MODULE 2
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Unit Structure:
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Concept of Human Development
1.4 Factors of Development
1.5 Principles of Development
1.6 Periods of Development
1.7 Test
1.1 OBJECTIVES:
When you finished studying this module, you should be able to:
1. Define developmental psychology;
2. Explain the cross-sectional and longitudinal research methods, including potential
problems;
3. Name and describe the three (3) periods of prenatal development;
4. Explain cephalocaudal, and proximodistal development;
5. Describe the aspects of adolescent physical development: puberty, growth spurt,
menarche, spermarche, and secondary sex characteristics;
6. Describe the aspects of adult physical development: menopause, male climactic,
primary aging, and secondary aging;
7. Describe Piaget’ view of cognitive development, including a description of cognitive
structure (schemes), and cognitive functions (organization, adaptation, assimilation,
and accommodation); and
8. Name and describe the major characteristics of the four (4) stages of cognitive
development proposed by Piaget.
1.2 INTRODUCTION:
Throughout life, we experience change in our behavior, feelings, attitudes, thoughts,
values, and so forth. Many of these are highly individual, a dramatic response to unusual life
events or a simple unfolding of our unique characteristics. Nonetheless, there are regular and
predictable physical, mental, and social changes that most people undergo in some way. Part of
our life is determined by our biological heritage (nature) while part is due to environment
(nurture). The interplay of these follows certain patterns that have been studied by developmental
psychologists. We will examine the major the major changes in each stage of development.
Developmental psychologists use two approaches in the study human development. One
approach is to study it by age and other, by stage.
1.3 CONCEPT OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Definition of Development:
Development is a sequence of age-related changes that occur s a person progresses from
conception to death. We go through different types of changes:
Physical development – motor skills, bone structure, weight, etc.
Cognitive development – thought, patterns and skills, problem-solving, etc.
Social development – emotional changes, personality, etc.
To understand this concept better, let us distinguish this concept with growth. Growth
refers to the quantitative or measurable changes like changes in height, weight and body
proportions while development to qualitative is the progressive series of change like the
improvement of motor skills.
1.4 FACTORS OF DEVELOPMENT
Development is caused by two interacting factors namely: heredity and environment.
Heredity is the transmission of traits from parents to offspring through genes. Heredity brings
about development through the process of maturation, which is the unfolding of the hereditary
potentials. Environment, on the other, includes all the forces that affect or influence man.
Learning is the other process of development that occurs through the medium of the
environment.
A. MECHANICS OF HEREDITY
We all start life as single cell formed by the:
a) Fertilization of the female reproductive cell, the ovum or egg, by the male
reproductive cell, the spermatozoon. The fertilized cell, which is known as the
zygote, contains all the hereditary potentials, which will later develop onto traits. We
cannot add to, nor subtract from, these potentials, among which are physical and
mental traits. At fertilization when the 23 chromosomes in the mature sperm unite
with the 23 in the mature ovum, the complete number of chromosomes is re-
established.
b) Duplication / Division (mitosis) takes place. Each of the 46 chromosomes divides
into two, and so does the cell matter outside the nucleus, producing two new cells,
which are exact copies of each other. The resulting cells continue to duplicate
themselves, the duplication taking place 24 times until the final number of body cells
is attained. Chromosomes play an important role in heredity. They are ropelike
structures on the nucleus of the cell, which contains the genes, the true determiners of
hereditary traits. There are two types of chromosomes: the autosomes or traits
chromosomes and the gonosomes or sex chromosomes.
B. PRINCIPLES OF HEREDITY
There are certain principles that govern heredity. (1) Principle of Reproduction which
states that “like begets like”. Heredity produces similarities among those who come from the
same family, same race, and same species. (2) Principle of Variation states that “no two
individuals are exactly alike.” Heredity produces not only similarities but also differences among
those who come from different families, different races and different species. (3) Principle of
Chance the combination of genes that go into the single cell which result from fertilization is a
matter of chance. (4) Dominance and Recessiveness some traits are assured of appearing in the
offspring whenever they are present. These are the dominant traits. Other traits do not appear in
the offspring whenever the opposite trait is present; they manifest themselves only in the absence
of the dominant traits that is when they are carried by both parents. These are known as recessive
traits. (5) Principles of Sex-Linked Characteristics these are traits that are carried by the
chromosomes, which determine sex chromosomes) and, therefore, are found only in one sex. The
tendency towards hemophilia and baldness, are sex-linked characteristics – they are inherited
only by the male offspring.
C. DETERMINING SEX (MALE / FEMALE)
The sex of the offspring is determined at fertilization by the sex chromosomes of his
parents. Chromosomes are of two kinds, an X-chromosome and a Y-chromosome. All mature
ova carry X-chromosomes; half of the mature spermatozoa carry X-chromosomes and the other
half, Y-chromosomes. XY chromosome yields a male offspring while XX chromosome yields a
female child.
D. HEREDITARY CHARACTERISTICS
1. PHYSICAL TRAITS – the appearance in general. Physical defects are characteristics
like harelip, cleft-palate, and stub-finger. Physical diseases are predisposition to
tuberculosis, asthma, and hypertension.
2. MENTAL TRAITS – examples are I.Q. level, some cases of mental retardation, and
predisposition to mental disorder.
3. SPECIAL TALENTS / ABILITIES – like artistic, literary, athletic, musical, and
numerical talents.
E. MULTIPLE BIRTHS
Human babies usually are born into this world. They are exceptions like twins, triplets,
quadruplets, and so on which fascinates some of us.
Two basic mechanisms account for multiple births. Identical or monozygotic twins arise
when one egg cell/ovum divides into two after being fertilized by one sperm. Those have exactly
the same genetic constitution, thus, they always have the same sex. Non-identical/fraternal or
dizygotic twins arise from two eggs/ova which are fertilized by different sperms. They are no
longer the same in their genetic make-up, thus, they maybe of the same or different sexes.
Multiple births are more than two infants arise from one or a combination of this pattern.
F. GENETIC / BIOLOGICAL ENGINEERING
Techniques for achieving conception are now made possible from new means of creating
a human life unlike before when life begins in the same manner for everyone.
1. Vitro Fertilization – an ovum is extracted from the mother’s ovary and, then, the
ovum is allowed to mature in an incubator and fertilized with a few drops of the
father’s sperms. After the fertilized egg (zygote) had divided into eight cells, this
implanted in the mother’s uterus where it grows in a normal way.
2. Artificial Insemination by a Doctor (AID) – the woman is inseminated with the
sperm of a donor who is usually anonymous, because her husband is infertile. The
anonymous donor’s traits are usually matched with the racial traits of the father.
3. Surrogate motherhood – when the man is fertile and the woman is not, in such
case another woman may be inseminated with the sperm of the father, conceive
the child until delivery and then twin the baby to him and his wife. The surrogate
is usually matched with the characteristics of the adoptive mother.
4. Cloning / Mapping – involves the process of creating identical copy or mirror
image of an original. In the biological sense a clone refers to a single cell 0r
multi-cellular organism which is usually genetically identical to another organism.
At times, it is called “natural clones” which result when an organism reproduces a
sexually or when two genetically identical individual are born by accident (like
identical twins) but in common parlance, a clone is an identical copy of the
original by means of some conscious design.
1.5 PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT
1. Development is orderly and follows a sequential pattern which is predictable.
The stages we go through from birth to death are always in the same order. They
have never occurred in reverse.
2. Development is the product of the interaction of maturation and learning.
Maturation is a process through which hereditary traits “unfold” at an appointed
time as the individual grows older.
3. Development proceeds by stages. There are definite stages of development and
each stage has its own characteristics, features, which distinguish it from another
stage.
1.6 PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT
A. PRE-NATAL PERIOD
Human development begins with conception, the fertilization of an egg by a sperm. Over the
next nine months, astounding advances in physical growth occur. The fertilized egg becomes
a complex newborn capable of surviving (with assistance) outside of the womb. The prenatal
months are not only a time of dramatic developmental changes, but also the most hazardous
of the life course. The nine months of prenatal development are usually divided into three
stages. These are:
1. Germinal Period or “period of ovum” which lasts from conception until day 14, the
fertilized egg, called a zygote, undergoes rapid cell division and growth. At the same
time, its cells begin to differentiate and cluster to assume specialized roles. Another
significant achievement of the germinal stage is implantation of the cell mass, now
called the blastocyst.
2. Embryonic Period lasts from day 14 through the eighth week. During this time,
major structures and organ systems begin to form.
3. Fetal Period from the ninth week until birth, major organs grow i9n size and
complexity, the muscular and nervous systems, develop and the sex organs form.
Birth has nearly as many dangers as the embryonic stage, mostly from
infections and anoxia. Anoxia means “no oxygen,” and can be due to a
number of situations: if something prevents from the exchange of blood from
mother to child prior to the baby breathing on its own, the lack of oxygen
quickly begins to take its toll, especially on the brain. This is called cord
strangulation, and it can be caused by the cord being pressed between the
baby’s head and the mother’s pelvis. A breech birth, which involves the
baby’s buttocks going first instead of its head, can slow the birth process. And
premature separation of the placenta from the mother’s uterus can cause
anoxia as well. Sometimes, it is necessary to perform a Caesarian section (or
C – section) when such problems arise, in order to get the baby out more
quickly.
B. INFANCY PERIOD AND BABYHOOD
This period starts from birth to weeks while babyhood starts from the second week to about 2
years of age.
C. CHILDHOOD PERIOD
Childhood period is divided into early childhood and late childhood. Early childhood is
characterized by curiosity and questioning, aggression and negativism; while late childhood
is labeled as smart stage because children at this stage seem to know just about everything
when they talk.
D. ADOLESCENT PERIOD
The term adolescence comes from the Latin “adolescere” which means, to grow to
maturity”. It is the transformation from childhood to adulthood. The period begins with
puberty and ends with maturity.
This period is sometimes called “the period of storm and stress” because there are increased
glandular or hormonal secretions in their systems that affect the behavioral responses of these
adolescent individuals and this may take them impulsive.
Adolescence is a period critical to the formation of identity and self-concept. Adolescents
begin to have the cognitive skills to view themselves in more abstract and idealized ways.
Adolescents are often exposed to a greater variety of people and social situations. The
adolescent needs to begin to establish an identity independent of parental identity and
expectations (though not necessarily in contrast to these.)
E. ADULTHOOD PERIOD
Erik Erikson made an important contribution by identifying the essential concerns of
adulthood and by showing that development is a lifelong process. However, adult stages are
not universal and psychological issues or crises are not confined to particular chronological
periods. Because of the variety of experiences, situations, cultural and historical influences,
and personality traits that influence adults, modern theories do not regard adults as moving
through stages.
Adults often evaluate their development according to a social clock that determines whether
they are “no time” or “off time” for a particular event. When most people in an age group go
through the same event at about the same time, transitions are easier that people are “out of
step”. By adulthood, age no longer neatly predicts a person’s life experience and traits. Yet in
some ways our bodies, minds, and relationships still undergo predictable changes. As long as
we live, we adapt.
F. OLD AGE PERIOD
Gerontologists have revised our ideas about old age, now that people are living longer and
healthier lives. The speed of cognitive processing slows down and intelligence parallels other
biological capacities in its eventual decline.
In his classis developmental model, Erik Erikson characterized the final stage of human
development as a tension between “ego integrity and despair.”
G.
1.7 TEST
I. IDENTIFICATION:
____________________1. The woman is inseminated with the sperm of a donor who
is usually anonymous, because her husband is infertile
____________________2. Also known as “period of ovum” which lasts from
conception until day 14, the fertilized egg, called a zygote, undergoes rapid cell
division and growth.
____________________3. This states that “no two individuals are exactly alike.”
____________________4. This is a sequence of age-related changes that occur s a
person progresses from conception to death.
____________________5. This arises when one egg cell/ovum divides into two after
being fertilized by one sperm.
____________________6. This means “no oxygen,” and can be due to a number of
situations.
____________________7. This is a period critical to the formation of identity and
self-concept.
____________________8. In this stage the speed of cognitive processing slows down
and intelligence parallels other biological capacities in its eventual decline.
____________________9. This refers to the quantitative or measurable changes like
changes in height, weight and body proportions while development to qualitative is
the progressive series of change like the improvement of motor skills.
____________________10. This includes all the forces that affect or influence man.
II. ESSAY: Limit your answer to 10 sentences each item.
1. What are the stages or periods of development? Explain each.
2. In what stage or period are you now? Describe the changes you have dealt while
growing up. (Physical, emotional, mental, intellectual and social changes)