evap. due refrigerant into the evaporator coil. The flow is controlled by the pressure in the
3. Finned construction are
to the density differences of the chilled and evaporator.
bare-tube coils upon which
warm liquid. [Link] Tubes is a tube with small internal diameter and could be coiled for part
fins(metal plates usually
of its length. It is installed to the suction line. A filter-drier is sometimes fitted before
Aluminium) are being
the tube to remove dirt or moisture from the refrigerant.
installed.
[Link]
4. Float Valves is actuated by a [Link]
float that is immersed in the liquid refrigerant. Both
low-side float and high side-float are used to control the flow of liquid refrigerant.

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Refrigerant in Refrigeration Unit of refrigeration

Chemical Refrigerant A refrigerant is a compound used in a heat cycle that A ton of refrigeration (TR), also called a refrigeration ton (RT), is a unit of power
undergoes a phase change from a gas to a liquid and back. The two main uses used to describe the heat-extraction capacity of refrigeration and air conditioning
of refrigerants are refrigerators/freezers and air conditioners. equipment. It is defined as the rate of heat transfer that results in the melting
Refrigerant Properties: Special Thermodynamic qualities such as suitable of 1 short ton of pure ice at 0 °C (32 °F) in 24 hours.
 boiling point (somewhat below the target temperature), Unit of refrigeration Domestic and commercial refrigerators may be rated in kJ/s, or
 high heat of vaporization, moderate density in liquid form, Btu/h of cooling. Prior to the introduction of mechanical refrigeration, cooling was
 high density in gaseous form, Refrigerant Examples: - accomplished by delivering ice. Installing one ton of mechanical refrigeration
• Ammonia (boiling point: -33ºC) capacity replaced the daily delivery of one ton of ice.
 Non-corrosive,
 Non-toxic and safe. • Freon 12 (R-12) (boiling point: -30ºC) Latent heat of ice (i.e., heat of fusion) = 333.55 kJ/kg = 144 Btu/lb
• Freon 22 (R-22) (boiling point: -40ºC) One short ton = 2000 lb = 907 kg
• Dry ice (CO2) (boiling point: -73ºC) Heat extracted = 2000 x 144/24 hr
• CFC (chlorofluorocarbon) = 288000 Btu/24 hr
• HCFC(hydrochlorofluorocarbon) = 12000 Btu/hr
• HFC (hydrofluorocarbon) = 200 Btu/min
Currently most widely used Refrigerants: 1 ton = 200 Btu/min
R-134a (CH2FCF3, boiling point: -26ºC) = 3.517 kJ/s
[Link]
R-410a (50% CH2F2/50%CHFCF3, boiling point: -48ºC) = 3.517 kW [Link]
= 4.713 HP

Air cooling and air conditioning Air cooling and air conditioning
The main difference between air coolers and air conditioners is the first runs air Air cooling - Pros Air conditioning - Pros
through water, reducing the temperature through evaporative cooling while the Uses up to 10 times less energy than air Standard ACs can cool a room down to
other uses refrigerants to absorb heat, push out cold air and reduce humidity to conditioners around 25º Celsius .
cool the room.

Can cost 3 times less than running an Once installed, it doesn‘t take up any
AC. floor space.
No installation required unless you buy Wide variety of options to choose from.
the window type to save floor space.
It‘s similar to a portable air conditioner Can be used in any climate.
with no hose or exhaust.
Can be used outdoors.
Uses a natural process to cool your
home down which won‘t add any ozone-
harming pollutants or chemicals to the
[Link]
environment. [Link]

Air cooling and air conditioning Design consideration

Air cooling - Cons Air conditioning - Cons As per clause 4.2.1 of NBC 2016 part 8 section 3 following factors
Doesn‘t cool the room as much as an Uses a lot of electricity. shall take into account in planning of HVAC system :
air conditioner. a) Recommended indoor temperature, relative humidity, air
Doesn‘t work too well in humid weather. Installation is required. velocity, mean radiant temperature, clothing and activity
Works best in hot, dry climates. Windows AC need to cut out an b) Outside design conditions
opening in wall. c) Details of building construction and orientation of exposures of
Takes up floor space. Need to find a The unit itself typically costs more. building components;
place to store it during the winter d) Fenestration area and shading factors
season.
e) Occupancy – Number of people and their activity
Need to have door or window open to
circulate the air. Otherwise, it will f) Ventilation – Requirement for fresh air
circulate humidified air which can make g) Infiltration, air leakage
the room feel humid. h) Internal Load – Lighting and other heat generating sources like
computers, equipment and machinery
[Link] i) Effective volume [Link]

j) Occupancy, lighting and equipment schedule

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Thermal comfort Psychrometric Chart

Criteria for Thermal Comfort : History :
Thermal comfort is that condition of surrounding thermal environment The Psychrometric chart – 1904
under which a person can maintain a body heat balance at normal Willis H. Carrier‘s historic paper ―Rational Psychrometric formulae‖, 1911
body temperature without perceptible sweating. Thermal comfort is
highly subjective and limits of comfort vary from person to person. A Psychrometric chart is a
Human thermal comfort is dependent on following factors : graphical representation of
The four environmental factors are: physical and thermodynamic
properties of environment such
1. Dry bulb temperature
as Dry bulb temperature, Wet
2. Mean radiant temperature bulb temperature, Relative
3. Relative Humidity Humidity, enthalpy, and air
density.
4. Air Velocity
In addition to environmental factors there are two physiological
factors that affect a person‘s thermal comfort, which are
1. Metabolic rate
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2. Clothing level

Psychrometric Chart - Dry-bulb Psychrometric Chart - Wet-bulb

temperature (DBT) temperature (WBT)
The dry-bulb temperature (DBT) The Wet Bulb temperature is
is the temperature of air the adiabatic saturation
measured by a thermometer temperature.
freely exposed to the air but
Wet Bulb temperature can be
shielded from radiation and
measured by using a
moisture.
thermometer with the bulb
DBT is the temperature that is wrapped in wet muslin. The
usually thought of as air adiabatic evaporation of
temperature, and it is the true water from the thermometer
thermodynamic temperature. It bulb and the cooling effect is
indicates the amount of heat in indicated by a "wet bulb
the air and is directly proportional temperature" lower than the
to the mean kinetic energy of the The rate of evaporation from the wet "dry bulb temperature" in the
air molecules. bandage on the bulb, and the temperature air.
difference between the dry bulb and wet
[Link]
bulb, depends on the humidity [Link]
of the air.

Psychrometric Chart -Dew point (DP)

Psychrometric Chart -Relative Humidity
temperature
Relative Humidity is the amount This is the temperature of the air at
of water vapour present in air which a moist air sample reaches
expressed as a percentage of water vapor saturation. It is
the amount needed for equivalent to a wet bulb
saturation at the same temperature at 100% relative
temperature. humidity. At this combination of
temperature and humidity, further
removal of heat results in water
vapor condensing into liquid.

A practical view of the dew point is the temperature to which air must be
cooled before condensation will begin. An example is when you take a bottle
out of the refrigerator. Water condenses on the outside of the bottle only if
the original temperature of the bottle was below the dew point. The
When the air is saturated, dry-bulb, wet-bulb and dew point instantaneous temperature of the water is the dew point temperature.
temperatures are all equal, and the[Link]
relative humidity is 100 % [Link]

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Psychrometric Chart - Enthalpy (total

Psychrometric Chart -Moisture content
heat)
This is also known as the humidity  Enthalpy (h) is the total amount of
ratio. It is the proportion of the mass of heat energy of the moist air and
water vapor per unit mass of dry air. therefore includes the amount of
Humidity ratio is dimensionless, it may heat of the dry air and the water
be expressed as grams of water per vapor in the air.
kilogram of dry air or as a percentage.  In the approximation of ideal gases,
lines of constant enthalpy are
The moisture content is the vertical parallel to lines of constant WB
axis of the chart. temperature. Thus the enthalpy is
indicated by diagonal lines on the
chart.

[Link] [Link]

Interpreting the Psychrometric Chart Interpreting the Psychrometric Chart

Psychrometric charts Importance of Psychrometric

chart in the HVAC industry :
provide a rapid overview of
 people feel comfortable over a
air conditions as they relate
narrow range of temperature
to occupant comfort, some
and humidity
steadfast judgments can
 machines (especially
be made. For example, is
electronic machines) operate
your climate hot and over a specific range of
humid, or dry and arid? temperature and humidity
How are your occupants  to calculate the amount of
going to feel most of the heating or cooling required for
time—too hot, too cold, or a certain space requires
comfortable? knowledge of the moisture
content of the air

[Link] [Link]

Application of Psychrometric chart in Climate consultant 6.0 – Comfort

Architecture models
 Psychrometric Chart could be found in the special software(Climate
Consultant) which could be taken from website for free.
 To access the data we need input weather files, which are distributed for
free on the same website (most of the cities in the world could be found
there, however i was trying to find the place where i live and it is not
available).
 Once we open a weather file the most interesting part begins! The
software shows you the range of comfort conditions with the quadrangle.
 The legend shows the design strategies we can use, it provides
information of how reasonable is the particular strategy and how many
hours would be effective.
 Each strategy is marked with particular color and we can actually see
how the strategy extends the comfort zone.

[Link] [Link]

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Climate consultant 6.0 – Comfort Climate consultant 6.0 – Pschrometric

models chart

[Link] [Link]

Cooling load calculation using

Cooling load
CLTD/CLF Method
The cooling load is equivalent to the rate at which heat must be extracted in CLTD/CLF Method (classical) CLTD/CLF Method (ASHRAE 1989)
order to maintain a constant indoor temperature 1. Cooling load is made up of Cooling load due to solar & internal
The component of cooling load 1. Radiation and conduction heat gains
1. Heat gain during summer due to conduction, convection, or radiation are all heat gain 1. Glazing (sensible only)
sensible load which tend to increase the DBT of room air 2. Convection heat gain 1. Radiation & conduction
2. The Transmission load is positive gain in summer 2. Convective gain is instantaneous 2. Convection (instantaneous)
3. People loss part of their body heat by perspiration which is a latent load 1. No delay 2. Opaque surface ( wall, floor, roof)
which tends to increase the moisture content of the air 2. Heat gain equals cooling load (sensible only)
4. The ventilation air drawn in from outside can be both a sensible and latent load 1. Conduction
load. 3. Conductive and radiation heat 2. Convection (instantaneous)
Space load ( SL) is maximum sensible heat generated in the space gains are not instantaneous 3. Internal loads (sensible & latent)
SL = Solar radiation + Transmission+ Electric power+ People (sensible heat) 1. Thermal delay 1. Radiation & conduction
Equipment Load ( EL) is maximum total heat transferred to the cooling coil ( 2. Heat gain is not equal to 2. Convection (instantaneous)
including that for cooling / dehumidifying the ventilation air ) cooling load
EL = Solar radiation + Transmission+ Electric power + People + Outside Air 3. Use CLTD & CLF factors

[Link] [Link]

Cooling load due to solar heat gains

CLTD/CLF Method Glazing
Cooling Load Temperature Difference CLTD Glazing
Compare Q = A (SC) (SHGF) (CLF)
Q transmission = UA (To – Ti) A= glass area
Q transmission = UA (CLTD) SC= shading coefficient
• CLTD is theoretical temperature difference defined for each wall/roof to give SHGF= solar heat gain factor, tabulated by
the same heat load for exposed surfaces to account for the combined effects ASHRAE Solar rays glass
of radiation, conductive storage, etc CLF= cooling load factor, tabulated by
– It is affected by orientation, time , latitude, etc ASHRAE
– Data published by ASHRAE
Q = U x A x CLTD
Cooling Load Factor (CLF) U= surface U-factor
• This factor applies to radiation heat gain A= surface area
Absorbed

• If radiation is constant, cooling load = radiative gain CLTD= cooling load temperature difference
• If radiation heat is periodical, than
Q t = Q daily max (CLF)
Transmitted
CLF accounts for the delay before radiative gains becomes a cooling load
[Link] [Link]

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Types of Internal Load Total heat gain from the occupants

Types of Internal Load are Internal Load- Lighting Table shows typical values of total heat gain from the occupants and also the
1. Internal loads are
Area Light Power sensible heat gain fraction as a function of activity in an air conditioned space.
1. People
2. Lights Density
W/m2 Activity Total heat gain, W Sensible heat
3. Equipment or appliances gain fraction
2. Consist of convective and radiant Office 25 Sleeping 70 0.75
components Corridor 10 Seated, quiet 100 0.60
1. Light (mostly radiant) Standing 150 0.50
2. Electrical heat (radiant and Sleeping 10
Walking @ 3.5 kmph 305 0.35
convective) Recreation 20 Office work 150 0.55
3. People (most convective) Bus 25 Teaching 175 0.50
3. Time-delay effect due to thermal storage terminals Industrial work 300 to 600 0.35
Kitchen 25
Internal Load- Lighting
Q people-s= No x sensible heat gain/p x CLF
• Heat gain (lighting)= 1.2 x total wattage x CLF
Or based on light power density ranging from 10-25 W/m2(average Q people-L= No x latent heat gain/p
density, say=20 W/m2) [Link] [Link]
• Where light is continuously on, CLF=1

Cooling load for various Building based on rules-of-thumb Cooling load

(Croome and Roberts, 1981)
[Link] Application Required cooling
The average cooling load in W(R) / m 2 of air conditioned floor area are shown
load (TR) for 1000 ft2 of floor area
below for thirty different configuration of multi-storey office . The values have
1. Office buildings:
been computed for
External zones 25% glass: 3.5 TR
50% glass: 4.5 TR • 1000m 2 square
75% glass: 5.0 TR floor
Internal zones 2.8 TR • 50% glazing
2. Computer rooms 6.0 – 12.0 TR • Solar shading
3. Hotels factor of 0.425
Bedrooms • Population
Single room: 0.6 TR per room density = 10m 2
Double room: 1.0 TR per room /person
Restaurants 5.0 - 9.0 TR • Electric load = 32
4. Department stores W / m2
Basement & ground floors 4.5 – 5.0 TR • Outside air = 5 L /
Upper floors 3.5 – 4.5 TR s. per person
5. Shops 5.0 TR
6. Banks 4.5 – 5.5 TR
[Link] [Link]
Taken from : Building Services by R P Parlour
7. Theatres & Auditoriums 0.07 TR per seat

Reference
Indian Standards (IS CODE) for HVAC

IS CODE Title [Link]. Title

IS 659 : 1964 Safety codes for air conditioning (revised) Building Services: A guide to integrated design : engineering for
Refrigerants . Designation and safety classification (second 1 architects by R P Parlour
IS/ISO 817 revision) (Under print)
2 Air-Conditioning System Design Manual by ASHRAE
IS 1391 Specification for room air conditioners:
Unitary air conditioners (second revision)
3 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals
(Part 1) : 1992
(Part 2) : 1992 Split air conditioners (second revision)
Colour code for identification of pipelines (first revision)
IS 2379 : 1990
Specification for evaporative air coolers (desert coolers)
IS 3315 : 1994 (second revision)

IS 8148 : 2003 Specification for packaged air conditioners (first revision

[Link] [Link]