Taylor Ackerman
Period 2
10-28-18
Chapter 8 Physiology of Marine Primary Producers Notes
8.1 The Foundation of Marine Life
All food webs/chains require a source of energy
o Two main sources: light from the sun and Hydrogen Sulfide from deep-sea
hydrothermal vents
Food webs begin with organisms trapping and converting energy stored in organic
chemicals (carbohydrates)
Autotrophic nutrition: ability to inorganic molecules and use energy to create organic
molecules
Roles of Primary Producers:
o Fix carbon, provide habitats for organisms, and shape environment by fixing
substrates ad providing shelter and nursery grounds for other species
Photosynthesis produces oxygen gas respiration
Without an ecosystem no food chain little atmospheric oxygen loss of habitat
8.2 The Basics of Productivity
Most primary productivity is a result of photosynthesis
o Green plants, photosynthetic protoctists such as diatoms and dinoflagellates,
and photosynthetic bacteria (cyanobacteria),, gain energy from sunlight
o Organisms that convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of organic
chemicals
Photosynthesis:
o Light energy to be trapped by pigments such as chlorophyll
Producer produces glucose and oxygen (byproduct) from carbon dioxide
and water
Chemical process occurs in many steps and is controlled by a large
number of enzymes
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
CO2 + H2O glucose + O2
Cells of the producers contain chloroplasts, the organelles that carry out photosynthesis
o Structures provide clues about origin, which involves endosymbiosis
o Chloroplasts contain their own DNA and ribosomes; show structural similarities
between groups of photosynthetic bacteria (cyanobacteria)
o Cyanobacteria were engulfed by cells but not broken down and were able to live
in cells
o Lost independence and became chloroplasts
Chloroplasts
o Covered with two membranes
One is probably a legacy of the original bacterial ancestor and the other a
legacy of the ancestral host cell
Thylakoids- extensive network of membranes inside
o Have stacked areas called grana- contain photosynthetic pigments
o Light energy is trapped in membranes- large surface area exposed
o Stroma- fluid surrounding thylakoid
Contains many chemicals and enzymes and is where glucose and other
sugars are synthesized
o Stroma contains ribosomes, DNA, and other substances (insoluble starch, lipid)
Thylakoids contain a range of different pigments that absorb light
Primary pigment in photosynthesis is chlorophyll a
Accessory pigments (chlorophyll b, carotenoids, xanthophylls)
Paper chromatography (separate and identify different pigments)
o Pigments are extracted from producers and dissolved in a solvent
o Extract placed on a chromatography strip, wick in solvent
o Solvent moves up paper, pigments dissolve, carried up paper
o Pigments (more soluble) travel faster and run farther
Absorption and Action Spectra
Different pigments found in producers absorb light wavelengths of slightly different
colors
Absorption spectrum of pigment shows the amount light of each wavelength that a
particular pigment absorbs
o Peak of absorption of both chlorophylls (blue and red ends)
o Plants are green in color absorb light in red and blue
Action spectrum: shows actual effect of different light wavelengths on rate of
photosynthesis
o Obtained by measuring rate of photosynthesis of a producer at different light
intensities
Pigments present in different species of primary producers are linked to the depth of
water
Light Penetration in Water: Wavelength and Turbidity
Two main factors that affect how deep in the water light can penetrate
o Wavelength, color of light
o Amount of particulate material- turbidity- in water
Blue light reaches deepest part of the ocean (max. depth 200m)
Red light least, absorbed by surface water (10m)
o Species below 10m receive green and blue
o Chlorophylls a and b, and carotene absorb little green light- problem
o Red, brown algae are adapted to hue in these depths, possessing accessory
pigments (xanthophyll and phycobilins)
o Phycobilins are bound to proteins, forming protein-pigment complexes
(phycobiliproteins)
Two main types: Phycoerythrin and Phycocyanin
o Accessory pigments enable red/brown algae to absorb light from the
yellow/green areas
o Increases rate of photosynthesis in depths with no red light
o Red and brown algae with these pigments compete and survive better at these
depths that green algae (lack these pigments)
Turbidity
Large amounts of sediment, particles , living organisms (phytoplankton) reduce light
penetration
Cloudiness/clarity of water (turbidity)
Estuarine and coastal water has greater turbidity
o Less light penetrating lower depths
o Light penetration measured by using a Secchi dish attached to a rope
o Disk lowered into water until no longer visible- length of rope recorded
o Disc raised and length of rope measured once visible
o Average distance
Productivity and Depth of Water
Three distinct zones in waters that relate to the depth of light penetration and
productivity
o Euphotic Zone: upper layer of water- high light penetration
Extend to 200m in clear water/ 5m in turbid water
Producers photosynthesize well/effectively
o Disphotic Zone: below euphotic zone, “twilight zone”
No producers here
Some blue light but at a low intensity; ranges from 15m in highly turbid
water to 1000m in clear water
o Aphotic Zone: below disphotic zone, less than one percent surface light reaches
No producers use photosynthesis for primary producers
Respiration- C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O
Photosynthesis builds up glucose, which has energy from the sunlight locked in
o Glucose converted into other compounds (starch, proteins), used for storage,
growth
Respiration releases energy in glucose by oxidation
Gross primary productivity: amount of light/chemical energy fixed by producers in a
given length of time in a given area (GPP)
o Not all available for growth; plant has to use some of the glucose in respiration
(R) to release energy for active processes
Net Primary Productivity (NPP): amount of energy that is left over after respiration to be
made into new plant biomass
o NPP= GPP – (R)
If a producer is to grow, photosynthesis (P) rates must exceed (R)
o In euphotic zone, light intensity is sufficient to enable (P) rates to be greater than
(R) rates NPP has positive value
o In disphotic zone, (P) rates are lower, NPP value is negative
Producers unable to grow
o If rates of (P) and (R) are equal, the producer is said to be at a compensation
point; there is no net production of glucose
o During summer, there may be days when (P) rates exceed (R), but overall, (R) is
higher
8.3 Factors Affecting the Rate of Photosynthesis and Law of Limiting Factors
External factors that affect photosynthesis rates:
o Light intensity, light wavelength, temperature, CO2 concentration
These all are abiotic factors (affect distribution of marine producers)
To maximize photosynthesis, plants must be exposed to:
o Sufficient light intensity, appropriate wavelengths, warm temperatures, and
sufficient CO2 and H2O
Limiting factors: the factors that are in the least supply restrict photosynthesis rates
Light Intensity
Provides energy
More light energy available more energy to make glucose
Light energy absorbed by chlorophyll used to combine CO2 with H2O to make sugars
Higher light intensity faster rate of photosynthesis
o Measured by increasing rate of O2 levels
Light Wavelength
Depends on pigments present in producers
Most can’t absorb green pigments
Many contain accessory pigments (phycoerythin, phycocyanin, xanthophyll) absorb
additional light wavelengths
Temperature
CO2 and H2O molecules combined by actions of enzymes
Move constantly and in random directions react when collide
As temperature increases, kinetic energy (movement) increases, move faster collide
more photosynthesis increases
Temperature too high, enzymes denature reaction slows to almost zero
Denaturation: loss of shape of enzymes, resulting in a loss of activity, usually the result
of heating to a high temperature
CO2 and H2O Concentrations
Essential raw materials
If in short supply, photosynthesis rates decrease
If concentration increase collide more with enzymes in photosynthesis
photosynthesis rate increases
o H2O not limiting factor- rarely in short supply
Measure effects of factors on photosynthesis by measuring rate of productivity of
oxygen by aquatic plants (Cabomba)
8.4 Adaptations of Different Primary Producers
Primary producers in world’s seas and oceans come from taxonomic groups (plants,
protoctists, and prokaryotes)
Different water has different producers- specialized for specific habitats
Main factor that affects producers- access to light evolved adaptations to maximize
Three different areas with different types of producers
o Open ocean, shallow waters near coastline, and intertidal zones/littoral zones-
land meets sea (all of these require different specialization)
Open Ocean: poses problems for most producers
o Photosynthesis can only occur down to a depth of 200 m (not on deep sea beds)
o Producers unable to attach to a substrate, restricted to photic zone where light
penetration is sufficient and CO2 dissolution from air is high
o Producers in open ocean must survive in shifting water currents
Several producers found:
Phytoplankton:
o Most are free-floating in surface water (light intensity is
highest)
o No need for substrate- carried with ocean currents
o Several groups of phytoplankton exist (different
adaptations and niches)
Diatoms: unicellular phytoplankton found in
oceanic surface water
100+ different genera; all have intricate
silica cell walls (beautiful designs)
Reproduce rapidly in optimal conditions
(blooms in Spring)
Light intensity and temperature increase
and upwelling of mineral ions in surface
water occurs
Blooms appear and disappear because of
consumption by planktonic crustaceans/krill
and depletion of mineral ions
Important in removing CO2 from
atmosphere and base of food webs
Dinoflagellates: unicellular protoctists without silica
cell wall
Live in upper surface water in oceans,
undergo rapid reproduction and produce
algal blooms in optimal conditions
Blooms of some species produce toxins
poison fish and accumulate in shellfish
(harmful algal blooms- HABs)
Eating contaminated shellfish poisoning
HABs include red tides areas of ocean
turn red
Pollution caused by fertilizer run-off from
fields is source of many blooms
Farming more intense increase in HABs
Some bioluminescent- seen at night/on
coast
o Defense mechanism
Attracts large predators into
area consume
dinoflagellate’s predators
Cyanobacteria: photosynthetic bacteria (one of
earth’s earliest known life forms)
Found almost everywhere- one of most
successful bacteria
When they evolved increase in O2 levels
of planet’s atmosphere aerobic life
evolved
Filamentous organisms- found in surface
waters
Undergo rapid reproduction in optimal
conditions produce blooms
Some produce harmful cyanotoxins
(BMAA), an altered amino acid (possible
cause of neurological diseases)- Alzheimer’s
Blooms associated with high pollution levels
(fertilizers, organic waste)
Sargassum
o Genus of brown macroalgae (seaweed)
o Species distributed throughout temperate and tropical
oceans
o Generally inhabit shallow water and coral reefs
o Genus known for planktonic (free-floating species)
o Species that usually attach to substrates can survive free-
floating in rough weather
o S. natans and S. fluitans free-float entire cycle
Thought that S. natans grows during Spring in NW
Gulf of Mexico and transported in Atlantic by
strong currents occurs in drifts
Florida Keys and smaller islands are well-known for
high levels of Sargassum- covers shores
o Those found in ocean form long floating mats
o Have no roots, composed of tough, flexible fibers that
resist wave pounding
o Have air bladders, (pneumatocysts) help them stay afloat
o Provide a food source and serve as a shelter for rich
diversity of marine life, including turtles, puffer fish,
crustaceans, camouflaged S. fish
Shallow Water: in clear coasts, light penetrates the seabed so producers are able to
attach to substrates and photosynthesize
o Fixed to seabed to prevent being washed away by waves/currents
o Several species possess adaptations to survive:
Zooxanthellae: are dinoflagellate protoctistans found growing inside
other marine organisms (coral polyps, giant clams, jellyfish, sea
anemones)
Enter host cells by process (endocytosis)- transferred from
parents during reproduction and remain there in a mutualistic
relationship
Photosynthesize and release glucose and amino acids into coral
cells and coral provides CO2 and minerals
Many hosts live where there is no R light zooxanthellae contain
accessory pigments (perididin, diadinoxanthin, chlorophylls)
Able to max. absorption of add. Light w.
Z. may be found as free-living dino. taken up by coral polyps
Coral life: coral stressed Z expelled (coral bleaching) caused by
global warming; pollution
After bleaching, coral recognized by different two species
o Coral can be colonized by different two species (changing
coral)
Seagrass different than seaweed
Green, flowering plants that grow on seabed in shallows- look like
underwater meadows
60 different species- restricted to photic zone
Photosynthesize like terrestrial flowers
Play important roles in coastal areas- act as O2 producers and P.P.
for food webs
Food source for turtles/manatees
Habitat for fish/crustaceans
Many adaptations:
o Well-developed root system
o Anchors seagrass into seabed
o Cells able to exist in salt water without losing water by
osmosis
o Leaf cells able to obtain mineral ions directly from water
o Reproduce sexually and a-sexually
Thalassia testudinum- well known species (turtle grass)
Kelp Forests- giant brown macroalgae that grow as underwater forests
o Require nutrient-rich water and temperature between 8-16 degrees Celsius
o Conditions optimal high growth rate
o Base of food webs increase biodiversity
o Stabilize and create habitats and shelters
o Some species have pneumatocysts- gas-filled bladders that provide buoyancy for
species of seaweed- act as floatation devices
o Contain accessory pigments because they live at depths where exposure to red
light decreases
Intertidal Zones: (littoral zones) area of coastline that is underwater at high tide but
exposed at low tide
o Producers here overcome difficulties:
Exposure to air creates problem of desiccation and risk of freezing
Submersion in H2O reduces light exposure
Tidal movements erosion and risk of being washed away
o Vast diversity of green, brown, and red algae found here
o Rocky shores have more algae than sandy shores
o Majority are brown algae- Xanthrophyll- helps them survive with little red light
o Red algae found decreases absorb green light
o Few green algae, found increase in parts of shore
o Fucus spiralis- brown algae in middle of intertidal zone
o Chondracanthus exasperates- red algae that grows low down on beach- most
time submerged up to 20m in depth
o Ulva lactuca- green algae found throughout shoreline