Manufacturing Process of Salt

Salt is the common name for the substance sodium chloride (NaCI), which occurs in the form of
transparent cubic crystals. Although salt is most familiar as a food supplement, less than 5% of
the salt produced in the United States is used for that purpose. About 70% is used in the chemical
industry, mostly as a source of chlorine. Salt is also used for countless other purposes, such as
removing snow and ice from roads, softening water, preserving food, and stabilizing soils for
construction.

The earliest humans obtained their salt from natural salt concentrations, called licks, and from
meat. Those people who lived near the ocean may have also obtained it by chewing seaweed or
from the natural evaporation of small pools of seawater. Meat became a more important source
of salt as hunting was developed, as did milk when sheep, goats, horses, camels, reindeer, and
cattle were domesticated. Even today, certain peoples—such as the Inuit of the far north, the
Bedouin of the Middle Eastern deserts, and the Masai of east Africa—use no other form of salt.

As agriculture developed, leading to an increased population and a diet consisting mostly of

plants, it became necessary to devise ways of obtaining salt in greater amounts. The earliest
method of salt production was the evaporation of seawater by the heat of the sun. This method
was particularly suited to hot, arid regions near the ocean or near salty lakes and is still used in
those areas. Solar evaporation was soon followed by the quarrying of exposed masses of rock
salt, which quickly developed into the mining of underground deposits of salt. Two thousand
years ago the Chinese began using wells to reach underground pools of salt water, some of which
were more than 0.6 miles (1.0 km) deep.

In areas where the climate did not allow solar evaporation, salt water was poured on burning
wood or heated rocks to boil it. The salt left behind was then scraped off. During the time of the
Roman empire, shallow lead pans were used to boil salt water over open fires. In the Middle
Ages these were replaced with iron pans which were heated with coal. In the 1860s a procedure
known as the Michigan process or the grainer process was invented, in which salt water was
heated by steam running through pipes immersed in the water. This process is still used to
produce certain types of salt. By the late 1880s open pans were replaced by a series of closed
pans, in a device known as a multiple-effect vacuum evaporator, which had been used in the
sugar industry for about 50 years.

Today the United States is the world's largest producer of salt, followed by China, Russia,
Germany, the United Kingdom, India, and France.

Raw Materials
Salt is obtained from two sources: rock salt and brine. Rock salt is simply crystallized salt, also
known as halite. It is the result of the evaporation of ancient oceans millions of years ago. Large
deposits of rock salt are found in the United States, Canada, Germany, eastern Europe, and
China. Sometimes pressure from deep inside the Earth forces up large masses of rock salt to
form salt domes. In the United States, salt domes are found along the Gulf Coast of Texas and
Louisiana.

Brine is water containing a high concentration of salt. The most obvious source of brine is the
ocean, but it can also be obtained from salty lakes such as the Dead Sea and from underground
pools of salt water. Large deposits of brine are found in Austria, France, Germany, India, the
United States, and the United Kingdom. Brine may also be artificially produced by dissolving
mined rock salt or by pumping water into wells drilled into rock salt.

Natural brines always contain other substances dissolved along with salt. The most' common of
these are magnesium chloride, magnesium sulfate, calcium sulfate, potassium chloride,
magnesium bromide, and calcium carbonate. These substances may be as commercially valuable
as the salt itself. Rock salt may be quite pure, or it may contain various amounts of these
substances along with rocky impurities such as shale and quartz.

For table salt, however, additives are usually mixed in. Most table salt is iodized in order to
provide the trace element iodine to the diet. This helps to prevent goiter, a disease of the thyroid
gland. To supply iodine, a small amount of potassium iodide is added. Table salt also contains a
small amount of various chemicals used to keep the salt from absorbing water and caking. These
chemicals include magnesium carbonate, calcium silicate, calcium phosphate, magnesium
silicate, and calcium carbonate.

The Manufacturing
Process
Processing rock salt

 1 Underground salt deposits are usually discovered by prospectors searching for water or
oil. When salt is detected, a diamond-tipped, hollow drill is used to take several regularly
spaced core samples throughout the area. These samples are analyzed to determine if salt
mining would be profitable.
 2 When a site is selected for mining, shafts are sunk into the center of the salt deposit.
Then a machine that looks like a gigantic chain saw is used to cut a slot about 6.0 inches
(15 cm) high, about 66 feet (20 m) wide, and about 10 feet (3 m) deep into the salt at
floor level. This process is known as undercutting. A series of holes are drilled into the
undercut salt with an electric drill containing a tungsten carbide bit. These holes are filled
with an explosive such as dynamite or ammonium nitrate. Electric blasting caps
connected to long wires are attached, and the explosive is detonated from a safe distance.
Cutting and blasting are repeated in a pattern that leaves pillars of salt standing to support
the roof of the mining area. This is known as the room-and-pillar method and is also used
in coal mines.
 3 Chunks of blasted rock salt are transported to an underground crushing area. Here they
are passed over a grating known as a grizzly which collects pieces smaller than about 9
inches (23 cm). Larger pieces are crushed in a rotating cylinder between metal jaws with
spiked teeth. The salt is then transported outside the mine to a secondary crushing area
 where a smaller grizzly and a smaller crusher reduce the particle size to about 3.2 inches
(8 cm). At this point foreign matter is removed from the salt, a process known as picking.
Metal is removed by magnets and other material by hand. Rocky material may also be
removed in a Bradford breaker, a rotating metal drum with small holes in the bottom. Salt
is dumped into the drum, breaks when it hits the bottom, and passes through the holes.
Rocky matter is generally harder than salt, so it does not break and does not go through.
The picked salt then goes to a tertiary crushing area, where an even smaller grizzly and
crusher produce particles about 1.0 inch (2.5 cm) in size. If smaller particles are needed,
the salt is passed through a grinder consisting of two metal cylinders rolling against each
other. If purer salt is needed, rock salt is dissolved in water to form brine for further
processing. Otherwise the crushed or ground salt is passed through screens to sort it by
size, poured into bags, and shipped to the consumer.

Processing brine

 4 The simplest method of evaporating brine is solar evaporation, but it can only

Rock salt is simply crystallized salt. It is the result of the evaporation of ancient oceans
millions of years ago. Large deposits of rock salt are found in the United States, Canada,
Germany, eastern Europe, and China.

be used in hot, dry, sunny places. The brine is collected into shallow ponds and allowed
to evaporate in the sun. Insoluble impurities such as sand and clay and slightly soluble
impurities such as calcium carbonate settle to the bottom as evaporation begins. The brine
 is pumped or moved by gravity flow to another pond where calcium sulfate settles out as
evaporation continues. The remaining brine is moved to yet another pond where the salt
settles out as evaporation proceeds. The brine is moved one more time before evaporation
is complete to prevent highly soluble impurities such as magnesium chloride, magnesium
sulfate, potassium chloride, and magnesium bromide from settling out with the salt.
These substances may be collected separately for commercial use.

 5 The salt is scooped up by machines running on temporary railroad tracks laid on top of
the layer of salt. It is then washed with highly concentrated salt water. This water
contains so much salt that it cannot hold any more, so the salt is washed free of any trace
impurities without dissolving. The washed salt is removed from the salt water, rinsed
with a small amount of fresh water, and piled into huge stacks to drain for two or three
months. At this point the salt is about 99.4% pure and can be used for many industrial
purposes. If purer salt is needed, it is rewashed in salt water and fresh water, allowed to
drain for one or two days, then dried in a hot air oven at about 365°F (185°C). This salt is
about 99.8% pure and can be used for food processing.
 6 Most brine is processed by a multiple-effect vacuum evaporator. This device consists of
three or more closed metal cylinders with conical bottoms. Brine is first treated
chemically to remove calcium and magnesium compounds. It then fills the bottom

Brine is water containing a high concentration of salt. The most obvious source of brine
is the ocean, but it can also be obtained from salty lakes and underground pools of salt
water.

of the cylinders. The brine in the first cylinder passes through tubes heated by steam. The
brine boils and its steam enters the next cylinder, where it heats the brine there. The
steam from this brine heats the brine in the next cylinder, and so on. In each cylinder the
 condensation of steam causes the pressure inside to drop, allowing the brine to boil at a
lower temperature. Salt is removed from the bottom of the cylinders as a thick slurry. It is
filtered to remove excess brine, dried, and passed through screens to sort the particles by
size. Salt made this way is known as vacuum pan salt and consists of small cubic crystals.

 7 Brine may also be processed in a grainer. The brine is chemically purified and pumped
into a long open pan heated by steam running through pipes immersed in the brine. The
brine is heated to a temperature slightly below the boiling point and flakes of salt form on
its surface as it evaporates. Usually a temperature of about 194°F (90°C) is used. Lower
temperatures produce larger flakes and higher temperatures produce smaller flakes. The
flakes grow until they sink to the bottom of the pan, where they are collected and dried.
Grainer salt consists of small flakes rather than cubes and is preferred for certain uses in
food processing. Sometimes the Alberger process is used, in which the brine is first
partially evaporated in a vacuum evaporator then moved to a grainer. This process
produces a mixture of flakes and cubes.
 8 At this point salt used for most purposes is ready to be packaged in bags or boxes and
shipped to consumers. To make iodized table salt, however, potassium iodide is added,
then magnesium carbonate, calcium silicate, calcium phosphate, magnesium silicate, or
calcium carbonate is added to make it free-flowing. The salt is then packaged and
shipped to restaurants and grocery stores.

Quality Control
Specifications for salt vary widely according to the intended use. Salt intended for human
consumption must be much purer than salt used for melting snow and ice, but salt used for
certain scientific purposes may need to be even purer.

For most purposes, rock salt is allowed to have a gray, pink, or brown tinge rather than being
pure white. The impurities that cause these colors may make up as much as 4% of a test sample.
To test solubility, a 0.7-ounce (20 g) sample is placed in 6.8 fluid ounces (200 ml) of water. It
should completely dissolve in no more than 20 minutes.

Evaporated salt intended for food processing is very pure, containing as much as 99.99% sodium
chloride before additives are mixed in. This is important not only for safety and good taste, but
because certain impurities can cause problems with certain foods. For example, small amounts of
calcium tend to toughen vegetables. Traces of copper or iron tend to destroy vitamin C and to
increase the rate at which fatty foods become rancid. In addition, calcium and magnesium both
tend to make salt absorb more water, causing it to cake.

Health Aspects
Salt intake—or more precisely, sodium intake—is a controversial topic in health care today.
Healthy adults can safely consume 0.2-0.4 ounces (6-11 g) of salt daily, which is equivalent to
0.08-0.14 ounces (2400-4400 mg) of sodium. For some people with high blood pressure, salt
intake should be reduced. About one-third to one-half of all hypertensive people are salt-
sensitive and will benefit from a low-sodium diet. Since there is no way to tell who these people
are, most hypertensives under medical care will be placed on such a diet to see if it helps. A low-
sodium diet usually aims to reduce sodium intake to less than 0.08 ounces (2400 mg) per day.
While some have suggested that everyone should reduce salt intake, others point out that there is
no evidence that salt restriction is of any benefit to otherwise healthy individuals.

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