Chris Heathwood

10 Subjective Theories of Well-Being

1. The Topic of Well-Being

Classical hedonistic utilitarianism makes the following claims: that our

fundamental moral obligation is to make the world as good as we can make it
(consequentialism); that the world is made better just when the creatures in it are
made better off (welfarism); and that creatures are made better off just in case
they receive a greater balance of pleasure over pain (hedonism). The third of
these claims is essentially a theory of well-being. Other forms of utilitarianism
make use of different accounts of well-being, but whatever the version of
utilitarianism, well-being appears in the foundations. Thus a complete
examination of utilitarianism includes a study of well-being.

We can get at our topic in more familiar ways as well, and our topic is of
interest independently of the role it plays in utilitarian theory. We can get at our
topic by taking note of some obvious facts: that some lives go better than others;
that some things that befall us in life are good, and others bad; that certain things
are harmful to people and others beneficial. Each of these facts involves the
concept of well-being, or welfare, or of a life going well for the person living it.
Many other familiar expressions – ‘quality of life’, ‘a life worth living’, ‘the good
life’, ‘in one’s best interest’, ‘What’s in it for me?’ – involve the same notion. We
thus make claims about well-being all the time. Such claims naturally give rise to
a philosophical question: What is it that makes a life go well or badly for the
person living it?

Our question is not the perhaps more familiar question, What sorts of things
tend to cause people to be better or worse off? It’s interesting to investigate
whether people’s lives are made better by, say, winning the lottery, spending less
time on the internet, or having children. But these are not the sorts of questions
that philosophers of well-being ask. If your life would be made better by
winning the lottery, this is due to the effects that winning the lottery would have
on other features of your life, such as on your ability to pay for college or on the
sorts of vacations you could take (and the value of these latter things might
similarly lie wholly in their effects). But in the philosophy of well-being, we are
trying to figure out what things are in themselves in our interest to have. We are
asking what things are intrinsically good or bad for people, as opposed to what
things are merely instrumentally good or bad for people.

Nor is our question, What things make the world intrinsically better or worse?
The philosophical question of welfare is the question of what things are
intrinsically good for people, and other subjects of welfare. But we also make

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claims about what things are good period, or good “from the point of view of the
Universe.”1 For example, some people believe that it is good in itself when
something beautiful exists, even when no one will ever observe it. Whether or
not this view is correct, philosophers of well-being aren’t asking about this kind
of value. But it is easy to confuse it with well-being, because the clearest example
of something that makes the world better is someone’s having things go better
for him or her. The claim that it’s good when things go well for someone is not
trivial, however. The easiest way to see this is to notice that it may have
exceptions. It may fail to be a good thing, for example, when wicked people are
well off; perhaps it would be better if they were badly off.

Finally, our question is not, What sort of life makes for a morally good life? It
seems that we can easily imagine someone leading a morally upstanding life that
turns out to be of no benefit to her. But even if we became persuaded, through
philosophical argument, that this is not possible, perhaps because moral virtue is
its own reward, it still seems that being well off and being moral are distinct
phenomena.

It hardly needs arguing that the question of what makes a person’s life go
well is important. First, the question is just inherently interesting, and worth
studying in its own right, even if answering it were relevant to no other
important questions. It also has obvious practical implications: most of us want
to get a good life, and knowing what one is might help us get one. Aside from
these direct reasons to be interested, our topic is relevant to many of the most
important questions we as people face. Most obviously, it is relevant to our
moral obligations. This is of course true if utilitarianism is true, but it is no less
true otherwise. For on any plausible moral theory, the effects that an act would
have on the welfare of people and other animals is at least one morally relevant
consideration. Utilitarianism stands out in claiming that well-being is the only
basic morally relevant factor. Well-being also matters for politics. When
deciding which political systems, institutions, and laws we ought to adopt, one
obviously relevant factor is how well people will fare under the possible
schemes. Well-being relates also to justice. One kind of justice, for instance,
involves distributing welfare according to desert. The concept of well-being is
also tied up with many virtues and vices, moral and non-moral. For example, a
considerate person is one who frequently considers the interests of others, while
a selfish person does this insufficiently. A person who can delay gratification for
the sake of her long-term interests is a prudent person (this is why ‘prudential
value’ is yet another synonym for ‘well-being’). Welfare is probably also
conceptually connected to each of the following phenomena: love, empathy, care,
envy, pity, dread, reward, punishment, compassion, hatred, and malice. Seeing
the connections that the concept of welfare has to other concepts can even help
us identify the very concept we mean to be asking about in the first place.

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2. Subjective vs. Objective Theories of Well-Being

2.1 The Distinction

One way to begin answering the question of what makes a person’s life go
well for him or her is simply to produce a list of things whose presence in our
lives seems to make them better. Here is an incomplete list of some possibilities:

enjoyment
freedom
happiness
being respected
knowledge
health
achieving one’s goals
friendship
getting what one wants
being a good person
being in love
creative activity
contemplating important questions
aesthetic appreciation
excelling at worthwhile activities.

Most or all of these have opposites that are intuitively bad, but to keep things
simpler, we’ll focus on the good things.

Something interesting about our list above is that all of the items on it are
things that most people enjoy, and want in their lives. They are things we have
positive attitudes towards (or, in some cases, they just are positive attitudes).
This raises a question that is among the deepest and most central to the
philosophical study of well-being: Are the things on the list above good solely in
virtue of the positive attitudes that we have towards them, or do they benefit us
whether or not we have these attitudes towards them? As Socrates might have
put the question, Do we want these things in our lives because it is good to have
them, or is it good to have them in our lives because we want them?2 This is
essentially the question of whether well-being is objective or subjective.
Subjectivists maintain that something can benefit a person only if he wants it,
likes it, cares about it, or it otherwise connects up in some important way with
some positive attitude of his. Objectivists deny this, holding that at least some of
the things that make our lives better do so independently of our particular
interests, likes, and cares.

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 What do we mean by ‘positive attitude’? We mean to include attitudes of
favoring something, wanting it, caring about it, valuing it, believing it valuable,
liking it, trying to get it, having it as a goal, being fond of it, being for it, having
an interest in it, and the like. Philosophers call these ‘pro-attitudes’.3 Not all
subjective theories of well-being hold that all the attitudes just listed are relevant
to well-being. A particular subjective theory will often single out one of them as
the pro-attitude that is required for a person to be benefitted.

In section 3, we will survey some of the particular varieties of subjective

theory; in the remainder of this section, we’ll look at what is perhaps the most
important reason for preferring the general subjective approach as well as a
central reason for preferring an objective theory. In the process of doing this, we
will further clarify the distinction between subjective and objective theories of
well-being.

2.2. General Considerations in Support of Subjectivism

Perhaps the main reason to think that the subjective approach is right is that
there is a strong, widely-shared intuition that suggests that the subjective
approach is correct. This intuition is expressed in a frequently quoted passage by
the philosopher Peter Railton:

It does seem to me to capture an important feature of the concept of intrinsic value to say that
what is intrinsically valuable for a person must have a connection with what he would find in
some degree compelling or attractive, at least if he were rational and aware. It would be an
intolerably alienated conception of someone’s good to imagine that it might fail in any such
way to engage him.4

Many share Railton’s intuition. If we do, and if our evaluative intuitions are a
guide to the truth about value, then this gives us reason to think that the
subjective approach to well-being is the correct one. For Railton’s intuition
seems to be more or less just another way of putting the subjective approach.

If this sounds question-begging against the objectivist, a related way for the
subjectivist to support her view is to elicit a similar intuition, but about a
particular case. This might seem less question-begging. Here is such a case:

Henry reads a philosophy book that makes an impression on him. The

author defends an objective theory of well-being that includes many of the
items on our sample list above. Henry wants to get a good life, and so he
goes about trying to acquire these things. For example, to increase his
knowledge – one of the basic, intrinsic goods of life, according to the author –
Henry reads a textbook on entomology and acquires a vast knowledge of
insects. Henry finds, however, that this new knowledge, as he puts it, “does
nothing for me.” He pursued it only because the author recommended it, and

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 he can muster no enthusiasm for what he has learned, or for the fact that he
has learned it. He in no way cares that he has all this new knowledge, and he
never will care. It has no practical application to anything in his life, and it
never will.

Now ask yourself, Was Henry benefitted by gaining this vast knowledge of
entomology? The subjectivist expects that your judgment will be that, No, Henry
was not benefitted. If so, this supports subjectivism over objectivism about well-
being. For objectivists who affirm the intrinsic value of knowledge are
committed to saying that Henry was in fact benefitted by gaining this
knowledge.

Objectivists who don’t include knowledge on their list avoid this particular
counterexample, but they will postulate other intrinsic goods, such as, say,
freedom. The subjectivist will then ask us to imagine a new case: a case of
someone who dutifully increases her share of the putative good – perhaps she
moves to a state with fewer laws restricting her freedom – but who finds that she
just doesn’t care about having this new alleged good, and that it doesn’t get her
anything else that she cares about, wants, or likes. Because the putative good in
question is objective – i.e., it bears no necessary connection to positive attitudes
on the part of a subject who has it – it will always be possible for it to leave some
people cold. If we share the intuition that such people receive no benefit when
they receive the alleged good, we have a counterexample to the objective theory
in question.

Some putative goods on the list above are not objective. Consider happiness,
or at least one kind of happiness: being happy about something in your life, such
as your job. Being happy about your job does bear a necessary connection to a
positive attitude of yours, because being happy about your job is one such
attitude. Being happy about your job can’t leave you cold, since the very attitude
of being happy about your job is an attitude of finding something to some degree
compelling or attractive. Thus we cannot construct a case analogous to the case
of Henry about the putative good of being happy. This won’t help objectivists, of
course, since a theory that claims that the single, fundamental human good is
being happy is a subjective rather than an objective theory.

Other putative goods on the list above are clearly objective. Knowledge, if an
intrinsic welfare good, is an objective one because it need not connect up in any
way with our pro-attitudes. Note that this is true even though knowledge is (at
least in part) a mental state. Thus it is a mistake to understand the
objective/subjective distinction as it is used in the philosophy of well-being as
involving merely the distinction between states of the world and states of mind.
To be a subjectivist about well-being, it is not enough to hold that well-being is

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wholly determined by subjective states, or mental states. It has to be the right
kind of subjective state – a “pro” or “con” mental state.

2.3. Further Clarification of the Distinction

It is worth making a further clarification about subjectivism. As we noted

earlier, a Socratic way to think of subjectivism about well-being is as the view
that things are good for people in virtue of the pro-attitudes they take towards
those things. We also said that the theory that happiness is the good is a
subjective theory. But consider someone who, while very happy about many
things, never stops to consider her own happiness, and so never takes up any
pro- or con-attitudes towards it. If the Socratic way of understanding
subjectivism is literally correct, then the happiness theory will count as a form of
objectivism! For, as this example illustrates, it’s possible on this theory for
something (namely, being happy) to be good for someone without her taking up
any pro-attitudes towards that thing.

One way to try to handle this is to reject the Socratic understanding of

subjectivism as too narrow, and to hold that

a theory is subjective just in case it implies the following: that something is

intrinsically good for someone just in case either (i) she has a certain pro-
attitude towards it, or (ii) it itself involves a certain pro-attitude of hers
towards something.

This criterion counts the happiness theory as a subjective theory because, on the
happiness theory, the only thing that is intrinsically good for people is a thing –
their being happy about something – that itself involves their own pro-attitudes
towards something (their being happy about something just is a pro-attitude
towards something). This will be our official understanding of subjectivism
about well-being. Objectivism about well-being is the view that at least one
fundamental, intrinsic human good does not involve any pro-attitudes on the
part of the subject.

2.4. General Considerations in Support of Objectivism

One motivation for being an objectivist about well-being is that it just sounds
plausible to say that things like freedom, respect, knowledge, health, and love
make our lives better. But we have to be careful. Subjectivists can agree with
this plausible thought, since they know that most people have pro-attitudes
towards these things, or at least that these things cause most people to have pro-
attitudes (such as happiness or enjoyment) towards other things. Thus when
these people get the things on the list above, their lives will be made better even
according to subjectivism. To put it another way, subjectivists hold that the

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things on this list are typically instrumentally good for us to have, and hope to
fully account for their intuitive value in this way.

However, some objectivists will continue to insist that the value of at least
some such items is intrinsic and attitude-independent. In support of this, they
might offer the following kind of argument against subjectivism. It begins by
imagining someone who has bizarre interests, or, perhaps more effectively, base
or immoral interests. Thus, John Rawls “imagine[s] someone whose only
pleasure is to count blades of grass in … park squares and well-trimmed lawns.”5
G.E. Moore compares “the state of mind of a drunkard, when he is intensely
pleased with breaking crockery” to “that of a man who is fully realising all that is
exquisite in the tragedy of King Lear.”6 As an example of a morally corrupt
interest, we can imagine a pedophile engaging in the immoral activities he very
much wants to be engaging in. Finally, Thomas Nagel has us “[s]uppose an
intelligent person receives a brain injury that reduces him to the mental
condition of a contented infant, and that such desires as remain to him are
satisfied by a custodian, so that he is free from care.” Nagel claims that “[s]uch a
development would be widely regarded as a severe misfortune, not only for his
friends and relations, or for society, but also, and primarily, for the person
himself. … He is the one we pity, though of course he does not mind his
condition. . . .”7

According to the objection, subjective theories are committed to the

following: that Rawls’ grass-counter can get a great life by doing nothing more
than counting blades of grass all day; that, so long as the amount of pleasure is
the same between the two cases, it is just as well, in terms of how good it makes
your life, to break crockery while drunk as it is to appreciate great art; that it is,
at least considered in itself, a great good for the pedophile when he molests
children; and that the brain injury victim has in fact suffered no misfortune, so
long as the desires that remain to him are well enough satisfied. But, the
argument continues, surely claims such as these are absurd. One kind of
evidence for this may be that we would not want someone we love, such as our
own child, to live a life like any of the lives imagined here. We can avoid these
putatively implausible claims by including objective elements into our theory of
well-being, such as that exposure to great art is intrinsically good for people or
that engaging in immoral activities is intrinsically bad for people.

To these objections, some subjectivists (including Rawls himself) “bite the

bullet.” They think that, on reflection, such lives in fact can be good for the people
living them. After all, these activities are just the sorts of activities they want to be
doing, and like doing. This may be easier to swallow when we remind ourselves
that accepting such a claim does not commit one to the view that these lives are
morally good, or that they manifest excellence, or that they are good in other ways
that are distinct from their being beneficial to those living them.

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 One’s ultimate view concerning such cases, and concerning the
considerations above in support of subjectivism, will determine where one
stands on this most important philosophical question of well-being: whether to
accept a subjective or an objective theory.

Before discussing specific kinds of subjective theory, it is worth mentioning a

third option, one we won’t have space to explore here: a hybrid of subjectivism
and objectivism. According to the hybrid theory, well-being consists in receiving
things that (i) the subject has some pro-attitude towards (or that otherwise
involve pro-attitudes on the part of the subject), and that (ii) have some value, or
special status, independent of these attitudes. One’s life goes better not simply
when one gets what one wants or likes, but when one is wanting or liking, and
getting, the right things. These might include some of the things on our list above.
It is very much worth investigating the extent to which the arguments and
considerations discussed in this essay apply to hybrid theories of well-being.8

3. Varieties of Subjectivism

On one popular taxonomy, there are three main kinds of theory of well-being:

hedonism, according to which pleasure or enjoyment is the only thing that

ultimately makes a life worth living;

the desire theory, according to which what is ultimately in a person’s interest is

getting what he wants, whatever it is; and

objectivism, according to which at least some of what intrinsically makes our

lives better does so whether or not we enjoy it or want it.9

We have already discussed objectivism (and it is discussed in greater depth in

the next chapter). The desire theory is the paradigmatic version of the subjective
theory of well-being. Hedonism is often also classified as a subjective theory,
though, as we will see, the issue is somewhat complicated. In what remains,
we’ll introduce and briefly explore hedonism, including how to classify it, and
conclude with a lengthier treatment of the desire theory of welfare. Along the
way, we’ll briefly discuss two kinds of subjective theory that may or may not be
covered by the above taxonomy: eudaimonism, the view, often associated with
hedonism, that well-being consists in happiness; and the aim achievement theory,
the view, often associated with the desire theory, that successfully achieving our
aims is what makes our lives go well.

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3.1 Hedonism

Hedonism is among the oldest of philosophical doctrines still discussed and

defended today, dating back to the Indian philosopher Cārvāka around 600
B.C.E. and the Greek philosopher Aristippus around 400 B.C.E.10 The notions
that suffering is bad for the one suffering and enjoyment good for the one getting
it are intuitive raw data that any plausible theory of well-being must
accommodate. Hedonism is controversial largely because it claims that nothing
else is of fundamental intrinsic significance to how well our lives go.

In ordinary language, the term ‘hedonist’ connotes a decadent, self-indulgent

devotion to the gratification of sensual and gastronomic desires. But it is no part
of the philosophical doctrine of hedonism that this is the way to live. Hedonism
is not the egoistic view that only one’s own pleasures and pains should concern
one, and hedonists often emphasize the greater reliability, permanence, and
freedom from painful side-effects of intellectual, aesthetic, and moral pleasures.

The most popular argument, historically speaking, for hedonism about well-
being appeals to a theory of human motivation known as psychological hedonism.11
According to psychological hedonism, the only thing that anyone ever desires for
its own sake is his own pleasure (ignoring pain here for brevity). Thus,
whenever a person desires something other than his own pleasure, he desires it
as a means to his own pleasure. The argument from psychological hedonism uses
this psychological claim as a premise in establishing the conclusion that the only
thing that is intrinsically good for someone is his own pleasure. To move from
this premise to this conclusion, the argument requires the additional, often
suppressed premise that only what a person desires for its own sake is
intrinsically good for him.

This argument is almost universally rejected nowadays, even by hedonists.12

Not only does the sweeping generalization of psychological hedonism seem too
simplistic, the second premise – that only what a person desires for its own sake
is intrinsically good for him – is evidently an abandonment of hedonism as the
fundamental truth about well-being and a move to the desire theory.

This raises the question of just what relation pleasure has to our pro-attitudes,
and this, in turn, bears on the question of whether hedonism should count as an
objective or a subjective theory. There are two main views of the nature of
pleasure. On the felt-quality theory, pleasure is a single, uniform sensation or
feeling, in the same general category as itch sensations or nauseous feelings (only
pleasant!). On the attitudinal theory, pleasure fundamentally is, or involves, an
attitude – a pro-attitude that we can take up towards other mental states, like
itches and nauseous feelings, or states of the world.

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 It would seem that whether hedonism qualifies as an objective or a subjective
theory depends on which general approach to the nature of pleasure is correct. If
a felt-quality theory is true, and pleasure is just one feeling among others, a
feeling one may or may not care about, want, or like, then pleasure, if good,
would seem to be an objective good, and hedonism an objective theory of well-
being. But if pleasure is instead a pro-attitude, or essentially involves some pro-
attitude, then pleasure, if good, would seem to be a subjective good, and
hedonism a subjective theory of well-being. It’s important to recognize that the
issue here isn’t merely one of taxonomy. If hedonism is an objective theory, then
it, like other objective theories, is committed to the perhaps counterintuitive idea
that something some people may find in no way attractive, or that in no way
connects to any positive attitudes of theirs, is nonetheless of benefit to them. If
hedonism is a subjective theory, it avoids this implication.

If hedonism is a subjective theory, due to pleasure’s being explainable in

terms of some pro-attitude, does it remain a distinctive theory, or does it instead
become a version of whatever kind of theory enshrines this pro-attitude? It
depends upon which pro-attitude pleasure is ultimately explained in terms of.
According to the contemporary hedonist Fred Feldman, all pleasure is ultimately
explained in terms of the pro-attitude of being pleased that something is the case.13
Since, according to Feldman, this hedonic pro-attitude cannot, in turn, be
explained in terms of any other, non-hedonic attitude, Feldman’s theory of
pleasure allows hedonism to remain a distinctive theory. Other attitudinal
theories of pleasure reduce pleasure to other kinds of attitude, most commonly
desire.14 If the desire theory of pleasure is true, then a theory claiming that
pleasure is the good might be best classified as a form of the desire theory of
well-being.15 The attitudinal theory of pleasure thus holds promise for hedonism
– allowing it to avoid the problems of objectivism – as well as risk – the risk that
it would cease to be a distinctive theory of well-being.

Interestingly, even if hedonism turns out to be an objective theory, it still

faces some of the problems of subjectivism. For whatever pleasure turns out to
be, people can get it from sources pointless, base, immoral, or unfitting (see
section 2.4 above). John Stuart Mill believes that hedonists can answer these
objections by assigning value to pleasures on the basis not only of their intensity
and duration, but their quality as well. He holds that intellectual, moral, and
aesthetic pleasures, for example, have “a much higher value” than bodily
pleasures of equal intensity and duration.16 Thus a life full of the pleasures of
studying Shakespeare could be a better life than one devoted to breaking
crockery while drunk, even if the latter contains a greater quantity of pleasure.
Mill bases his assessment of the greater value of these “higher” pleasures on the
contention that people who are acquainted with both higher and lower pleasure
invariably prefer the higher (though again this raises the specter of hedonism’s

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collapse into the desire theory). Some critics charge that Mill’s appeal to quality
is in fact an abandonment of hedonism.17

Hedonism, whether it turns out to be an objective or a subjective theory, also

faces an objection that is more or less distinctive to it – avoided by competing
theories, subjective and objective alike. The objection exploits the fact that
pleasure is a mental state, and so that on hedonism, how well one’s life goes is
directly determined solely by one’s mental states, and not by the way the
external world is. The most vivid and well-known version of this objection is
based on a thought experiment by Robert Nozick:

Suppose there was an experience machine that would give you any experience you desired.
Super-duper neuropsychologists could stimulate your brain so that you would think and feel
you were writing a great novel, or making a friend, or reading an interesting book. All the
time you would be floating in a tank, with electrodes attached to your brain. Should you
plug into this machine for life, preprogramming your life experiences? … [W]hile in the tank
you won’t know that you’re there; you’ll think that it’s all actually happening. … Would you
plug in?18

If you wouldn’t plug in, and if one reason you wouldn’t plug in is that you think
you would fare less well in such a life than in your actual, less pleasurable life,
then this may show that you reject hedonism.19

Let us turn briefly to eudaimonism, the truistic-sounding theory that the good
life is the happy life. This is in fact no truism (assuming of course that by ‘a
happy life’ we don’t simply mean a good life). For it, too, faces the experience
machine objection as well as the problems of subjectivism more generally. In
fact, given one leading theory of happiness – the view that to be happy is to have
a favorable balance of pleasure over pain – hedonism and eudaimonism amount
to the same view. According to a rival theory of happiness, to be happy is to be
satisfied with one’s life as a whole. This conception of happiness yields a
different version of eudaimonism, one that comes apart from hedonism, since it
is possible to be dissatisfied with a pleasant life.20

3.2. The Desire Theory

A person living her life on an experience machine will, unbeknownst to her,

get little of what she wants. While some of our desires concern our experiences
(we desire the taste of some food, or for some itch to be gone), many of our
desires concern states of the external world (we desire to climb some mountain,
or to be loved by someone). These latter kinds of desire will go unsatisfied on
the experience machine (although unbeknownst to the subject). According to the
desire or preference satisfaction theory of welfare, well-being consists in getting
what one wants. On this theory, a life on the experience machine will be in many
ways worse than an ordinary life, in which many desires about the external

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world are satisfied. The desire theory of welfare thus evidently avoids the
experience machine objection.

Perhaps the earliest discussion of the desire theory of any depth is found in
Sidgwick’s Methods of Ethics, though it may have been endorsed centuries earlier
by Thomas Hobbes and also Baruch Spinoza.21 It gained prominence in the
twentieth century with the rise of welfare economics and decision theory, where
preference theories of well-being or utility are often simply assumed.
Economists may be motivated to assume the theory because it is thought to make
well-being more easily measurable than it would be on hedonism, since our
desires are thought to be revealed through our choices, especially in free
markets. Others have been motivated to accept the desire theory rather than an
objective theory because they believe the former to fit better with a naturalistic
worldview. Objective theories that posit more than one basic good also face a
problem concerning how to compare goods of very different kinds. Monistic
theories like the desire theory avoid this. Today the desire theory is often
regarded as the leading theory of well-being, especially among utilitarians.22

Another putative attraction of the desire theory is that it very

straightforwardly conforms to the intuition, introduced earlier, that what is
intrinsically good for a person must be something he or she finds to some degree
compelling or attractive. For to desire something, whatever else it is, is surely to
find it to some degree compelling or attractive. As the theory that most clearly
conforms to this intuition and as the theory that makes use of what is perhaps the
fundamental pro-attitude, the desire theory is the paradigmatic subjective theory
of well-being.

The simplest version of the desire theory of welfare claims that the
satisfaction of any of one’s actual desires is intrinsically good for one. This
unrestricted, actualist theory is seldom defended. Perhaps the most common
departure from it counts only the satisfaction of intrinsic desires, or desires for
things for their own sakes, rather than for what they might lead to.23 When we
get what we merely instrumentally want, it’s natural to suppose that this is, at
best, of mere instrumental value.

Philosophers have considered many other restrictions, such as restrictions to

self-regarding desires (or desires about oneself),24 global desires (or desires about
one’s whole life),25 and second-order desires (or desires about one’s desires).26
Some of these will come up when we discuss objections to the desire approach,
to which we now turn.

If what’s good for us is what we want, then whatever we want is good for us.
But surely we sometimes want things that turn out to be no good for us. The
most common kind of case involves ignorance. For example, I might have a

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desire to eat some food, not knowing that it will cause a severe allergic reaction
in me, or I might want to see some band perform in concert, not knowing that
they will perform terribly. The desire theory seems to imply, mistakenly, that
satisfying these ill-informed desires is in my interests.

The lesson that many philosophers draw from such cases is that well-being is
connected not to our actual desires but to our idealized desires.27 These are the
desires we would have if we knew all the relevant facts, were appreciating them
vividly, were making no mistakes in reasoning, and the like. The idealized
desire theory of well-being can claim that it is no benefit to me to eat the
allergenic food or attend the bad concert because I would not have wanted these
things it if I knew all the relevant facts, were appreciating them vividly, and the
like. For on this theory, only satisfying my idealized wants benefits me.

Some may hold out hope that the move to idealized desires can solve other
problems as well. Perhaps it can provide a solution not only to cases of desires
based on mistaken beliefs and the like, but to other sorts of putatively defective
desire. Recall the earlier cases of the people who desire to count blades of grass,
to break crockery while drunk, or to abuse children. Some desire theorists might
be tempted to claim that satisfying these desires is of no benefit because no one
who knew all the relevant facts, was appreciating them vividly, was making no
mistakes in reasoning, etc. would desire such things. But one has to be careful.
This move runs the risk of turning the desire theory into an objective theory of
well-being in subjectivist clothing. It is not open to idealized desire theorists to
claim that part of what it is to be idealized is to desire the right things, that is, the
things it is good to get no matter your desires. That is closet objectivism. The
conditions of idealization must be stated in value-neutral terms, and without
reference to things that were identified via a belief in their objective welfare
value.

Returning to the original objection of putatively defective desires, it is

actually not obvious that it succeeds in the first place.28 Consider the case of the
allergenic food. I desire to eat it, not knowing that it will make me sick. The
objection claims that the actualist desire theory is committed to saying that it is
nonetheless in my interests to satisfy this desire. But consider two things we
might have in mind when we say that it is in my interests to satisfy some desire.
We might mean that it is in my interests all things considered – that is, taking all
the effects of satisfying the desire into account. Or we might mean merely that it
is good in itself – intrinsically good – to satisfy the desire. The objection assumes,
plausibly, that it is not in my interests all things considered to satisfy my desire to
eat the food. But it seems that the actualist desire theory can accommodate this.
For if I satisfy my desire to eat the food, this will cause many of my other actual
desires – desires not to be in pain, desires to play golf, etc. – to be frustrated. All
that the actualist desire theory is committed to is the claim that it is good in itself

13
for me to satisfy my desire to eat the food. But this claim is not implausible.
Intuitively, ignoring the effects, it is good for me to get to eat this food I very
much want to eat.

Thus, moving to an idealized theory may be less well-motivated than it

originally appears. It also brings with it new problems. One family of problems
concerns the concept and process of idealization.29 Another problem is that it is
possible for what I would want under ideal conditions to be totally uninteresting,
or even repugnant, to me as I actually am. But idealized theories of well-being
are supposed to tell us what’s good for us as we actually are.30

The second objection that we’ll consider has been called the “scope problem”
for desire theories.31 The following example by Derek Parfit illustrates the
problem:

Suppose that I meet a stranger who has what is believed to be a fatal disease. My
sympathy is aroused, and I strongly want this stranger to be cured. We never meet
again. Later, unknown to me, this stranger is cured. On the Unrestricted Desire-
Fulfilment Theory, this event is good for me, and makes my life go better. This is not
plausible. We should reject this theory.32

James Griffin offers a diagnosis:

The breadth of the [desire] account, which is its attraction, is also its greatest flaw. ...
It allows my utility to be determined by things that … do not affect my life in any
way at all. The trouble is that one’s desires spread themselves so widely over the
world that their objects extend far outside the bound of what, with any plausibility,
one could take as touching one’s well-being.33

A common response to this problem is thus that the desire theory should be
restricted to count only desires that are about one’s own life, or about oneself.34
According to another proposal, we should count only those desires that are also
among our aims or goals (thus the aim achievement theory).35 Both of these
proposals seem to handle Parfit’s case. Parfit’s desire that the stranger be cured
is not about Parfit or his life. Nor is it an aim of his, since he takes no steps to try
to achieve it. Thus each theory agrees that Parfit’s life is made no better when
the stranger is cured.

But these restrictions may exclude too much. Consider the common desire
that one’s team win. I don’t mean a team one plays for – desires about such a
team might count as desires about one’s own life, and may qualify as aims – but
a team one roots for from a distance. Such desires are certainly not about oneself,
and presumably not about one’s own life either. And that one’s team win is not
typically among one’s aims or goals; most of us know we have no power over
whether our team wins. Thus theories that exclude non-self-regarding desires

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and desires that are not aims imply, implausibly, that people receive no benefit
when their desire that their team win is satisfied.

An alternative solution to the scope problem takes its cue from the detail that
Parfit’s stranger is cured unbeknownst to him. Perhaps the proper scope of the
desire theory excludes desires the satisfaction of which we are unaware.36 This
theory gets the right result both in Parfit’s case and concerning the desire that
one’s team win. But it’s not clear that it gets to the heart of the initial worry.
Here is how T.M. Scanlon presents it:

Someone might have a desire about the chemical composition of some star, about
whether blue was Napoleon’s favorite color, or about whether Julius Caesar was an
honest man. But it would be odd to suggest that the well-being of a person who has
such desires is affected by these facts themselves.37

Scanlon thinks that satisfying such desires is of no benefit even when one is
aware that the desires are satisfied. I leave it to the reader to decide whether this
is right. Readers may also wish to reconsider the original objection. Some desire
theorists maintain that the best reply is to “bite the bullet” in the first place, and
maintain that Parfit’s life is made better when the stranger is cured, even if only a
little bit.38

The third and final problem for desire theories that we’ll consider is the
problem of changing desires. Our desires change over time. When the desires
concern what’s going on at the time of the desire, this may be no problem. Each
night of the week, I want something different for dinner. In this case of changing
desires, the desire theory implies that what’s good for me is to get the different
meal I want each evening. But some of our changing desires concern what goes
on at a single time. Suppose I want, for years, to go skydiving on my 40th
birthday. But as the day approaches, my interests change, and I become strongly
averse to doing this.

Probably the most common reaction to this case is that it is in my interest to

satisfy my present desire not to go skydiving on my 40th birthday at the expense
of frustrating my past desires to go skydiving. (This is assuming that I won’t
later regret not having gone skydiving – that I won’t have persistent desires in
the future to have done it). And this reaction seems right no matter how long
held and strong the past desires to go skydiving were. This suggests that, to
determine what benefits a person, we ignore her past desires.39

However, other cases might suggest that we should take into account past
desires. We tend to think that we ought to respect the wishes of the dead – for
example concerning whether and where they will be buried. One natural view is
that we do this for their sake – that is, for their benefit. If that’s right, then the
desire theory should count at least some past desires. On the other hand, many

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find it absurd that a person can be benefitted or harmed after he is dead. If that’s
right, then we must find another explanation for why we should respect the
wishes of the dead, assuming that we should.

If past desires can be ignored, this suggests the view that the desire theory
count only desires for what goes on at the time of the desire. As R.M. Hare, a
proponent of this view, puts it, the theory “admits only now-for-now and then-
for-then preferences,” to the exclusion of any now-for-then or then-for-now
preferences.40

But, as before, this might seem to exclude too much. For suppose that I do in
fact strongly regret, for years, not having gone skydiving on my 40th birthday. If
so, perhaps it was in my interests to force myself to go skydiving, despite my
strong aversion to it at the time, for the sake of satisfying the “then-for-now”
desires I would come to have. If that’s right, this suggests a surprising
asymmetry: the desire theory of well-being should ignore future-directed desires
but count present- and past-directed desires. However the problem of changing
desires is ultimately resolved, it poses questions that any subjective theory of
well-being must grapple with.

*****

The notion of well-being plays some part in answering most, and perhaps
even literally all, moral questions. Yet there is no consensus among philosophers
concerning which general kind of theory of well-being is correct, or which
specific version of any general kind is best. Fortunately, we don’t have to know
which theory of well-being is correct in order to come to responsible answers to
many of the moral questions that involve well-being. For certain kinds of act are
harmful and others beneficial on all of the theories of well-being that we have
considered. We can thus know that such acts are wrong or right on these bases
without having to know precisely in what well-being consists. Still, a full
accounting of the act’s moral status would require the correct account of well-
being.41

NOTES
1 Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics, p. 420.
2 Cf. Plato, Euthyphro, 10a.
3 Nowell-Smith, Ethics, pp. 111–13.
4 Railton, “Facts and Values,” p. 9.
5 Rawls, Theory of Justice, p. 432.
6 Moore, Ethics, pp. 237–8.
7 Nagel, “Death,” p. 77.
8 On hybrid theories, see Parfit, Reasons and Persons, pp. 501–2; Kagan, “Well-Being as Enjoying

the Good”; and Heathwood, “Welfare,” pp. 652–53.

9 Parfit, Reasons and Persons, p. 493.

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10 Mādhava Āchārya, Sarva-Darśana-Samgraha, pp. 2–11; Diogenes Laërtius, Lives and Opinions, pp.
81–96.
11 See Epicurus, Extant Remains; Bentham, IMPL, ch. 1; and Mill, Utilitarianism, ch. 2. See also

Aristotle, Ethica Nicomachea, Bk. X, ch. 2; and Diogenes Laërtius, Lives and Opinions, pp. 89–90.
12 See Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics, Bk. I Ch. IV §§1–2.
13 Feldman, Pleasure and the Good Life, ch. 4.
14 Spencer, The Principles of Psychology, §125; Brandt, Theory of the Good and the Right, p. 38;

Heathwood, “The Reduction of Sensory Pleasure to Desire.”

15 Heathwood, “Desire Satisfactionism and Hedonism.”
16 Mill, Utilitarianism, ch. 2.
17 Moore, Principia Ethica, §47.
18 Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia, pp. 44–45.
19 See Railton, “Naturalism and Prescriptivity,” p. 170; Crisp, “Hedonism Reconsidered,” §5; and

Feldman, “What We Learn from the Experience Machine” for discussions of and/or replies to the
experience machine objection.
20 Feldman, What Is This Thing Called Happiness? criticizes life-satisfaction theories of happiness

and defends a hedonistic theory, as well as criticizes and defends, respectively, the corresponding
versions of eudaimonism. Sumner, Welfare, Happiness, and Ethics, ch. 6 defends a life-satisfaction
account of happiness and a corresponding eudaimonistic theory of welfare. See also Haybron,
The Pursuit of Unhappiness.
21 Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics, Bk. I, Ch. IX., §3; Hobbes, Leviathan, p. 30; Spinoza, Ethics, Part III,

Prop. IX.
22 See Sumner, Welfare, Happiness, and Ethics, p. 113; Shaw, Contemporary Ethics, p. 53; Haybron,

The Pursuit of Unhappiness, p. 3.

23 Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics, p. 109; von Wright, The Varieties of Goodness, pp. 103–4.
24 Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics, p. 112; Overvold, “Self-Interest and Getting What You Want.”
25 Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics, pp. 111–2; Parfit, Reasons and Persons, pp. 497–8; Carson, Value and

the Good Life, pp. 73–4.

26 Railton, “Facts and Values,” p. 16; Kraut, “Desire and the Human Good,” p. 40.
27 Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics, pp. 110–11; Brandt, Theory of the Good and the Right, p. 247.
28 Heathwood, “The Problem of Defective Desires,” pp. 491–3.
29 Sobel, “Full-Information Accounts of Well-Being,”; Rosati, “Persons, Perspectives, and Full

Information Accounts of the Good.”

30 Griffin, Well-Being, p. 11; see Railton, “Facts and Values,” p. 16 for a possible solution.
31 Sumner, Welfare, Happiness, and Ethics, p. 135.
32 Parfit, Reasons and Persons, p. 494.
33 Griffin, Well-Being, pp. 16–7.
34 Overvold, “Self-Interest and Getting What You Want”; Parfit, Reasons and Persons, p. 494.
35 Scanlon, What We Owe to Each Other, pp. 119–21.
36 Heathwood, “Desire Satisfactionism and Hedonism,” pp. 547–51; Sumner, Welfare, Happiness,

and Ethics, pp. 127–8.

37 Scanlon, What We Owe to Each Other, p. 114.
38 Lukas, “Desire Satisfactionism and the Problem of Irrelevant Desires.”
39 Brandt, Theory of the Good and the Right, pp. 247–53.
40 Hare, Moral Thinking, pp. 101–3.
41
Thanks to Paul Bowman, Ben Bradley, Ben Eggleston, and Dale Miller for helpful feedback on
earlier drafts.

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