Running Head: EPISTEOLOGIES OF RACE AND EDUCATION IN AMERICA 1

Epistemologies of Race and Education in America

Danielle S. Hindieh

Long Island University

Over the last sixty years talk about racism in the United States has focused

around both the legal and educational implications of the racial divides existent

within the country. Scholars have, over the past several decades shown that not

only does racism still exist in all its aspects, buts it has further become manifest into

nearly ever aspect of society. Education is one particularly edified sphere that has

been severely impacted by the polarized race culture in this country. According to

Noddings and Brooks (2017), “our schools today… are more segregated than they

were 40 years ago” (p. 55).

In this paper I aim to propose that the only true way to make schools equal is

to first acknowledge the inherent inequalities that exist as a result of race, and

further, to recognize the importance of including black history and culture within

mainstream curriculums; black history should not be confined to a one-month

celebration each year.

The first part of the following paper will focus on the history of racism in

America. This paper will discuss the development of categories of race in America as

well as document the fight for equality that lead to two key developments: the

Critical Legal Studies movement (CLT) and Critical Race Theory which was

predicated upon the progress of the CLT movement.

The second part of the paper will focus on the roles race and racism play in

education. The paper will discuss the inherent inequalities that exist between

Caucasian students and students of color. Current curriculums and their inclusion

and or exclusion of black history will also be discussed.

The last part of the paper will focus on the current situation found in public

schools across New York State. This part of the paper will include anecdotes from

my own teaching career as well as that of my peers who teach throughout the state.

Lastly it will include ideas on actions all educators can take to correct these

inequalities in their own classrooms. While widespread injustices cannot be

corrected unless actions are taken from those in positions of power, teachers can

make differences for the children within their own classes.

In order to discuss the history of racism in America we must first discuss

what determines race in this country. US Census forms have fluctuated in terms of

the races they include since their inception in 1790. However a constant has always

been the races of Black and White. This shows two polar opposites. More

importantly, it shows what White is not. The question still remains, how is this

designation determined? Early census data had Mexicans classified as white. Even

to this day many people from the different parts of Asia and the Middle East are

classified as White even though they’re darker skinned than many Black people.

Conversely some immigrants to the US brought forth lawsuits in the courts to be

considered White. This fact is interesting because these immigrants presuppose an

attainment of “benefits” of as result of being declared White.

The Critical Legal Studies movement started in the 1970s. This movement

was made up of legal scholars who had been law students during the early 60s and

70s. Those are the same people who had protest during the civil rights movement

and Vietnam. The CLS movement sought to see why the system was so stacked

against those without power. The Legal system and the laws in the country (as
EPISTEOLOGIES OF RACE AND EDUCATION IN AMERICA 4

proposed by the scholars in this movement) were inherently unequal and favored

only those with positions of power. This movement held annual conferences from

1977-1992. Legal scholars were all in agreement that Race was a serious problem

in the United States. They also were frustrated with the slow process of the legal

system in making things equitable. While a lot of excellent dialogue about how the

justice system was unequal came out of the movement, no real solutions as to how

to fix ever came about. (Harvard [Link])

Critical Race Theory focuses on how racism is “normal not aberrant in

American society and because it is so enmeshed in the fabric of our social order, It

appears both normal ad natural to people in this culture” (Ladson-Billings, 2016, p.

18). Racism occurs across every corner of this country on a daily basis. Most times

it either goes unnoticed or unchallenged as people find it easier just to sit quiet and

say nothing. Gloria Ladson-Billings argues that “our conceptions of race, even in a

postmodern and or postcolonial world, are more embedded and fixed than in a

previous age” (p.16) These fixed notions have allowed concepts of school

achievement, middle classness, beauty, etc. to be associated with being White while

concepts of gangs, basketball players and welfare, are associated with being Black.

Critical Race Theory is an important tool for analyzing these epistemologies and

others related to racist oppression in America. Race is present in every facet of our

lives. CRT outlines why race still matters in society and why it is essential to study it

instead of pretending as if its presence in society is inconsequential.

One particularly famous/infamous Critical Race Theorists was Lani Guinier a

law professor from the University of Pennsylvania. In the 90s she asserted that the
EPISTEOLOGIES OF RACE AND EDUCATION IN AMERICA 5

only way to bring about fair social change for minorities was through voting. She

thought that in areas where minorities were underrepresented their votes should

be weighted to count more than votes of others from the same area. She first saw an

application for this in post-apartheid South Africa where Whites were now the clear

minority. When this was proposed for South Africa no one in the States objected.

She next suggested this idea could be beneficial in the US with African American

voters. While to many academics this line of thinking is considered normal, (as

academics of her stature are expected to write such “cutting edge” work), she was

crucified in the media as being opposed to the American tradition of “one person,

one vote” (Ladson-Billings, 2016, p. 17).

Today many Blacks often argue that they shouldn’t have to assimilate into

White culture. Black culture has never been part of the mainstream culture in the

US. It has always been an alternative. Consequences of this have led to situations

like White flight, causing whites to abandon neighborhoods as soon as black families

moved in. On the surface foreigners talk about the American culture. If one takes a

closer look at America however, they will see how more than one culture exists but

it’s the White culture that is held as the societal standard for all to strive to attain.

According to Noddings and Brooks (2017), “The history of black education

should be part of the education of all Americans” (p. 58). Notions of important dates

in black history should not be studied in passing during a once yearly month long

celebration. Television stations will say ABC 7 celebrates Black History Month.

What about White History Month? The absence of such insinuates that White

history is the history and all other forms of history are asides and not part of the
EPISTEOLOGIES OF RACE AND EDUCATION IN AMERICA 6

mainstream curriculum. Educators should be asking themselves why Black history

is not taught as part of the history of America in schools? Why is the study of

Slavery focused on who started it, what years it existed and who ended it, rather

than what significant contributions slaves made to the development and success of

the Untied States as a world power?

When studying black history and education in America a study of Historically

Black Colleges should be done. Students of all races should understand their

significance to higher education in America. Students should also study scientists

such as Ernest Everett Just (1883-1941). He was a biologist who became the only

black student in his graduating class at Kimball Union Academy. He also graduated

magna cum laude from Dartmouth College. Before the age of 30 he was able to

attain a PhD from the University of Chicago. He also ran Howard Medical College.

Even with all of these impressive credentials he was discouraged from applying for

teaching jobs at schools other than Historically Black Colleges (Noddings and

Brooks, 2017, p. 59).

To fully understand the implications race play on the education of minorities

in this country we must take a look into some classrooms across New York State. I

will detail some of the struggles facing both students and teachers in the classroom.

I will also propose solutions for the system as whole going forward. In a second

grade classroom in the Murray Hill neighborhood of New York City, a teacher is

talking to a colleague about her new class of students for the year. She comments on

how student x is her ‘one’ black student, as if he is the token black student in the

classroom. Although she says token is not what she meant, in describing him as that
EPISTEOLOGIES OF RACE AND EDUCATION IN AMERICA 7

one black student, she has inadvertently conveyed that meaning. Without realizing

it, that teacher is already making assumptions about the student and their

education. This isn’t to say that the teacher is racist, in fact quite the opposite. She

is just restating long held beliefs about the structure of the educational system in

this country. She teaches in one of the richest zip codes in America and knows that

to have a class full of minority students is not likely.

In the New York City Neighborhood of Washington Heights another teacher

is analyzing her new student roster. She sees that her class in full of minority

students. Unlike the teacher in Murray Hill, she would actually be shocked to see a

white student in her class. She also would be shocked if all of her students came in

everyday wearing appropriate clothing as in the past she has bought sneakers for

students who parents couldn’t afford to buy the student a pair that fit. The teacher

also worries about what to do when her students are thirsty during the day as she

has just been notified that schools pipes were found to have lead in them and the

water is not potable. This contrasts sharply to the Murray Hill teacher who wonders

where she will put all the fancy reusable water bottles the children bring every day,

and how they are going to retrieve them during the day might be a disruption to the

flow of learning in her room. Maybe she’ll have them only use them at lunch and

have them drink from the classroom’s own water fountain during the day.

Both of those classrooms were in the New York City school system, same city,

even the same borough. But both of those classrooms were not in any way equal.

One school was in disrepair with pipes so corroded and filled with lead, students

couldn’t drink from them. It was also filled with minority students and any White
EPISTEOLOGIES OF RACE AND EDUCATION IN AMERICA 8

students in the building would have been considered outliers. The other was filled

with White students and was a new building filled to the brim with every modern

amenity including classrooms that had central HVAC and water views.

Moving to the suburbs you get an equally stark view of schools. Roslyn High

School is consistently ranked as one of the top public high schools in the state with

0% of their students economically disadvantaged. The high school boasts electron

microscopes in its biology classes and an AP participation rate of 76%. Their

passing rate for the AP exam is also at a high of 91%. The town of Roslyn is also

located on the beautiful Gold Coast of Long Island. It is a beautiful area, where

private security vehicles patrol the town 24 hours a day.

Moving less than 5 miles away to Hempstead High School the scene is quite

different. More than 62% of students are economically disadvantaged. Additionally

only 3% of students take AP courses with less than 1% of those students passing the

AP exams. The neighborhood is also very dangerous with a high crime rate. In fact

the high schools has metal detectors at its main school entrance. The United States

constitution guarantees students a free and appropriate public school education.

While this education maybe ‘free’ there is nothing appropriate about it.

Why is it that schools within the same city or the same county are so

unequal? How can anyone argue that the schools in Hempstead and Washington

Heights are providing the ‘appropriate’ education the constitution demands? When

will parents and educators take a stand against the injustice?

Knowing all these inequities exist you may ask yourself what can be done?

How can these schools be turned around and we make sure every child is given a
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decent education? The answers lie in educators, and ordinary citizens who take a

stand and say enough is enough. It is lobbying for politicians to pass measures that

enact real and lasting changes. Its telling the school boards and Chancellors that you

won’t stand for this inequity and making sure they are held to a higher standard.

One voice can make a difference because if everyone says my voice matters than all

those voice together can bring about change.

None of this will happen however if we first don’t have an open and honest

dialogue about race in this country. When searching for information about

neighborhood schools and district performance why is racial makeup so often one of

he first things highlighted on every site? Why should the racial makeup even

matter?

Schools need to be equipped with proper tools and language so that they can

use them to unpack race. This will allow them to have an open and honest

discussion about it. Having these open discussions will demystify race and

eliminate the controversy that surrounds it. Race should not be a controversial

topic; instead it should be a required topic of study at the very least in high school

social studies curriculums. Dialogue is what will allow the next generation to make

real and lasting change. You can’t change what you know so little about. The more

you talk about it, the more you will empower the next generation with the tools

necessary for the changes to begin.

References

1. Gillborn, D., & Ladson-Billings, G. (2016). Foundations of critical race theory in

2. Project, T. B. (n.d.). Critical Legal Studies Movement. Retrieved December 10,

3. Noddings, N., & Brooks, L. (2017). Teaching controversial issues: the case for
critical thinking and moral commitment in the classroom. New York: Teachers
College Press.