Page 1 of 11 Original Research

The configural approach to organisational

commitment: An application in Ghana
Authors: Orientation: An emerging stream of research employs a configural or profile approach to the
Edward O. Akoto1 study of organisational commitment, by focusing on and placing individuals at the centre of
Eunice V. Akoto2
data analysis. This approach signals the importance of taking a holistic view of individuals’
Affiliations: commitment mind-set, unlike the variable-centred approach.
1
School of Business,
Henderson State University, Research purpose: To test the theory on profiles of commitment in an African context (Ghana).
United States of America
Motivation for the study: Although the three-component model of organisational commitment
2
Department of Public has been extended to several regions of Africa, there is a paucity of research on profiles of
Administration, North commitment on the continent.
Carolina Central University,
United States of America Research approach, design and method: Cross-sectional data from two studies, with samples
of 187 and 218, were analysed using k-means clusters. Multivariate analysis of variance
Correspondence to: (MANOVA) was then used to test the differences amongst profiles in their association
Edward Akoto
with contextual variables, such as pay satisfaction, job security, strike propensity and two
Email: demographic factors.
akotoe@[Link]
Main findings: In the k-means cluster analysis, a six-cluster solution emerged in both studies;
Postal address: the profiles include the highly committed and the uncommitted groups, as well as the profiles
PO Box 7660, Arkadelphia, based on normative commitment and continuance commitment. Overall, the MANOVA
AR 71999, United States
of America
post hoc outcome shows that the highly committed group reports higher mean scores on
the positive outcome variables (e.g. job security) than the uncommitted group. Conversely,
Dates: the uncommitted group scored relatively higher on the negative organisational outcome
Received: 13 Mar. 2014 (propensity to strike). Other mean differences were found in the respective studies on pay
Accepted: 07 Oct. 2014
Published: 10 Dec. 2014
satisfaction, collectivism and the demographic factors.

Practical/managerial implications: Employing the configural approach to the study of

How to cite this article:
Akoto, E.O, & Akoto, E.V. commitment in this region should increase our understanding of the patterns of attachment
(2014). The configural and their influence on behaviour. Different patterns of attachment exist within the organisation
approach to organisational that may be beneficial or detrimental to behaviour on the job. It is, therefore, important
commitment: An
for managers to identify these patterns and target organisational policy and resources
application in Ghana,
SA Journal of Industrial appropriately.
Psychology/SA Tydskrif vir
Bedryfsielkunde, 40(2),
Contribution/value-add: This study applies the concept of commitment profiles to an untested
Art. #1207, 11 pages. http:// region: an African context. It, therefore, adds to the literature on the generalisability of the
[Link]/10.4102/sajip. typology of commitment profiles.
v40i2.1207

Copyright:
© 2014. The Authors.
Introduction
Licensee: AOSIS Organisational commitment, an attachment to one’s employing organisation, continues to
OpenJournals. This work is interest researchers and managers and remains a vibrant research topic because of its central
licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution role in understanding and predicting workplace behaviour. Commitment research has
License. mostly focused on the variable-centred approach (see Meyer et al., 2002), which identifies
the differences in relationships between variables involving the three-component model
of organisational commitment (discussed later). However, recent efforts have focused on
a person-centred approach, termed the configuration or profiles of commitment (Meyer &
Herscovitch, 2001). The configural approach involves identifying homogenous subgroups
of individuals within a population, groups that share similarities on the components of
commitment (Kam, Morin, Meyer & Topolnytsky, 2013; Sinclair, Tucker, Cullen & Wright,
2005). Thus, commitment components may combine and relate differently to other variables
Read online: within these subgroups. Hence, the defining feature of the configural approach is internal
Scan this QR cohesion amongst profile members: the reliable occurrence of others. This concept assumes
code with your
smart phone or that research populations are not homogeneous and that the same theoretical framework and
mobile device empirical findings may not apply uniformly to all sampled respondents (Meyer, Stanley &
to read online.
Vandenberg, 2013).

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 Page 2 of 11 Original Research

Whilst the three-component model has been applied in commitment (AC), attachment based on emotions or
the African context (e.g. Beukes & Botha, 2013; Simons desire, continuance commitment (CC), attachment based
& Buitendach, 2013), little is known about the psychology on perceived cost, and normative commitment (NC),
of commitment profiles (configurations) and their effect on attachment based on perceived obligation (Meyer & Allen,
work outcomes. Thus, commitment profiles are an excellent 1991). The three-component model of organisational
means for gaining a better understanding of the dynamics commitment has been tested extensively in different settings
amongst the three bases of commitment in relation to work (e.g. Meyer, Stanley, Herscovitch & Topolnytsky, 2002),
outcomes (Somers, 2009), but there is limited research on including non-Western contexts (e.g. Simons & Buitendach,
the holistic view of commitment mindset using the three- 2013; Wasti, 2002, 2005).
component model of organisational commitment in an
African context. The purpose of this study, therefore, is to The configural approach to organisational
test the concept of commitment profiles amongst samples commitment
of respondents from Ghana and to examine the credibility
Most research on commitment has been variable-centred,
of the emergent clusters in terms of their relationships with
characterised by an emphasis on estimating the level of
a number of contextual variables and demographic factors.
relationship between each form of commitment and their
Consequently, the theoretical justification of this study lies
antecedents and consequences (Sinclair et al., 2005; Wasti,
in testing the generalisability of the configural perspective of
2005; cf. Somers, 2009). The configural or profile approach
commitment to an African country: Ghana.
to commitment research only gained a foothold in the
literature recently, following the postulation by Meyer and
Commitment is a psychological state and individuals may
Herscovitch (2001). The theoretical framework for codifying
experience different bases of commitment simultaneously
profiles of commitment by Meyer and Herscovitch has,
(Klein, Molloy & Cooper, 2009). This mental frame may lead
therefore, energised research on commitment profiles. Eight
to a unique psychological state for employees in terms of
commitment profiles were derived based on the relative
their attachment to the organisation, with implications for
levels of AC, CC and NC ranging from highly committed
job behaviours. Hence, the focus on the configural approach
(high AC, CC and NC) to uncommitted (low AC, CC and
(person-centred), instead of the variable-centred approach,
NC) (Meyer & Herscovitch, 2001). Between these two
signals the importance of individuals in the work context
extremes, there are six other commitment profiles. These
(Meyer & Herscovitch, 2001). According to Kam et al.
include three commitment profiles that are characterised
(2013), the configural approach treats individuals in a more
by high levels of two forms of commitment (i.e. affective–
holistic fashion and allows commitment mindsets to be
continuance dominant, affective–normative dominant
experienced differently and have different implications in
and normative–continuance dominant). The other three
combination than they do individually. Therefore, focusing
profiles reflect attachment driven primarily by one form of
on the psychology of commitment through configuration
commitment (i.e. affective dominant, continuance dominant
will provide new insight into the study of commitment and
and normative dominant) (Meyer & Herscovitch, 2001; cf.
augment the variable-centred approach. The above suggests
Somers, 2009). See Table 1 for all profiles and descriptions.
the possibility of a synergistic effect of the commitment
Table 2 contains samples of empirical research testing the
components for organisations. The terms configural approach
configural approach and the postulations across countries.
and profiles of commitment are used interchangeably in the
The reported profiles range from four-cluster to eight-cluster
rest of this article.
solutions. Although the research findings reported in the
table may not be exhaustive, together they suggest that the
Theoretical framework and eight-cluster solution may not always be replicated in all
background contexts or under all conditions.

The three-component model of organisational In relation to outcome variables, Meyer and Herscovitch (2001)
commitment propose that the affective dominant profile would have a
Organisational commitment has been defined as the stronger (positive) influence on work outcomes than the
perceived bond or psychological attachment to the continuance dominant and normative dominant profiles.
organisation (Klein, Brinsfield & Molloy, 2006; cf. Klein, Further, they suggest that the continuance and normative
Molloy & Cooper, 2009). Commitment to the organisation commitment components (either individually or conjointly)
may take three forms, referred to as the three-component attenuate the positive influence of affective commitment on
model (Allen & Meyer, 1990). These include affective certain outcome variables.

TABLE 1: Meyer and Herscovitch’s hypothetical profiles of organisational commitment.

Commitment components Profiles
High AC–CC AC–NC NC–CC AC CC NC Low
AC Strong Strong Strong Weak Strong Weak Weak Weak
CC Strong Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Weak
NC Strong Weak Strong Strong Weak Weak Strong Weak
AC, affective commitment; CC, continuance commitment; NC, normative commitment.

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TABLE 2: Empirical test of the organisational commitment profiles across countries.

Countries Clusters
High AC–CC AC–NC NC–CC AC CC NC Low
Tsoumbris and Xenikou (2010); four-cluster solution, n = 317 (Greece) Yes - Yes - - Yes - Yes
Somers (2009); five-cluster solution; n = 288 (USA) Yes - Yes Yes - Yes - Yes
Wasti (2005); six-cluster solution; n = 9411 and 3362 (Turkey) Yes1 - Yes Neutral Yes Yes - Yes
Yes2 - Yes Yes Yes Yes - Yes
Gellatly et al. (2006); eight-cluster solution; n = 545 (Canada) Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
AC, affective commitment; CC, continuance commitment; NC, normative commitment.

Current study negative feeling about pay and benefits (Heneman & Schwab
1985; Williams, McDaniel & Nguyen, 2006). Pay satisfaction
In the African context, research that has employed the
is positively related to affective commitment and continuance
three-component model of organisational commitment also
(sacrifice) commitment, as well as normative commitment
focused on the variable-centred approach, with little or no
(e.g. Vandenberghe & Tremblay, 2008). Job security is
test of the theoretical postulation of commitment profiles
the perception of certainty in continuing one’s present
(based on our search of the literature). Whilst AC has been
job (the opposite of job insecurity). Gaertner and Nollen
shown to be generalisable across most settings (Meyer et al.,
(1989) reported that job security was positively related to
2002), NC has been shown to be salient in a collectivist context
organisational commitment. Their definition of commitment
(e.g. Wasti, 2002, 2005). Ghana, like other African countries, is
as non-instrumental attraction to and identification with the
classified as collectivist (e.g. Hofstede, 2001; House, Hanges,
goals and values of the organisation makes it synonymous
Javidan, Dorfman & Gupta, 2004). Since prior research has
with AC. Thus, people who feel more secure in their job may
shown that NC is salient in collectivist settings (e.g. Wasti,
experience higher emotional attachment to the organisation
2002), we expect that the salience of NC will be replicated
(AC dominant profiles). Conversely, job insecurity – the
in the Ghanaian context. In addition, Ghana is classified
as a developing economy with high economic need (lower threat to continuity – was found to correlate negatively
middle-income status) and high unemployment levels with AC and NC, but not CC (Bosman, Buitendach & Laba,
(The World Bank, 2012). Therefore, economic factors may 2005). Hence, job security may associate positively with the
be important to employees in their exchange relationships commitment components.
with organisations. Thus, CC may also be relevant in the
Ghanaian context and may impact the profiles that emerge in Propensity to strike is a behavioural intention of work
this study. Since this study is exploratory in nature, we do not stoppage by employees who may or may not be union
hypothesise the preceding arguments and assertions, but the members (Cohen, 1992). It is the willingness to take part in
study is guided by the following research questions based on activities that have negative implications for the employment
these paradigms: relations. It is, therefore, a defiance of the organisation and,
hence, a negative outcome (Cohen, 1992). Contrary to those
1. Are the configurations of commitment postulated based
who are committed, the uncommitted and dissatisfied
on western ideology generalisable to an African country
members of the organisation may be more inclined to engage
like Ghana?
in this negative attitude. This construct was included in
2. Are NC and CC dominant or conjoined profiles salient in
our analysis in view of the increased agitations for better
this context?
working conditions by medical doctors and nurses (e.g.
3. How would the emerged profiles associate with outcome
Ghana News Agency [GNA], 2011). Psychological collectivism
variables?
is collectivism measured at the individual level of analysis.
Collectivism is characterised by interdependence, norms that
In response to these questions, secondary data from two
favour in-group embeddedness, duty and in-group harmony
different studies conducted at different periods in Ghana
(Clugston, Howell & Dorfman, 2000). The authors reported
were analysed using k-means clustering to test the profiles
of commitment. The emergent profiles were then correlated that collectivism correlates more positively with NC than AC
with contextual and demographic variables in both studies. and CC. We also included this construct in our analysis to test
These include pay satisfaction, job security, strike propensity, whether collectivist orientations will influence the kinds of
collectivism, age and tenure. The association with these profiles that emerges, particularly NC-based profiles.
variables and the demographic factors will provide a test of
the discriminant validity of the profiles. The goal is to test the Data from two independent studies were used, and it is
theoretical and empirical soundness of the profile groups that important to emphasise that the data in study 1 overlaps
will emerge. We briefly expound on these variables before with the data from the study by Akoto and Stammerjohan
proceeding to describe the method and outcome of each study. (in press), which was originally analysed with 141 data
points based on the variable-centred approach. The sample
Both pay satisfaction and job security are important constructs in this study (study 1) is slightly bigger (187) and includes
to a study in a country in which unemployment is high, additional responses that were not used in the original study.
with perennial agitations for wage increases (Ghana News One of the organisations sampled at the time did not approve
Agency, 2006). Pay satisfaction is the level of positive or the data collection until late in the process. Also, the primary

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 Page 4 of 11 Original Research

focus of the original study was the influence of economic Propensity to strike was measured with three items (α = 0.90)
volatility on dual commitment (organisation and union). as used by Cohen (1992, 2005). Respondents were asked:
In the current study, we test the typology of commitment ‘How many days would you participate in a strike: (1) regardless of
profiles (person-centred approach) using the three- the issue; (2) for a small (10%) wage increase; (3) for a large (over
component model of organisational commitment, with the 10%) wage increase’. The response set for all the items was:
additional data points. Similarly, the data for study 2 was zero days (1), one week (2), two weeks (3), one month (4),
not planned for profile analysis but was used to test the two months (5) and more than two months (6). A higher score
effect of perceived inflation on commitment and citizenship. indicates a high willingness to engage in militancy.
Consequently, the analysis presented in this paper shares
data with two primary studies. However, this study focuses Data analysis
on demographic and contextual variables that may not have
Commitment profiles were generated using k-means
been used in the original studies, or only used as control
clustering with standardised scores (z-scores) in SPSS 17.0
variables. Accordingly, the primary analysis and discussion
analytical program. The k-means clustering is an algorithm
presented in this paper are very distinct with different
that groups cases in order to maximise the similarity within
implications for research and theory.
clusters and minimise dissimilarity amongst clusters based
on their commitment scores (cf. Wasti, 2005). The number
Study 1 of clusters specified was guided by prior research (see Table
Method 2), theoretical interpretability and cell sizes (observations
per cluster) that are large enough for mean comparisons
Participants and procedure (Wasti, 2005). Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA)
The sample consisted of medical doctors and nurses at (in SPSS) was used to test for mean differences amongst the
three hospitals located in the southern region of Ghana. commitment groups on the outcome variables. MANOVA
This sample was targeted due to the agitations for wage is a statistical method for comparing means of several
increases and involvement in strike activities by health groups, where there are two or more dependent variables
care professionals (GNA, 2006, 2011). The survey questions (Hair, Anderson, Tatham & Black, 2006). With respect to
were administered during work hours to respondents in this study, it helps to determine whether different profile
the various departments of the hospitals (paper and pencil groups are differentially associated with the outcome factors.
method). Out of the 600 distributed questionnaires, 187 A significant multivariate F statistic indicates that the study
were returned, representing an effective response rate of variables differed across the groups. Univariate test with
31%. The sample comprises 58% female respondents (mostly Scheffe post hoc multiple comparisons were then used to
nurses), which is representative of the health sector in Ghana identify statistically significant differences amongst the
(Ministry of Health, 2007). The average age and tenure were profiles. The Scheffe post hoc test is the most conservative
38.19 (SD = 12.16) and 8.98 (SD = 5.88) years respectively. test in reducing Type I error (Hair et al., 2006).
With respect to education, a little over 60% of the respondents
reported having less than a university degree (Bachelor’s),
which is in line with the fact that majority of the sample are Results
women who are predominantly nurses, since the minimum Preliminary analysis
education required for their profession is a nursing diploma. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed on the
three-component model of commitment. The adequacy of
Measures the measurement model was estimated using the following
Organisational commitment was measured on the 18-item fit statistics: chi-square–degrees of freedom ratio (χ²/df ) of
three-component scale developed by Meyer and Allen (1991), less than 3.0, comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis index
with six items each for AC (α = 0.79), CC (α = 0.70), and NC (TLI) and goodness of fit index (GFI) all greater than 0.95 and
(α  = 0.82). For pay satisfaction, two items were adapted root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) less than
from the economic volatility and satisfaction measure by 0.08, based on a sample size of less than 250 (Hair et al., 2006).
Akoto and Stammerjohan (in press) as a proxy for pay level The model proved adequate fit to the data with significant
satisfaction. The items are: ‘I am severely underpaid’ and ‘I do item loadings ranging from 0.50 to 0.90, after eliminating
not receive the required bonus for my work’ (α = 0.67). The items problematic items (due to low inter-item correlation or
were reverse coded so that a higher score indicated high pay cross-loadings). Thus, the fit of the measurement model was
satisfaction. These two items were selected because they achieved when using four items for AC and three items each
appear similar (face validity) to some of the items by Spector for both CC and NC, with the following fit statistics: χ2/
(1997), for instance ‘I feel I am being paid a fair amount for df = 1.62, RMSEA = 0.067, TLI = 0.97, CFI = 0.98, GFI = 0.93.
the work I do’ and ‘I feel unappreciated by the employer The fitted number of items in this study are equivalent to
when I think about what they pay me’. Job security was the condensed scales (three items each) used in some studies
measured with a single overall question: ‘I feel my job is very (e.g. Gellatly, Meyer & Luchak, 2006). The chi-square statistic
secure’. A higher score indicates high job security and vice was significant, but this is not uncommon in CFA tests (e.g.
versa. All the above scales were measured on a seven-point Wasti, 2005). The three-factor solution was a better fit than the
Likert response set. other competing models examined: two-factor (χ2/df = 2.21,

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TABLE 3: Means, standard deviations, and correlations amongst the study variables (study 1).
Variable Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1. Agea 38.19 12.16 - - - - - - - -
2. Tenureb 8.98 5.88 0.78** - - - - - - -
3. AC 4.92 1.35 0.17* 0.09 0.79 - - - - -
4. CC 3.75 1.43 0.27** 0.29** 0.30** 0.70 - - - -
5. NC 5.08 1.29 0.17* 0.08 0.62** 0.34** 0.82 - - -
6. Pay satisfaction 4.37 1.61 0.06 0.11 −0.13 0.23** −0.05 0.67 - -
7. Job security 5.45 1.36 0.20** 0.24** 0.36** 0.23** 0.26** −0.06 - -
8. Strike propensity 1.98 1.21 −019** −0.21** −0.22** −0.26** −0.21** −0.06 −0.17* 0.90
*, p < .05
**, p < .01
n = 187. Alpha coefficients are in boldface on the diagonal.
AC, affective commitment; CC, continuance commitment; NC, normative commitment.
a
, age in years
b
, organisational tenure in years

TABLE 4: Comparison of five-cluster and six-cluster solutions (study 1).

1.5 Uncommitted
Clusters Profile AC CC NC n NC dominant
Five-cluster solution Uncommitted −1.171 −0.067 −0.520 31 1.0 CC dominant
AC-CC dominant
Uncommitted −1.437 −1.304 −1.705 19 0.5 AC-NC dominant
Highly committed
AC–CC dominant 0.007 0.735 −0.643 28 0
AC–NC dominant 0.264 −0.997 0.236 43
–0.5
Highly committed 0.788 0.744 0.854 66
–1.0
Six-cluster solution Uncommitted −1.437 −1.304 −1.705 19
NC dominant −0.663 −0.306 0.335 31 –1.5
CC midlevel −1.085 0.033 −1.094 20 –2.0
AC CC NC
AC–CC dominant 0.045 0.878 −0.702 23
AC–NC dominant 0.545 −1.194 0.132 29 FIGURE 1: Profiles of organisational commitment (study 1).
Highly committed 0.811 0.739 0.864 65
AC, affective commitment; CC, continuance commitment; NC, normative commitment. Meyer and Herscovitch (2001). However, it became apparent
that the eight-cluster solution was not tenable due to the cell
RMSEA = 0.118, TLI = 0.90, CFI = 0.92, GFI = 0.85) and one- sizes and an overlap of some cluster groups. Hence, five-
factor (χ2/df = 2.83, RMSEA = 0.145, TLI = 0.85, CFI = 0.88, GFI = cluster and six-cluster solutions were tested as the next logical
0.81). Although GFI was slightly below the recommended step and are compared in Table 4. The six-cluster solution
threshold, this model was the best fit for the data, considering was deemed more acceptable and is presented in Figure 1.
that the other indices (TLI, CFI) were high with significant The comparative five-cluster solution had overlapping
item loadings, and no more items could be dropped. Also, profiles – two uncommitted profiles – and was rejected. Since
the internal consistencies, assessed by Cronbach’s alphas standardised scores were used in the cluster analysis, the
(Table 3) are equal to or greater than 0.70, further supporting mean score of zero was used as the cut-off point in labelling
the adequacy of the measures used. the profiles. As postulated by Meyer and Herscovitch (2001),
two extreme profiles, characterised by above average AC, CC,
Descriptive statistics, in terms of means, standard deviations and NC, and below average AC, CC, and NC were labelled
and correlations, are presented in Table 3. The correlations highly committed and uncommitted respectively. Between these
amongst the commitment components were in line with prior two, there were four other profiles: one profile reported
research (e.g. Meyer et al., 2002), with the strongest correlation below average AC and CC, but above average NC, and was
occurring between AC and NC (r = 0.62). Of particular note labelled NC dominant. The next profile was characterised by
is the correlation involving job security, which was a single below average AC and NC, and slightly above average CC,
item measure; hence, the reliability estimate could not be and was labelled CC dominant. Although the mean for CC is
determined. However, its positive correlation with age and only slightly above the cut-off point, the means for AC and
tenure supports its face validity. Age and tenure are highly NC are well below zero (mean for z-scores). Another profile,
correlated, implying that those who are older might have characterised by above average CC, slightly above average
stayed for longer; therefore, they have tenure and security in AC and below average NC, was labelled AC–CC dominant.
their jobs. The correlation with the commitment constructs, The final profile was characterised by above average AC,
especially AC (0.36), is in line with prior postulations that slightly above average NC and below average CC and was
job security correlates highly with affective commitment labelled AC–NC dominant.
(e.g. Gaertner & Nollen, 1989) and provides some support for
its criterion validity.
Mean differences amongst commitment profiles
The MANOVA outcome indicates that there were significant
Commitment profiles differences amongst the commitment groups for pay
The k-means cluster analytic procedure began with a request satisfaction, job security, strike propensity, age and tenure
for an eight-cluster solution based on the postulation by (Wilks’s λ = 0.652; F = 3.21, p < 0.001). This analysis was meant

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TABLE 5: Mean values of outcome variables across commitment profiles (study 1).
Variable AC–NC NC dominant Uncommitted AC–CC Highly CC dominant Total Post hoc
dominant (2) (3) dominant committed (6)
(1) (4) (5)
Pay satisfaction 3.31 4.22 4.57 4.82 4.48 5.05 4.37 4a, 5a, 6b > 1
F (5, 181) = 4.04b (1.44) (1.09) (1.93) (1.48) (1.73) (1.37) (1.61)
Partial η2 = 0.100
Job security 5.65 5.00 4.47 5.69 5.98 4.85 5.45 5 > 2b, 3a
F (5, 181) = 6.19b (1.26) (1.41) (2.11) (1.18) (0.78) (1.46) (1.36)
Partial η2 = 0.146
Strike propensity 2.08 2.30 2.75 1.62 1.57 2.40 1.98 3 > 5a
F (5, 181) = 4.80b (0.92) (1.17) (1.52) (0.86) (0.97) (1.72) (1.21)
Partial η2 = 0.117
Age 38.13 36.58 31.63 40.90 40.76 35.25 38.19 4, 5 > 3a
F (5, 181) = 2.38a (11.00) (12.13) (8.83) (12.31) (12.89) (13.02) (12.16)
Partial η2 = 0.092
Tenure 8.68 7.83 6.15 11.91 9.63 8.75 8.90 4 > 3a
F (5, 181) = 2.48a (5.93) (6.25) (3.80) (6.20) (5.58) (6.34) (5.88)
Partial η2 = 0.064
a
, p < 0.05
b
, p < 0.01. Wilks’s λ = 0.652 (F = 3.21; p < 0.001); Observed power (multivariate test) = 0.999

to test the discriminant validity of the profiles that emerged, make up only 37.6% of this sample, which is representative of
with respect to research questions 2 and 3. The follow-up the industries studied, especially in the mining and cement
ANOVA with Scheffe post hoc multiple comparisons are manufacturing sectors. The mean age of respondents was
presented in Table 5. This finding indicates univariate 37.98 years (SD = 11.24) and the mean organisational tenure
differences in all the outcome variables and the demographic was 11.24 years (SD = 8.42). Over half (54%) of the sample
factors, with comparable effect sizes ranging from 0.62 to reported having an associate degree or less.
1.46. The results show that the highly committed and the
CC combined profiles (AC-CC dominant and CC dominant) Measures
experienced higher pay satisfaction than the AC-NC group.
Organisational commitment was measured with a
The highly committed group also experienced greater job
refinement of the Meyer and Allen scale by Lee, Allen,
security than the NC dominant and the uncommitted groups.
Meyer & Rhea (2001). The scale includes five items each for
With respect to respondents’ propensity to strike, the mean
affective (α = 0.85) and normative (α = 0.68) commitment
score for the uncommitted group seems higher than all the
and a modified five-item scale for continuance commitment
other groups, but is only statistically significant compared to
(α = 0.72). Researchers have argued that the continuance
the highly committed group. Together, these suggest that the
commitment component is equivalent to personal cost of
highly committed and the CC-combined profiles are more
leaving (Ko, Price & Mueller, 1997; Meyer et al., 2002; Powell
associated with the positive outcomes than the NC-combined
& Meyer, 2004) and that the lack of alternative items may
profiles.
serve as its antecedent. Hence, two items representing
perceived lack of alternatives on the CC scale were dropped
For the demographic variables, only a few differences were and replaced by two items from Wasti (2002): ‘The longer I
observed, showing that the highly committed and the stay with this organisation, the harder it is for me to leave’ and
AC-CC groups appear older than the uncommitted group ‘I would not want to start from scratch at another organisation’.
and the AC-CC dominant group reported a higher level of Psychological collectivism was measured with six items
organisational tenure than the uncommitted group. (α  = 0.77) adapted from Clugston et al. (2000). Job security
was measured with two items from Sun, Aryee and Law’s
Study 2 (2007) high-performance human resource practice measure
(α = 0.73): ‘Employees in this job can be expected to stay with this
Method organisation for as long as they wish’ and ‘Job security is almost
Participants and procedure guaranteed to employees in this job’.
Data for this study was collected as part of a bigger project
to examine the influence of perceived inflation on employee Data analysis
attitude and performance in unionised employment contexts. As in study 1, commitment profiles were extracted using
Although the data for study 2 has not been published yet, k-means clustering with z-scores. MANOVA was used
it may be considered secondary since it was not originally to test for differences amongst profiles on two contextual
collected for profile analysis. The data was collected using the variables (job security and psychological collectivism) and
‘paper and pencil’ with on-site administration of questions demographic variables (age and organisational tenure).
(drop-off) through the human resources department and
union representatives in three organisations (in mining,
manufacturing and health care industries). The number of Results
surveyed employees from the three sites was 1005 and 218 Using the threshold enumerated in study 1, the CFA proves
usable responses were returned (21.69% response rate). The the adequacy of the three-component model with the
demographic distribution of respondents indicates that women following fit statistics: χ2/df = 1.94, RMSEA = 0.066, TLI = 0.95,

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TABLE 6: Means, standard deviations, and correlations amongst the study variables (study 2).
Variable Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. Agea 37.98 11.24 - - - - - - -
2. Tenureb 11.24 8.42 0.74** - - - - - -
3. AC 5.55 1.29 0.03 0.06 0.85 - - - -
4. CC 4.57 1.49 0.09 0.19** 0.24** 0.72 - - -
5. NC 4.68 1.30 −0.14* −0.06 0.13 0.40** 0.68 - -
6. Job security 5.73 1.21 0.19** 0.19** 0.14* 0.20** 0.10 0.73 -
7. Collectivism 3.68 0.84 0.00 −0.08 0.22** 0.18** 0.09 0.12 0.77
*, p < .05
**, p < .01
n = 218. Alpha coefficients are in boldface on the diagonal.
AC, affective commitment; CC, continuance commitment; NC, normative commitment.
a
, age in years
b
, organisational tenure in years

TABLE 7: Comparison of five-cluster and six-cluster solutions (study 2).

1.5 Uncommitted
Clusters Profile AC CC NC n NC dominant
1.0 CC dominant
Five-cluster solution Uncommitted −1.324 −1.344 −1.259 15
AC dominant
NC dominant −1.912 −0.340 0.465 16 0.5 AC-NC dominant
0 Highly committed
CC dominant −0.656 0.382 −0.773 32
AC dominant 0.339 −0.890 −00.487 61 –0.5
Highly committed 0.540 0.720 0.701 94 –1.0
Six-cluster solution Uncommitted −1.789 −1.472 −0.874 11 –1.5
NC dominant −01.912 −0.340 −0.465 16 –2.0
CC dominant −0.697 0.438 −0.737 29 –2.5
AC dominant 0.456 −1.073 −1.847 18 AC CC NC
AC–NC midlevel 0.291 −0.643 0.037 65 FIGURE 2: Profiles of organisational commitment (study 2).
Highly committed 0.548 0.887 0.688 79
AC, affective commitment; CC, continuance commitment; NC, normative commitment.
the hypothesised eight-cluster solution, with enough cell sizes
to allow for mean comparisons. Also, the cell membership is
CFI = 0.97, GFI = 0.95. Thus, the three-factor solution was a better distributed in the six-cluster than the five-cluster solution
better fit to the data than the competing models examined: that has one cell containing 43.11% of the sample population
two-factor (χ2/df = 7.65, RMSEA = 0.175, TLI = 0.72, CFI = 0.80, (compared to 36.23%). As in study 1, the z-score average (zero)
GFI = 0.83) and one-factor (χ2/df = 13.85, RMSEA = 0.243, was used as the cut-off point in characterising the profiles.
TLI = 0.52, CFI = 0.64, GFI = 0.72). Items loaded significantly The two extreme profiles, characterised by above and below
onto their respective constructs (three items each for AC, CC average AC, CC and NC, were labelled highly committed and
and NC, equivalent to the condensed scales), with significant uncommitted respectively. For the other four, one profile was
loadings ranging from 0.60 to 0.84. The internal consistencies characterised by below average AC and CC, but above average
assessed by the Cronbach’s alphas (Table 6) are greater NC, and was labelled NC dominant. The next profile reports
than 0.70, except NC (0.68), although this is acceptable below average AC and NC, but above average CC, and was
(Hair et al., 2006). labelled CC dominant. Another profile was characterised by
below average CC and NC, but above average AC, and was
Descriptive statistics, in terms of means, standard deviations labelled AC dominant. The final profile, which was characterised
and correlations are presented in Table 6. The pattern of by below average CC, but slightly above average AC and NC
correlation involving the refined CC scale and the other was labelled AC–NC dominant.
components of commitment were in line with prior research
and similar to those of study 1. CC correlated positively
with AC (0.24) and NC (0.40). Also, the CC scale correlated
Mean differences amongst commitment profiles
positively with job security (0.20) as in study 1. Moreover, as The MANOVA outcome indicates that there were significant
reported in study 1, job security correlated positively with differences amongst the commitment groups for only job
age and tenure, which are both highly correlated. Thus, those security and psychological collectivism (Wilks’s λ = 0.779;
who feel secure on their job will stay longer and achieve high F = 2.654, p < 0.001), with effect sizes of 0.105 and 0.094
tenure (aged). respectively. The follow-up ANOVA with Scheffe post hoc
comparisons (Table 8) shows that most of the profile groups
(except NC dominant and AC–NC dominant) experienced
Commitment profiles higher levels of job security than the uncommitted group.
In view of the small sample size as revealed in study 1, only For psychological collectivism, three profile groups
five-cluster and six-cluster solutions were compared; the (AC dominant, AC–NC dominant and highly committed)
result is presented in Table 7. Both five-cluster and six-cluster reported higher levels of psychological collectivism than the
solutions looked similar except for the AC–NC profile in the uncommitted group. However, the demographic variables
six-cluster solution. Hence, the six-cluster solution, represented (age and tenure) were not significant in discriminating
in Figure 2, was deemed acceptable, because it is the closest to amongst the profile groups in this study.

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TABLE 8: Mean values of outcome variables across commitment profiles (study 2).
Variable NC dominant Uncommitted CC dominant AC dominant AC–NC dominant Highly committed Total Post hoc
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Job security 5.65 4.18 5.83 5.88 5.60 6.00 5.73 2 < 3b, 4a, 6b
F (5, 207) = 5.00b (1.31) (2.19) (1.15) (0.74) (1.35) (0.79) (1.21)
Partial η2 = 0.108
COL 3.64 2.69 3.50 3.94 3.70 3.81 3.68 2 < 4a, 5a, 6b
F (5, 207) = 4.29b (0.54) (0.89) (0.80) (0.67) (0.72) (0.93) (0.84)
Partial η2 = 0.094
Age 36.28 31.45 40.53 37.50 37.73 36.82 37.29
F (5, 207) = 1.57 (12.32) (7.01) (12.47) (9.47) (9.82) (10.59) (10.55) ns
Partial η2 = 0.037
Tenure 9.50 6.77 13.35 10.91 10.73 11.96 11.24
F (5, 207) = 1.28 (6.92) (4.12) (9.55) (6.88) (8.14) (9.09) (8.42) ns
Partial η2 = 0.030
a
, p < 0.05
b
, p < 0.01. Wilks’s λ = 0.779 (F = 2.654; p < 0.001); Observed power (multivariate test) = 0.994

General discussion by Meyer and Herscovitch (2001) emerged across the two
studies (when counting profiles in both studies), except for
The objective of this study was to test the applicability of the NC–CC dominant profile which did not emerge in any
the profile typology postulated by Meyer and Herscovitch of the studies. Amongst the well-documented profiles in the
(2001) in Ghana, an African context. Based on data from literature are the fully committed, AC–NC dominant, CC
two studies, the profiles of commitment may generalise to dominant and the uncommitted groups (Meyer et al., 2012),
this context, although without support for the hypothesised which were all replicated in both studies, supporting the
eight-cluster solution. The emergent profiles across both credibility of the emerged clusters in this context. In addition,
studies include the highly committed and the uncommitted the NC dominant profile emerged in the two studies,
groups, the AC–NC dominant group (moral imperatives), although this profile is hardly reported in the literature
the CC and NC dominant groups (trapped and obligated (Kam et al., 2013). This finding suggests the salience of NC
respectively), the AC dominant group (attached) and the in this collectivist setting, as asserted in the literature (e.g.
AC–CC dominant group (invested). The AC–NC group Wasti, 2002). Also, commitment influenced by economic
includes employees who have both the desire and moral factors is salient in this setting since the country is classified
obligation to stay; they are referred to as moral imperatives, as developing (The World Bank, 2012). These outcomes
whilst employees in the AC dominant group with only the together suggest that the typology of commitment profiles
desire to stay are known as the attached (Sinclair et al., 2005). is generalisable to Ghana, an African context.
Similarly, employees in the AC–CC dominant group have
both desire and cost-based reasons (e.g. financial needs) to The analysis of the mean differences amongst the profiles
stay and, therefore, they are described as the invested, whilst revealed that the uncommitted group reported lower
the CC dominant group employees with only cost-based mean scores on the positive outcome variables (pay
attachment are referred to as trapped and the NC dominant satisfaction, job security), but a higher score on the negative
group employees are known as the obligated. Five profiles organisational outcome (propensity to strike). The only
out of the six-cluster solutions that emerged in both studies outcome concerning mean difference that was replicated in
were similar. Thus, the observed difference between the two both studies was job security since it was the only outcome
studies was the emergence of the AC–CC dominant profile variable measured in both studies, though with different
in study 1 and the AC dominant profile in study 2. This items. As was expected, the highly committed group in both
outcome could be attributed to a number of possible reasons studies felt more secure in their jobs than the uncommitted,
including the sample size, the organisation or the industry of in spite of the different items used. The highly committed
study. Another plausible reason is the increased agitation for group, the AC–CC dominant group and the CC dominant
better working conditions by health workers (study 1) in the group reported higher levels of pay satisfaction in study 1.
country; hence, CC may be important to their psychology of Health care workers may be amongst some of the well-paid
commitment. workers in Ghana (GhanaNation, 2012), especially after the
implementation of a universal pay system. Continuance
Obviously, the small sample sizes in the two studies commitment is cost based (financial need); hence, those
compared to previous studies on profiles may have who may have invested their time, effort and resources
contributed to our inability to extract the theoretically in the organisation (the invested) or those who may feel
postulated eight-cluster solution. However, reproducing trapped may be in for the economic accruals including
less than an eight-cluster solution is not unusual since very pay. This is especially true for a country with low per-
few researchers have replicated the eight-profile typology capita income (high economic need country) such as Ghana
(except Gellatly et al., 2006). A number of studies have (The World Bank, 2012). For these groups, pay may be
reported fewer clusters than the hypothetical eight-cluster an important factor for their overall involvement in the
solution, including research in non-Western settings (e.g. organisation. Conversely, for the AC–NC group (moral
Tsoumbris & Xenikou, 2010; Wasti, 2005), see Table 2. imperatives) who may be immersed in their work, pay may
However, theoretically, all the types of profiles postulated not be at the top of their concerns in employment relations.

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 Page 9 of 11 Original Research

Since the highly committed and AC–CC dominant groups Clearly, this study is not without limitations, particularly the
reported higher mean level for positive work outcomes, small sample sizes used in the profile analysis. For example,
CC may not have attenuated the effect of AC as asserted two of the clusters in study 2 had cluster sizes that were below
by Meyer and Herscovitch (2001). Kam et al. (2013) assert 10% of the sample size, but this includes the uncommitted
that casting commitment as a profile for each employee, group. Having a small cell size for the uncommitted group
including CC, offers a more holistic view of the concept that should not be entirely surprising and may even be beneficial
moves away from an AC-centric model. The uncommitted to the organisation since these individuals may self-select
group expectedly reported higher mean levels of strike out of the organisation (Sinclair et al., 2005). However,
propensity. Thus, those who feel unattached are more likely it could potentially affect the power of the analysis,
to experience negative attitudes and behaviours on the job, although significant mean differences were found that are
including stoppage. theoretically sound, even with a more conservative post hoc
test (Scheffe). In addition, sampling only one country is not
With respect to psychological collectivism, the outcome is representative enough to generalise the specific outcome
contrary to what we expected, in terms of the relationship beyond the West African region. However, the finding in
between commitment and culture. For example, Clugston et al. this study is significant and important in terms of theory
(2000) found that collectivism was highly related to normative testing and application. African countries may be different
commitment, but in this study, the purely NC group did not in a number of respects, including culture, but they may
report higher collectivism than the other groups. Instead, the share similar job attitudes like commitment, job satisfaction,
highly committed, and the AC and AC–NC dominant groups job security and so on. For instance, research has shown that
reported higher level of collectivism. It has been noted that the three-component model of commitment is generalisable
the emotional desire to stay with the organisation may be to other African contexts (e.g. Beukes & Botha, 2013; Bosman
accompanied by obligated tendencies amongst collectivists et al., 2005; Simons & Buitendach, 2013). Hence, researchers
due to the generalised cultural expectations (Wasti, 2002). may further test the theoretical postulations of commitment
The non-association of NC, though surprising, could be due profiles by designing studies that will sample multiple
to the different approaches to the study of commitment. countries in Africa, with larger sample sizes to enable the
Assertions about NC and culture are based on variable- test of the postulated eight-cluster solution.
centred approach to the study of commitment (Meyer et al.,
2012), whilst this study is person-centred. Although it has Further, the data sets employed in this study are cross-
been argued that the profile approach would augment the sectional data: data collected over a single period without
variable-centred findings, this is not the case with the NC manipulation of the respondents or the environment.
profile in this study. This outcome could also be due to the Hence, cause-and-effect relationships cannot be inferred
NC scale in study 2; only three items loaded significantly with from the findings in this study, as it does not consider
an alpha value below the recommended threshold. The NC what happens before or after the responses were elicited.
dominant profile emerged in both studies, but the relation Moreover, the data may be viewed as secondary since
with collectivism was only examined in study 2 because it was not originally intended for configural analysis.
collectivism was not measured in study 1. It should be noted Therefore, the full range of potential variables, including
that the samples used in this article were two different studies performance, turnover and absenteeism, could not be
conducted on two different occasions with different goals. examined in this study. This study only focused on
The NC dominant profile is not amongst the popular profiles contextual and demographic variables. For instance, we
reported in previous studies; hence, further tests would be only used two items as proxy for pay level satisfaction:
required before a firm conclusion may be drawn. a single dimension of the multi-factor pay satisfaction
measure. However, this does not negate the findings, but
The outcome with respect to the demographic factors rather it indicates the need for further tests to validate the
(significant only in study 1) is in line with past research outcomes reported in this study. Thus, future research may
findings, which have shown that age and tenure are associated investigate commitment profiles in this region, focusing on
with high commitment (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Meyer et al., outcome variables such as in-role performance, citizenship,
2002). The highly committed and AC–CC dominant groups absenteeism and turnover intentions, as suggested by
may be older and have higher tenure than the uncommitted Meyer and Herscovitch (2001).
group. Sinclair et al. (2005) assert that those who are not
committed may exit the organisation by self-selection. Since age Again, different outcome variables and measures were used
and tenure are highly correlated, the invested group who have in the two studies, except for the demographic factors. For
both the desire and the need to stay may have stayed longer the commitment measures, some of the items, especially, the
with the organisation and, hence, accrued tenure. Thus, when CC items were different, as a refined CC scale was used in
one is invested in the organisation, one is likely to stay longer. study 2. Future field studies on commitment profiles should
These should be amongst the most experienced employees be designed to examine the same variables and to elicit
and an important source of human capital for the organisation. responses using the same measures in multi-sample studies
This outcome, however, was not replicated in study 2 because over a number of periods. The different outcomes from the
the AC–CC group did not emerge in this sample. two cross-sectional data sets suggest the need to examine the

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 Page 10 of 11 Original Research

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