Red Sandstone Creep Behavior Study
Uploaded by
Egyptian ResearcherRed Sandstone Creep Behavior Study
Uploaded by
Egyptian Researcherenergies
Article
Multi-Step Loading Creep Behavior of Red Sandstone
after Thermal Treatments and a Creep Damage Model
Sheng-Qi Yang 1, *, Bo Hu 1 ID
, Pathegama G. Ranjith 1,2 ID
and Peng Xu 1
1 State Key Laboratory for Geomechanics and Deep Underground Engineering, School of Mechanics and Civil
Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China;
huboskl@[Link] (B.H.); [Link]@[Link] (P.G.R.); blucehu@[Link] (P.X.)
2 Deep Earth Energy Research Laboratory, Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University,
Melbourne 3800, Australia
* Correspondence: yangsqi@[Link]; Tel.: +86-516-8399-5856; Fax: +86-516-8399-5678
Received: 20 December 2017; Accepted: 10 January 2018; Published: 16 January 2018
Abstract: Triaxial compressive creep tests were conducted on red sandstones after different thermal
treatments. Subsequently, the thermal influence on the axial, lateral and volumetric creep curves
under various stress levels was analyzed. The results show that both the instantaneous and time-based
deformation behaviors depended largely on the stress and temperature conditions. The instant
axial strain increases linearly with increasing deviator stress and the instant deformation modulus
decreases non-linearly with temperature. An interesting phenomenon was observed whereby the
lateral creep strain had an apparent linear correlation with the axial creep strain. Furthermore,
the fitting lines’ slopes of lateral and axial creep strain increase gradually with the increasing deviator
stress at identical temperature and first decreases and then increases as temperature is elevated. Then,
on the basis of the Burgers creep model and the concept of strain energy, a creep damage model
implemented in FLAC3D (Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua 3D) is presented, and this model was
able to describe the entire creep process completely including primary creep stage, secondary creep
stage, and tertiary creep stage comparing with the experimental and theoretical results based on
test data and numerical calculations. The influence of two damage parameters on creep curves and
the thermal influence on creep parameters are subsequently discussed. Under the same stress level,
the parameters K, GM and GK and η K of creep model decrease with temperature, while the parameter
η M first augments as temperature rise to 300 ◦ C and then decreases as temperature at above 300 ◦ C.
The higher is the temperature, the smaller the critical stress ratio (CSR).
Keywords: red sandstone; thermal effects; multi-step loading; Creep; damage model
1. Introduction
The exploration and exploitation of deep resources are not only necessary for the economic
and social development for many countries, but also require solutions to basic theoretical problems.
Compared with conventional fossil fuels, for instance coal and oil, geothermal energy is one of the
most abundant sources of energy, which offers great advantages in cost, reliability and environmental
friendliness [1–4]. This has stimulated further investigation on the mechanical behavior of rock
at high pressure and temperature. Especially, deep rock masses are subjected to high pressures
and temperatures, especially in engineering applications for which the temperature approaches
the rock melting point, such as coal gasification underground, where the temperature can exceed
1000 ◦ C [5–7], volcano flank stability [8–11], and proposals for deep geological burial of high-grade
nuclear waste [12–14], and underground coal fires such as the spontaneous combustion of coal seams,
where the maximum temperature reaches 1200 ◦ C [15]. Rock masses involved in projects such as
Energies 2018, 11, 212; doi:10.3390/en11010212 [Link]/journal/energies
Energies 2018, 11, 212 2 of 26
post-disaster reconstruction after coal fires and underground coal gasification have experienced high
temperature treatments that have a vital influence on their mechanical behavior [16,17].
Therefore, research on underground rock engineering long-term stability is necessary.
The influence of temperature on the rheological behavior of rock has been investigated very
early [18–20]. Numerous researchers have conducted a variety of creep experiments that primarily
considered the influence of different mineral component [21], temperature [10,22], water [23,24],
pore water pressure [11,25], and stress [26–28] on the time-dependent behaviors of various rocks.
The results show that time-based deformation in brittle rocks is not distinguishable from that in soft
rock [11,29,30] and that creep rupture occurs suddenly and over very short times. Commonly, creep
deformation presents three stages: transient creep with decreasing strain rate, followed by steady creep
at a constant strain rate, and finally tertiary creep with sudden increases in strain rate to rupture [31].
To understand the thermal influence on the creep behaviors of rocks, Chopra [32] investigated the
transient creep behaviors of two natural dunite specimens at temperatures between 1373 and 1573 K.
Ferrero [33] heated marbles at a ratio of 2.4 ◦ C/min to target temperatures and then cooled them
at a ratio of 0.23 ◦ C/min to induce micro-cracking, and then studied their mechanical behaviors.
Du et al. [34] studied the mechanical properties, including stress-strain curve, peak stress and strain,
elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio of granite after subjected high temperatures. Heap et al. [10]
reported the results of the thermal effects on both short-term strength and time-dependent brittle
creep in three sandstones under tri-axial stress conditions. Brotóns et al. [35] investigated the influence
of temperature and cooling method (air cooling and water cooling) on the physical and mechanical
properties of San Julian’ stone. Tian et al. [36,37] summarized in a review the literature on the physical
and mechanical properties of sandstones after high-temperature treatment. Tian et al. [38] investigated
the physical and mechanical behaviors of claystone exposed to 1000 ◦ C. Li et al. [39] studied the
dynamic properties of sandstones with different strain rate after 800 ◦ C. Ye et al. [40] conducted triaxial
compression and creep tests on green tuff over temperatures ranging from 20 to 80 ◦ C and found
that peak strength and creep failure time were sensitive to temperature. Sun et al., [41] reported
the variations of thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity and heat capacity of sandstone after high
temperature treatment. Yang et al. [1] evaluated the thermal damage and failure mechanical behavior
of granite at elevated temperatures, which demonstrated that the crack damage threshold, the strength
and static elastic modulus of granite were increased at 300 ◦ C, before decreasing up to the maximum
temperature of 800 ◦ C. Yang et al. [2] investigated the triaxial mechanical and permeability behavior of
sandstone after exposure to different high temperature treatments.
In addition, proper constitutive models for time-related behaviors of rocks have been abundantly
researched. In general, those models can be divided into three distinct methods: (1) empirical
models [42,43]; (2) component models [44–46]; and (3) models based on inner mechanisms such as
endochronic theory [47,48], thermodynamics [49,50] and damage and fracture mechanics [51–53].
The damage concept was first introduced by Kachanov [54] and elaborated by Lemaitre [55].
The damage model of Kachanov is classified as isotropic damage. The damage model of Kachanov
is extended to anisotropic damage by Murakami [56] and this concept was applied to rock mass by
Kyoya [57] and it is called damage tensor. Previous research has shown that damage reflected
by, for example, porosity changes, cumulative acoustic emission energy and microscopic crack
observations during creep processes, occurs in time-dependent rock deformation [10,11,27,58,59].
Furthermore, the damage mechanisms include mainly stress corrosion, the initiation [60,61],
propagation and coalescence of microcracks, and energy dissipation [62,63]. However, little has
been reported on simple and effective creep models for characterizing trimodal creep behavior.
To better understand the influence of temperature on the creep behavior of brittle rocks, this paper
presents the results of triaxial compressive creep tests on red sandstones under confining pressures (σ3 )
of 25 MPa after thermal treatments (25, 300, 700 and 1000 ◦ C) and a detailed analysis and discussion
of the results. Simultaneously, it is necessary to develop an appropriate and simple creep damage
model to characterize the time-based deformation and damage characteristics to better understand the
Energies 2018, 11, 212 3 of 26
creep mechanisms of brittle rock. Finally, a simple creep damage model is proposed considering strain
energy and based on a Burgers model.
2. Experiments
2.1. Specimen Preparation
The red sandstones were obtained from Rizhao (Shandong Province, China). Specimens were cut
and polished to form cylinders with diameters of 50 mm and height-to-width ratios of 2:1. They were
then dried for approximately 24 h at a temperature of 105 ◦ C in a drying box (SGM High temperature
Electric Furnace Limited Company, Shanghai, China). Finally, the specimens were heated to 300 ◦ C,
700 ◦ C and 1000 ◦ C in a furnace (SGM High temperature Electric Furnace Limited Company, Shanghai,
China) at a rate of 5 ◦ C/min, after which the temperatures were maintained for 2 h before being
allowed to cool to room temperature. The basic parameters of the tested samples are listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Strength parameters of tested samples.
T/◦ C σ 3 /MPa σ S /MPa σ p /MPa σ cd /MPa ES /GPa E50 /GPa
25 25 259.32 234.32 223.34 26.13 28.65
300 25 269.78 244.78 228.32 28.42 28.77
700 25 316.29 291.29 263.53 25.49 21.23
1000 25 232.36 207.36 132.99 10.49 7.84
Note: σS = σp + σ3 ; σp : the peak strength; σcd : the crack damage stress; ES : the elastic modulus (the even slope of
the approximately straight line portion); E50 : the secant modulus (the slope between the start point and the stress at
a half of peak strength).
2.2. Testing Apparatus and Method
Rock triaxial rheological testing equipment (TOP INDUSTRIE, Grand Paris, France), whose
allowed maximum values of deviatoric stress, confining pressure and pore pressure with water were
400, 70 and 40 MPa, respectively, was used to perform creep experiments. In an effort to overcome the
influence of specimen differences, a stress stepping methodology was adopted for a single specimen;
until the specimen eventually ruptured [27]. Hence, the specimens were first subjected to hydrostatic
pressures of 25 MPa and deviatoric stresses were applied to 160 MPa (the first stress level was slightly
greater than the lowest
Energies 2018, 11, 212 σcd ) under pressure-controlled conditions of 5 MPa/min. They subsequently
4 of 25
deformed for approximately 4 days under static compressive stress, after which the deviatoric stress
was non‐linear. Its nonlinear correlation (for the average values at each temperature) can be fitted by
was applied at next level. The above procedures were repeated until failure occurred. The loading
the equation shown in Figure 2b.
procedure is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Loading procedure for creep tests.
Figure 1. Loading procedure for creep tests.
Energies 2018, 11, 212 4 of 25
Energies 2018, 11, 212 4 of 26
was non‐linear. Its nonlinear correlation (for the average values at each temperature) can be fitted by
the equation shown in Figure 2b.
3. Creep Experimental Results
3.1. Axial Strain
The instantaneous deformation under σ3 of 25 MPa will be analyzed first. Figure 2a illustrates
the relationships between instantaneous axial strain (ε0 ) and differential stress under different
temperatures. It can be seen that the instantaneous axial strain increased linearly with increasing
partial stress under the same temperatures. Moreover, the strain increments also increased gradually
as the loadings increased. Approximately monotonic linear correlations between the instantaneous
axial strain and deviatoric stresses were found in each thermal-treated specimen.
In particular, the fit line slopes represent the instantaneous deformation modulus (E0 ),
which decreased with temperature, although the square of the correlation coefficient (R2 ) of the
specimens at 1000 ◦ C was not very high. It can be observed that the decrease in E0 with increasing
temperature was non-linear. Its nonlinear correlation (for the average values at each temperature) can
be fitted by the equation shownFigure 1. Loading procedure for creep tests.
in Figure 2b.
Figure 2.
Figure 2. (a)
(a) Relation
Relation between
between the
the axial
axial instantaneous
instantaneous strain
strain and
and deviator
deviator stress
stress and
and (b)
(b) Relation
Relation
between the instant deformation modulus and temperature.
between the instant deformation modulus and temperature.
The axial creep deformations of the specimens at different temperatures were analyzed. Figure 3
The axial creep deformations of the specimens at different temperatures were analyzed. Figure 3
shows the variations in the axial creep strains over time for the red sandstones at temperatures of 25,
shows the variations in the axial creep strains over time for the red sandstones at temperatures of
300, 700 and 1000 °C under σ3 of 25 MPa, respectively. The axial creep strains were positive, which
25, 300, 700 and 1000 ◦ C under σ3 of 25 MPa, respectively. The axial creep strains were positive,
represented axial compression. Figure 3 remarkably indicates that the axial creep strains increased
which represented axial compression. Figure 3 remarkably indicates that the axial creep strains
over time under static loading.
increased over time under static loading.
As the deviatoric stresses increased, the increments in the axial creep strains rose gradually over
As the deviatoric stresses increased, the increments in the axial creep strains rose gradually over
time. Under the last loading, the durations of tertiary creep for the specimens at 25, 300, 700 and 1000
time. Under the last loading, the durations of tertiary creep for the specimens at 25, 300, 700 and
°C were approximately 35.3 min, 56.7 h, 2.7 min and 1.9 h, respectively. Commonly, brittle failure
1000 ◦ C were approximately 35.3 min, 56.7 h, 2.7 min and 1.9 h, respectively. Commonly, brittle
over short times at the onset of the accelerated creep stage occurred rapidly. An interesting
failure over short times at the onset of the accelerated creep stage occurred rapidly. An interesting
phenomenon can be observed in Figure 3d for the specimen at 1000 °C and under a deviatoric stress
phenomenon can be observed in Figure 3d for the specimen at 1000 ◦ C and under a deviatoric stress
of 175 MPa. Primary and steady state creep existed for approximately 0.6 h after the last stress was
of 175 MPa. Primary and steady state creep existed for approximately 0.6 h after the last stress was
applied, after which tertiary creep seems to have occurred, whereas it again showed primary and
applied, after which tertiary creep seems to have occurred, whereas it again showed primary and
secondary creep and brittle creep failure in the final accelerating creep stage. The relationship
secondary creep and brittle creep failure in the final accelerating creep stage. The relationship between
between deviatoric stress and axial creep strain at different temperatures was shown in Figure 3e, in
deviatoric stress and axial creep strain at different temperatures was shown in Figure 3e, in which axial
which axial creep increased as deviatoric stress and temperature increased. Figure 4 presents the axial
creep increased as deviatoric stress and temperature increased. Figure 4 presents the axial creep strains
creep strains with creep time at various temperatures under the conditions of deviatoric stresses of
with creep time at various temperatures under the conditions of deviatoric stresses of 160, 190 and
160, 190 and 220 MPa, respectively. As shown in Figure 4a, when the deviatoric stress was raised to
220 MPa, respectively. As shown in Figure 4a, when the deviatoric stress was raised to 160 MPa, the
160 MPa, the axial creep strains and the durations of the primary creep stage increased with
axial creep strains and the durations of the primary creep stage increased with increasing temperature.
increasing temperature. The stress levels were 68%, 65%, 55% and 77% of each σp at 25, 300, 700 and
The stress levels were 68%, 65%, 55% and 77% of each σp at 25, 300, 700 and 1000 ◦ C, respectively.
1000 °C, respectively. However, under deviatoric stresses of 190 MPa, the stress level were 81%, 78%
However, under deviatoric stresses of 190 MPa, the stress level were 81%, 78% and 65% of each σp at
and 65% of each σp at the four temperatures, and the duration of primary creep for the specimen at
the four temperatures, and the duration of primary creep for the specimen at 300 ◦ C was shorter than
300 °C was shorter than that at room temperature, as shown in Figure 4b. As shown in Figure 4c,
Energies 2018, 11, 212 5 of 26
Energies 2018, 11, 212 5 of 25
that at room temperature, as shown in Figure 4b. As shown in Figure 4c, when the deviatoric stress
reached to 220 MPa, the stress level were 94%, 90% and 76% of each σp at 25 ◦ C, 300 ◦ C and 700p at
when the deviatoric stress reached to 220 MPa, the stress level were 94%, 90% and 76% of each σ
◦ C,
respectively, and the specimen at 25 ◦ C failed quickly, whereas the others experienced steady state
25 °C, 300 °C and 700 °C, respectively, and the specimen at 25 °C failed quickly, whereas the others
creep for approximately 22.7 h and 28 h.
experienced steady state creep for approximately 22.7 h and 28 h.
Figure 3. Axial
Figure 3. Axial creep
creep strain‐time
strain-time curves
curves underunder step‐loading
step-loading with σ3 with σ3 of
of 25 MPa at 25 MPa temperatures:
different at different
temperatures: (a) 25 °C; (b) 300 °C; (c) 700 °C; (d) 1000 °C; (e) Relationship between axial creep strain
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦
(a) 25 C; (b) 300 C; (c) 700 C; (d) 1000 C; (e) Relationship between axial creep strain and
and deviatoric stress.
deviatoric stress.
Figure 4d illustrates the relationship between axial creep strain and temperature at identical
Figure 4d illustrates the relationship between axial creep strain and temperature at identical stress
stress level. When deviatoric stress reached 160 and 190 MPa, axial creep strain increased with
level. When deviatoric stress reached 160 and 190 MPa, axial creep strain increased with increasing
increasing temperature. Upon combining Figures 3 and 4, it can be found that creep strain depended
temperature. Upon combining Figures 3 and 4, it can be found that creep strain depended heavily on
heavily on applied differential stress and temperature.
applied differential stress and temperature.
3.2. Lateral Creep Strain
Lateral deformations can reflect the influence of stress on the lateral expansion of materials. This
section will investigate lateral creep strain under increasing deviatoric stress at identical
temperatures and under same stresses at various temperatures. It can be seen in Figure 5 that the
lateral creep strains commonly were negative, indicating lateral dilatancy. The trimodal creep
behavior corresponded to the axial behavior. Lateral creep strain increased with decreasing rate over
time for deviatoric stress values below σc. It rose as the partial stress increased. In particular, the creep
Energies 2018, 11, 212 6 of 25
strain increased rapidly when the loadings reached 220, 230, 250 and 175 MPa for the specimens at
25, 300, 700 and 1000 °C, respectively. That phenomenon indicates that material experienced brittle
failure with 11,rapid
Energies 2018, 212 lateral expansion. Moreover, the relationship between lateral creep strain 6 and
of 26
deviatoric stress at different temperatures was plotted in Figure 5e.
Figure 4. Axial creep strain‐time curves under identical stress level at different temperatures (σ3 = 25
Axial
Figure 4. 1 − σ
MPa): (a) σ creep strain-time curves under identical stress level at different temperatures
3 = 160 MPa; (b) σ1 − σ3 = 190 MPa; (c) σ1 − σ3 = 220 MPa; (d) Relationship between axial
(σ3 = 25 MPa): (a) σ1 − σ3 = 160 MPa; (b) σ1 − σ3 = 190 MPa; (c) σ1 − σ3 = 220 MPa; (d) Relationship
creep strain and temperature.
between axial creep strain and temperature.
The lateral creep strains of the specimens at different temperatures under partial stresses of 160,
3.2. Lateral
190 Creep
and 220 MPa, Strain
respectively, are shown in Figure 6. In Figure 6a, it is obvious that the lateral
material dilatancy at
Lateral deformations1000 °C
canexceeded those of the others
reflect the influence of stressby onin excess
the lateralof an order
expansion of of
magnitude.
materials.
Furthermore, as the temperatures increased from room temperature to 300 °C the lateral creep strains
This section will investigate lateral creep strain under increasing deviatoric stress at identical
decreased remarkably but increased when the temperature increased to 700 °C. Similarly, the lateral
temperatures and under same stresses at various temperatures. It can be seen in Figure 5 that the
creep strains first decreased and then increased slightly before and after 300 °C under a static stress
lateral creep strains commonly were negative, indicating lateral dilatancy. The trimodal creep behavior
of 190 MPa, as shown in Figure 6b. From Figure 6c, when the loading reached 220 MPa, the failure
corresponded to the axial behavior. Lateral creep strain increased with decreasing rate over time for
and lateral expansion of the specimens at room temperature were rapid. According to the relationship
deviatoric stress values below σc . It rose as the partial stress increased. In particular, the creep strain
between lateral creep strain and temperature, as shown in Figure 6d, it can be concluded that the
increased rapidly when the loadings reached 220, 230, 250 and 175 MPa for the specimens at 25, 300,
lateral
700 andcreep
1000 strains first decreased
◦ C, respectively. at temperatures
That phenomenon below that
indicates 300 material
°C and experienced
then increased when
brittle the
failure
temperatures rose above 300 °C.
with rapid lateral expansion. Moreover, the relationship between lateral creep strain and deviatoric
stress at different temperatures was plotted in Figure 5e.
3.3. Volumetric Creep Strain
The lateral creep strains of the specimens at different temperatures under partial stresses of 160,
190 and 220 MPa, respectively, are shown in Figure 6. In Figure 6a, it is obvious that the lateral material
Figure 7 shows the relationships of volumetric creep strain and time under increased loading for
dilatancy at 1000 ◦ C exceeded those of the others by in excess of an order of magnitude. Furthermore,
the specimens at different temperatures. From Figure 7a, the volumetric creep strain was positive
as the temperatures increased from room temperature to 300 ◦ C the lateral creep strains decreased
under a deviatoric stress of 160 MPa, whereas it became negative when the loading exceeded 190
remarkably but increased when the temperature increased to 700 ◦ C. Similarly, the lateral creep strains
MPa for the specimen at 25 °C. Analogously, the specimen at 300 °C also shows this characteristic in
first decreased andtemperatures
then increased slightly before ◦ C under a static stress of 190 MPa,
Figure 7b. As the were elevated to and afterthe
700 °C, 300volumetric creeps were positive and
as shown in
decreased as Figure 6b. Fromstresses
the deviatoric Figure 6c, when the
increased loading
from 160 to reached 220 They
190 MPa. MPa, the failure andbecame
subsequently lateral
expansion of the specimens at room temperature were rapid. According to the relationship between
negative and, in reverse, increased under the loadings exceeding 190 MPa. In particular, for the
lateral creep strain and temperature, as shown in Figure 6d, it can be concluded that the lateral creep
specimens at the highest temperatures, the volumetric creep strains were always negative under the
strains first decreased at temperatures below 300 ◦ C and then increased when the temperatures rose
deviatoric stresses of 160 and 175 MPa. According to the relationship between volumetric creep strain
above 300 ◦ C.
Energies 2018, 11, 212 7 of 25
and deviatoric stress, as shown in Figure 7e, in which lateral expansion increased with increasing
differential stress and temperature, as the stress levels gradually increased the specimens at first
Energies 2018, 11, 212 7 of 26
compressed and then dilated and eventually failed by shear dilatancy.
Figure 5. Lateral creep strain‐time curves under step‐loading at different temperatures (σ3 = 25 MPa):
Figure 5. Lateral creep strain-time curves under step-loading at different temperatures (σ3 = 25 MPa):
(a) 25 °C; (b) 300 °C; (c) 700 °C; (d) 1000 °C; (e) Relationship between lateral creep strain and deviatoric
(a) 25 ◦ C; (b) 300 ◦ C; (c) 700 ◦ C; (d) 1000 ◦ C; (e) Relationship between lateral creep strain and
stress. stress.
deviatoric
Energies 2018, 11, 212 8 of 25
Figure 8 illustrates the influence of temperature on the volumetric creep strains of the specimens
under different compressing stresses. From Figure 8a, the creep strains of the specimens were positive
for temperatures below 1000 °C and became negative at 1000 °C. Furthermore, the negative
volumetric creep strains at 1000 °C were approximately two orders of magnitude larger than the
positive ones at the other temperatures under a deviatoric stress of 160 MPa.
Figure 6. Cont.
Energies 2018, 11, 212 8 of 26
Energies 2018, 11, 212 8 of 25
Figure 6. Lateral creep strain‐time curves under same stress condition at different temperatures (σ3 =
Figure 6. Lateral creep strain-time curves under same stress condition at different temperatures
25 MPa): (a) σ1 − σ3 = 160 MPa; (b) σ1 − σ3 = 190 MPa; (c) σ1 − σ3 = 220 MPa; (d) Relationship between
(σ3 = 25 MPa): (a) σ1 − σ3 = 160 MPa; (b) σ1 − σ3 = 190 MPa; (c) σ1 − σ3 = 220 MPa; (d) Relationship
lateral creep and temperature.
between lateral creep and temperature.
3.3. Volumetric Creep Strain
Figure 7 shows the relationships of volumetric creep strain and time under increased loading for
the specimens at different temperatures. From Figure 7a, the volumetric creep strain was positive under
a deviatoric stress of 160 MPa, whereas it became negative when the loading exceeded 190 MPa for the
specimen at 25 ◦ C. Analogously, the specimen at 300 ◦ C also shows this characteristic in Figure 7b.
As the temperatures were elevated to 700 ◦ C, the volumetric creeps were positive and decreased
as the deviatoric stresses increased from 160 to 190 MPa. They subsequently became negative and,
in reverse, increased under the loadings exceeding 190 MPa. In particular, for the specimens at the
highest temperatures, the volumetric creep strains were always negative under the deviatoric stresses
of 160 and 175 MPa. According to the relationship between volumetric creep strain and deviatoric
stress, as shown in Figure 7e, in which lateral expansion increased with increasing differential
Figure 6. Lateral creep strain‐time curves under same stress condition at different temperatures (σ 3 = stress
and temperature, as1 − σ
25 MPa): (a) σ the3 = 160 MPa; (b) σ
stress levels gradually increased1 − σ
1 − σ3 = 190 MPa; (c) σ the3 = 220 MPa; (d) Relationship between
specimens at first compressed and then
lateral creep and temperature.
dilated and eventually failed by shear dilatancy.
Figure 7. Cont.
Energies 2018, 11, 212 9 of 26
Energies 2018, 11, 212 9 of 25
Energies 2018, 11, 212 9 of 25
Figure 7. Volumetric creep strain‐time curves under step‐loading at different temperatures (σ
Figure 7. Volumetric creep strain-time curves under step-loading at different temperatures 3 = 25
MPa): (a) 25 °C; (b) 300 °C; (c) 700 °C; (d) 1000 °C; (e) Relationship between volumetric creep strain
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦
(σ3 = 25 MPa): (a) 25 C; (b) 300 C; (c) 700 C; (d) 1000 C; (e) Relationship between volumetric
and deviatoric stress.
creep strain and deviatoric stress.
Figure 8 illustrates the influence of temperature on the volumetric creep strains of the specimens
under different compressing stresses. From Figure 8a, the creep strains of the specimens were positive
for temperatures below 1000 ◦ C and became negative at 1000 ◦ C. Furthermore, the negative volumetric
Figure 7. Volumetric creep strain‐time curves under step‐loading at different temperatures (σ 3 = 25
◦
creepMPa): (a) 25 °C; (b) 300 °C; (c) 700 °C; (d) 1000 °C; (e) Relationship between volumetric creep strain
strains at 1000 C were approximately two orders of magnitude larger than the positive ones at
and deviatoric stress.
the other temperatures under a deviatoric stress of 160 MPa.
Figure 8. Relations of volumetric creep strain‐time curves and temperature under identical stress
condition (σ3 = 25 MPa): (a) σ1 − σ3 = 160 MPa; (b) σ1 − σ3 = 190 MPa; (c) σ1 − σ3 = 220 MPa; (d) Relationship
between volumetric creep strain and temperature.
This suggests that the former experienced shear dilatancy, whereas the latter experienced
compression. When the partial stresses rose to 190 MPa, the two specimens at 25 and 300 °C were
negative, indicating that the deformations were dominated by shear‐dilatancy, whereas the specimen
at 700 °C was still compression‐dominated, or positive (Figure 8b). Because that stress level was
nearer to the σp of the specimens at 25 °C, the volumetric creep slope exceeded that for 300 °C. From
Figure 8. Relations of volumetric creep strain‐time curves and temperature under identical stress
Figure 8c, as the stresses increased to 220 MPa, the 25 °C specimen experienced serious shear dilation
Figure 8. Relations of volumetric creep strain-time curves and temperature under identical stress
condition (σ3 = 25 MPa): (a) σ1 − σ3 = 160 MPa; (b) σ1 − σ3 = 190 MPa; (c) σ1 − σ3 = 220 MPa; (d) Relationship
in a short time, and the others behaved similarly but did not fail. This dilation was closer to the σ p of
condition (σ3 = 25 MPa): (a) σ1 − σ3 = 160 MPa; (b) σ1 − σ3 = 190 MPa; (c) σ1 − σ3 = 220 MPa;
the specimen at 300 °C at that stress level,
between volumetric creep strain and temperature. and the
(d) Relationship between volumetric creep strain and temperature.
specimen at 300 °C with a marginally higher
development strain rate in comparison with that at 700 °C can be seen in Figure 8c. The relationship
This suggests
between volumetric that creep
the former experienced
strain and temperature shear dilatancy,
were whereas
shown in Figure the
8d. latter experienced
It is clear that
This suggests that the former experienced shear dilatancy,
compression was given prior to expansion when temperature was below 700 °C. whereas
compression. When the partial stresses rose to 190 MPa, the two specimens at 25 and 300 °C were the latter experienced
compression. When the partial stresses rose to 190 MPa, the two specimens at 25 and 300 ◦ C were
negative, indicating that the deformations were dominated by shear‐dilatancy, whereas the specimen
negative,
at 700 °C indicating
was still that the deformations wereor
compression‐dominated, dominated by shear-dilatancy,
positive (Figure 8b). Because whereas the specimen
that stress level was
nearer to the σp of the specimens at 25 °C, the volumetric creep slope exceeded that for 300 °C. From
Figure 8c, as the stresses increased to 220 MPa, the 25 °C specimen experienced serious shear dilation
in a short time, and the others behaved similarly but did not fail. This dilation was closer to the σp of
the specimen at 300 °C at that stress level, and the specimen at 300 °C with a marginally higher
development strain rate in comparison with that at 700 °C can be seen in Figure 8c. The relationship
Energies 2018, 11, 212 10 of 26
at 700 ◦ C was still compression-dominated, or positive (Figure 8b). Because that stress level was nearer
to the σp of the specimens at 25 ◦ C, the volumetric creep slope exceeded that for 300 ◦ C. From Figure 8c,
as the stresses increased to 220 MPa, the 25 ◦ C specimen experienced serious shear dilation in a
short time, and the others behaved similarly but did not fail. This dilation was closer to the σp of
the specimen at 300 ◦ C at that stress level, and the specimen at 300 ◦ C with a marginally higher
development strain rate in comparison with that at 700 ◦ C can be seen in Figure 8c. The relationship
between volumetric creep strain and temperature were shown in Figure 8d. It is clear that compression
was given prior to expansion when temperature was below 700 ◦ C.
4. Creep Damage Model
Natural rocks have various scales of macro- and micro-defects, and their deformation and damage
are therefore inevitably affected by those inherent flaws. In addition, their failure processes are often
accompanied by the evolution, development, coalescence and interaction of cracks [13]. Therefore,
rock rheological constitutive models that consider evolutionary rules of rock damage can more
reasonably describe the rheological behaviors of rocks. In consequence, the following parts will
introduce the damage process during the creep stage, and a creep damage model will be established.
4.1. Construction of Creep Damage Equation
Existing research shows that damage processes of rock materials are essentially processes of energy
accumulation and dissipation [50]. Material damage is not only controlled by randomly distributed
internal defects but also by internal stress and strain states. In view of the above discussions, strain
energy can directly reflect the stress and strain states of rocks. Consequently, it is more reasonable to
use strain energy as an internal variable to describe the damage evolution law [50].
Acoustic emission monitoring of rocks shows that energy increases substantially after the onset
of the tertiary creep stage [11,27,64], which is accompanied by a rapid release of strain energy.
Xie et al. [63] presented a relationship between damage variable and energy dissipation:
β
d d
D = 1 − exp −α U − U0 (1)
where Ud and U0d are the dissipation energy leading to rock damage and the dissipated energy
corresponding to the initial damage, and α and β are parameters related to material properties.
According to previous research [65], the strain energy can be expressed as.
Z ε
ij
U= σij dε ij (2)
0
where σij and εij are stress and strain, and (ij = 1,2,3).
This article presents a damage evolution equation based on strain energy, which is expressed as
Equation (3). In addition, its evolution law is shown in Figure 9.
D = 0 (U < U0 )
−U0
D = UαU0
(U0 ≤ U < (1 + α)U0 ) (3)
D = 1 U ≥ (1 + α)U0
where U is the strain energy, U0 is the critical strain energy corresponding to the initial damage, and
the strain energy can be calculated using Equation (2), α is a parameter related to the material creep
property and always exceeds 0. D is the damage variable. When D = 0, no damage occurs during
the creep process. D = 1 corresponds to materials that suffer only creep failure. Therefore, 0 < D < 1
corresponds to materials with various extents of damage during the creep process.
The Burgers model is widely used to describe the creep deformation of rock, and employs
Maxwell and Kelvin bodies in series. However, it cannot reflect accelerating creep behavior. Therefore,
Energies 2018, 11, 212 11 of 26
Energies 2018, 11, 212
Energies 2018, 11, 212 11 of 25
11 of 25
we present a creep damage model based on Burgers model to completely describe the entire creep
process. The creep damage model can SS e 2the
reflect 2GGMMentire
eeee
creep stage, unlike the typical Burgers model,
e
as shown in Figure 10.
The Burgers model’s equations ofstate SSvv can 22MMbeeevvwritten as:
SSveve 22G GKKeeveve 22KKeeveve (4)
(4)
SSeij SS e M
S = 2G e
. Se S ve
e S vv S ve
Sv = 2ηM ev
ij
eSeijve
ij =eeee2GKeevevve +eeveve2ηK eve
.
(4)
S =
ije, Sv and S
S e = S v = S ve
where Sijij is the partial stress tensor, and S
is the partial stress tensor, and S are the partial stress tensors for elastic, viscous
where S eije, S=ve and S
ve are the partial stress tensors for elastic, viscous
ve
e + ev + eve
and visco‐elastic
and visco‐elastic bodies
bodies respectively.
respectively. eeijij is
is the
the partial
partial strain
strain tensor,
tensor, and
and eeee eevv and
and eeveve are
are the
the
corresponding
corresponding partial
where Sij is thepartial strain
partialstrain tensors.
stresstensors. G
tensor,Gand
M and
M and G
Se ,GSKv are
K are the
andthe shear
Sveshear moduli.
moduli.
are the η and
ηM stress
partial M η
and ηKtensors
K are the
are the
for viscosity
viscosity
elastic,
coefficients. When the confining pressures σ equals σ
, the spheric stress (σ ) and spheric strain (ε )
coefficients. When the confining pressures σ
viscous and visco-elastic bodies respectively. 22 equals σ
eij is the33, the spheric stress (σ
partial strain tensor,mmand ) and spheric strain (ε
ee ev and eve are the m)
m
can be
can be expressed
expressed
corresponding as Equations
as Equations
partial (5) and
(5)
strain tensors. and
GM(6), (6), and
andand GK the the axial
are axial
the deviatoric
deviatoric
shear stress
stress
moduli. (S1111) )
(S
η M and ηK can
can be
arebe written
written
the viscosity as
as
Equation (7):
Equation (7):
coefficients. When the confining pressures σ2 equals σ3 , the spheric stress (σm ) and spheric strain
(εm ) can be expressed as Equations (5)1 and (6), and the( axial deviatoric
) 3 stress (S11 ) can be written as
Equation (7):
1
mm ((11 22 33)= )= (11 33) 3 33 (5)
(5)
3 3
13 (σ1 − 3σ3 ) + 3σ3
σm = (σ1 + σ2 + σ3 ) = (5)
3 3
2 (
m 1 2 3 ( 1 3) 3 3 , and ) 3
m σmm ==σ11 + 2σ33 == (σ11 − σ3 3 ) + 3σ3 3, and (6)
(6)
ε m m= 33K K= 99K K = 9K9 K , and (6)
3K 9K 9K
2
SSS11
11 = σmm
σ111
− m 22(((σ111 −
= σ333))) (7)
(7)
(7)
333
11
Figure 9. Rock damage evolution trend.
Figure 9. Rock damage evolution trend.
Figure 9. Rock damage evolution trend.
Figure 10. Rock creep damage model and Burgers model.
Figure 10. Rock creep damage model and Burgers model.
Figure 10. Rock creep damage model and Burgers model.
Supposing the volume of material is changed by the spheric stress, and the shape of material is
Supposing the volume of material is changed by the spheric stress, and the shape of material is
just changed by the differential stress tensor. Moreover, the partial stress tensor can only influence
just changed by the differential stress tensor. Moreover, the partial stress tensor can only influence
as Equation (8):
Sij Sij GK Sij
eij (1 exp( t )) t (8)
2GM 2GK K 2 M
Energies 2018, 11, 212 12 of 26
Subsequently, the Burgers equation under traditional triaxial compression stress (σ2 = σ3) can be
written as:
Supposing the volume of material is changed by the spheric stress, and the shape of material is
(1differential
just changed by the 3 ) 3stress (tensor.
1 3 ) Moreover,
(1 3 the
) partial stress
GK tensor (can
1 3 ) influence
only
3
(1 exp( t )) t (9)
3GK Burgers creepKequation can 3Mbe expressed as
1
the creep deformation of9material
K [66]. 3GMa consequence,
As
Equation (8):
Sij Sij
In Equation (9), K and GMe can be identified using experimental ε G Sij 0 data, where ε0 is the value of
ij = + (1 − exp(− K t)) + t (8)
2G K 2G K η
the axial strain under each deviatoric stress. The other parameters, including G
K 2η M K, ηM and ηK, can be
obtained Subsequently, the Burgers
using nonlinear equation
the least under
square traditional
method. In triaxial compression
passing, stress
the shear (σ2 = σ3G
modulus ) can be bulk
M and
written as:
modulus K can be calculated from:
(σ1 − σ3 ) + 3σ3 (σ1 − σ3 ) (σ1 − σ3 ) G (σ − σ3 )
ε1 = + + E (1 − exp(− K t)) + 1 t (9)
9K 3GKM 3GK , and ηK 3ηM (10)
3(1 2 )
In Equation (9), K and GM can be identified using experimental ε0 data, where ε0 is the value
1 other
of the axial strain under each deviatoric stress. The 3 parameters, including GK , ηM and ηK ,
M square method. In passing, the
can be obtained using nonlinear theGleast shear modulus GM and bulk
(1 3 ) 3 3 (11)
modulus K can be calculated from: 3( 0 )
,9 K
E
K= and (10)
3(1 − 2µ)
where E and μ are the elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio of the rock material, respectively.
σ − σ3
GM =degrees 1(σof
During the creep process, various −σ3inner
(11)
)+3σ3 damage in rock arise that show the
3(ε 0 − 1 9K )
degradation of the strength and deformation parameters. Assuming that rock only suffers isotropic
where E and µ are the elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio of the rock material, respectively.
damage in rheological processes, the creep mechanicals parameters considering creep damage can be
During the creep process, various degrees of inner damage in rock arise that show the degradation
expressed as:
of the strength and deformation parameters. Assuming that rock only suffers isotropic damage in
cd 0 1considering
rheological processes, the creep mechanicals parameters D
creep damage can be expressed as: (12)
cd 0
Ω = Ω (1 −cdD is the creep parameter after creep damage.
where Ω0 is the rock’s initial creep parameter, and Ω ) (12)
C
Burgers model considering creep damage, as shown in Figure 11, can therefore be expressed as
where Ω0 is the rock’s initial creep parameter, and Ωcd is the creep parameter after creep damage. sh
( model
Burgers ) considering
3 (creep
damage,
) (asshown
) in Figure 11, (1 therefore
G can D) be(expressed
) as
1 = 1 3 3
1 3
1 3
(1 exp( K
t )) 1 3
t (13)
(σ −9K
σ3 ) + 3σ3 3GM σD3 )) 3GK(σ(11 −
(σ(11− Dσ3)) G(1(1 D
−)D ) 3M((σ11−Dσ)3 )
ε1 = 1 + + (1 − exp(−K K t)) + t (13)
9K 3GM (1 − D ) 3GK (1 − D ) ηK ( 1 − D ) 3ηM (1 − D )
GK(1−D)
GM(1−D) ηM(1−D)
ηK(1−D)
Figure 11. Creep damage model of Burgers.
Figure 11. Creep damage model of Burgers.
4.2. Sensitivity Analysis of the Damage Parameters
4.2. Sensitivity Analysis of the Damage Parameters
Figure 12 shows the influences of U0 and α on the strain curve of the red sandstone. From Figure 12,
Figure 12 shows the influences of U0 and α on the strain curve of the red sandstone. From Figure
it can be seen that parameters U0 and α greatly impacted the time-dependent strain curve. In particular,
12, it with
can the
be increase
seen that parameters
in parameter U0 , U 0 and α greatly impacted the time‐dependent strain curve. In
the attenuation and steady-creep stage durations increased when
particular, with the
the remaining increase
parameters inin
theparameter
creep damage U0, model
the attenuation and steady‐creep
were kept constant, stage
which indicates thatdurations
the
increased
durations of the initial and secondary creep stages depended on U0 . Similarly, the accelerating creepwhich
when the remaining parameters in the creep damage model were kept constant,
stage duration increased with increasing α, indicating that α mainly impacted the creep failure time.
Energies 2018, 11, 212 13 of 26
Energies 2018, 11, 212 13 of 25
6
Figure 12. Influence of U
Figure 12. Influence of U00 and α to strain curve and damage: (a) α = 0.03; (b) U
and α to strain curve and damage: (a) α = 0.03; (b) U 0 = 1.33 × 10 106 (Note:
0 = 1.33 × (Note: K =
K10 GPa, G
= 10 GPa, GM = 10 GPa,
M = 10 GPa, G GK = 250 GPa,
K = 250 GPa, η η M = 10,000 GPa·h Kand
M = 10,000 GPa∙h and η η K = 500 GPa·h).
= 500 GPa∙h).
4.3. Model Validation
4.3. Model Validation
As mentioned earlier, the parameters of Burgers can be determined easily. We will next present
As mentioned earlier, the parameters of Burgers can be determined easily. We will next present a
secondary development using FLAC3D3D(ITASCA
a secondary development using FLAC (ITASCA Consulting China Ltd., Wuhan, China) to facilitate
Consulting China Ltd., Wuhan, China) to facilitate
the calculations of α and U
the The damage constitution equation of Kelvin in FLAC3D can
calculations of α and U0 .0. The damage constitution equation of Kelvin in FLAC 3D can be written
be written as:
as: .
S = eK GK ( D ) + eK ηK ( D ) (14)
S eK GK D eK K D (14)
where S is the deviatoric stress, eK is the Kelvin partial strain, GK is the shear modulus of the Kelvin
where S is the deviatoric stress, e
body, and η K is the Kelvin viscosity K is the Kelvin partial strain, G
coefficient. The differenceK is the shear modulus of the Kelvin
expression of this equation can be
body, and
written as: ηK is the Kelvin viscosity coefficient. The difference expression of this equation can be
written as: N O
∆t
eK = eK + S − GK ( D )eK , and (15)
ηK ( D )
t
eKN eKO SNS+ SGOK D eKeKN + eOK , and
, eK = K D
(15)
S= (16)
2 2
where ∆t is the creep time increment step,Sand
N
SS Oand S are
N O
enew
eKN the O and old deviatoric stresses of an
S Correspondingly,
increment step of creep time, respectively. , eK eK and eO
N K
(16)
K are the new and old deviatoric
2
strains of an increment step of creep time, respectively. 2
Similarly, the Maxwell damage constitution equation
where Δt is the creep time increment step, and S in FLAC3D can be written as:
N and SO are the new and old deviatoric stresses of
an increment step of creep time, respectively. . Correspondingly, and are the new and old
. S S
deviatoric strains of an increment step of creep time, respectively.
eM = + (17)
GM ( D ) ηM ( D )
Similarly, the Maxwell damage constitution equation in FLAC 3D can be written as:
S S
eM (17)
GM D M D
where eM is the Maxwell partial strain, GM is the shear modulus of the Maxwell body, and ηM is the
Maxwell viscosity coefficient. The difference expression of this equation can be written as
Energies 2018, 11, 212 14 of 26
where eM is the Maxwell partial strain, GM is the shear modulus of the Maxwell body, and η M is the
Maxwell viscosity coefficient. The difference expression of this equation can be written as
N S N − SO ∆t S N + SO
eM = eO
M+ + (18)
GM ( D ) ηM ( D ) 2
where ∆t is the increment step of creep time, and SN and SO are the new and old deviatoric stresses
of an increment step of creep time, respectively. Correspondingly, eM N and eO are the new and old
M
deviatoric strains of an increment step of creep time, respectively. In Burgers model, the difference of
partial strain between new and old values can calculated as:
e N − eO = e K
N
− eO N O
K + eM − eM (19)
The strain increment of the Kelvin body can be calculated using Equation (20):
1
∆t
N O N O
eK = BeK + S + S (20)
A 2ηK ( D )
where:
GK ( D )∆t G ( D )∆t
A = 1+ , and B = 1 − K (21)
2ηK ( D ) 2ηK ( D )
Similarly, the strain increment of the Maxwell body can be calculated using Equation (22):
B
1 N
SN = e − eO − − 1 eO
K + Y · S O
(22)
X A
where:
1 ∆t ∆t 1 ∆t ∆t
X= + + , and Y = − − (23)
GM ( D ) 2ηM ( D ) 2ηK ( D ) A GM ( D ) 2ηM ( D ) 2ηK ( D ) A
In Equations (22) and (23), the increment of stress can be calculated according to the increment of
strain. Numerical solutions can be obtained by satisfying all the boundary conditions on each side
through multiple iterations.
The creep parameters can be deteriorated by introducing the cumulative damage variable after
obtaining the linear difference equation of Burgers model. The strain energy in the creep process can
be calculated using Equation (24):
3 SiN + SO
U= ∑∑ 2 i
e N
i − e O
i (24)
t i =1
It is supposed that there is no creep deformation or damage under conditions of hydrostatic
pressure. Therefore, the creep parameters can be expressed as:
GM ( D ) = GM · (1 − D )
η D = η · 1−D
M( ) M ( )
(25)
GK ( D ) = G K · ( 1 − D )
ηK ( D ) = ηK · ( 1 − D )
In view of the above discussions, the nonlinear creep damage model based on the Burgers model
can be implemented through numerical simulations. The parameters of the Burgers model based on
experimental data have been determined. Concretely speaking, U can be calculated according to the
calculated parameters of the Burgers model by numerical simulation. U0 at the onset of tertiary creep
based on tested data can then be determined from the numerical calculation results. Finally, α can be
230 94 17.92 10.75 10.96 247.73 494.99 0.03 1.024 × 106 0.98 14.54
160 55 14.29 8.57 79.98 172.57 289.35 0.99 7.28
700 190 65 14.29 8.58 41.99 166.80 282.35 0.98 2.36
220 76 14.25 8.55 41.56 100.77 137.15 0.98 5.39
1000 160 77 6.37 3.82 0.79 40.18 77.37 0.98 3.67
Energies 2018, 11, 212 Note: μ = 0.25; P: deviatoric stress. 15 of 26
From Figure 13, the creep damage model curves agree well with the experimental data, and the
modified model is therefore reasonable and simple. According to Figure 13b,d, the Burgers and creep
adjusted according to the experimentally characteristic of the accelerating creep based on experiment.
damage models produced the same fitting results during the primary and steady creep state stages.
The calculation and fitting results are shown in Table 2 and Figure 13.
However, the creep damage model accurately reproduced the tertiary creep phase, whereas Burgers
Table 2. Parameters of creep damage model in creep tests (σ3 = 25 MPa).
model was unable to describe the accelerated creep process when compared with the fitting results.
In addition, as U increased above U0, D began to gradually increase from 0 to 1, which indicates that
ηM × 103
T/◦ C P/MPa P/σ p /% K/GPa GM /GPa GK /GPa ηK /GPa·h
the dominant damage induced by cracks was augmented by creep deformation. α U 0 /J mm−1 R2 Q × 10−3
/GPa·h
160 68 20.09 12.05 76.93 407.09 956.58 0.99 1.53
5. Discussion
25 190 81 19.41 11.64 53.19 325.88 826.49 0.99 3.31
220 94 18.51 11.11 0.18 590.20 21.54 0.065 9.86 × 105 0.98 10.32
160 65 19.30 11.58 84.83498.57 279.28 0.99 1.03
5.1. Relationship between the Axial and Lateral Creep Strain
190 78 18.92 11.35 66.63 260.97
561.20 0.99 1.37
300
220 90 18.33 10.99 50.37 232.90 514.73 0.99 5.82
Figure 14 shows the relations between the axial and the lateral creep strains from multi‐stepping
230 94 17.92 10.75 10.96 247.73 494.99 0.03 1.024 × 106 0.98 14.54
creep tests 160of specimens
55 at various
14.29 8.57 temperatures
79.98 under a 289.35
172.57 σ3 of 25 MPa. It is worth
0.99noting that a
7.28
700 190 65 14.29 8.58 41.99 166.80 282.35 0.98 2.36
monotonic linear correlation between the axial and lateral creep strains could be determined for each
220 76 14.25 8.55 41.56 100.77 137.15 0.98 5.39
stress condition. It should be emphasized that the negative sign represents the direction of lateral
1000 160 77 6.37 3.82 0.79 40.18 77.37 0.98 3.67
expansion. From Figure 14, the slopes of the fit lines increased gradually with increasing deviatoric
Note: µ = 0.25; P: deviatoric stress.
stress, which means lateral deformation became more obvious as the deviatoric stress increased.
Figure 13. Comparison between the modeling and experimental results under confining of 25 MPa:
(a) 25 ◦ C; (b) partial enlarged for σ1 − σ3 = 220 MPa; (c) 300 ◦ C; (d) partial enlarged for
σ1 − σ3 = 230 MPa.
From Figure 13, the creep damage model curves agree well with the experimental data, and the
modified model is therefore reasonable and simple. According to Figure 13b,d, the Burgers and creep
damage models produced the same fitting results during the primary and steady creep state stages.
However, the creep damage model accurately reproduced the tertiary creep phase, whereas Burgers
model was unable to describe the accelerated creep process when compared with the fitting results.
In addition, as U increased above U0 , D began to gradually increase from 0 to 1, which indicates that
the dominant damage induced by cracks was augmented by creep deformation.
from 0.121 to 1.008 as the temperature was elevated from 700 °C to 1000 °C, as shown in Figure 14e.
However, because the σp of the specimen at 1000 °C was the lowest (207.36 MPa), the specimen
experienced creep rupture under a partial stress of 175 MPa. Therefore, the deformations under 190
MPa and 220 MPa could not be obtained, and the corresponding slope value also could not be
Energies 2018, 11, 212
calculated. As the temperature increased from room temperature to 700 °C, the slopes of the fit lines 16 of 26
under deviatoric stresses of 190 and 220 MPa decreased linearly.
5. Discussion
5.2. Thermal Influence on Parameters of Creep Model
5.1. Relationship between
This article thefocusses
mainly Axial and Lateral
the Creep of
influence Strain
temperature on creep deformation under same
stress conditions. The presented creep damage model can also well describe the entire creep process.
Figure 14 shows the relations between the axial and the lateral creep strains from multi-stepping
Therefore, it is necessary to discuss the influence of temperature on the creep parameters of the model
creep tests of specimens at various temperatures under a σ3 of 25 MPa. It is worth noting that a
under identical stress levels. Because the σ
monotonic linear correlation between the axial c of each specimen differed at various temperatures, it is
and lateral creep strains could be determined for each
hard to fully consider the influence of temperature on creep parameters under each deviatoric stress.
stress condition. It should be emphasized that the negative sign represents the direction of lateral
Accordingly,
expansion. thermal
From Figureeffects
14, theon creep
slopes ofparameters
the fit lines can be investigated
increased under
gradually with common deviatoric
increasing deviatoric
stresses of 160, 190 and 220 MPa.
stress, which means lateral deformation became more obvious as the deviatoric stress increased.
Energies 2018, 11, 212 17 of 25
Figure 14.
Figure Relationshipsbetween
14. Relationships betweenthe
the axial
axial creep
creep strain
strain and
and the
the lateral
lateral creep
creep strain
strain at
at different
different
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦
temperatures: (a) 25 C; (b) 300 C; (c) 700 C; (d) 1000 C; (e) Relation between the slope of fitting line
temperatures: (a) 25 °C; (b) 300 °C; (c) 700 °C; (d) 1000 °C; (e) Relation between the slope of fitting line
and temperature.
and temperature.
From Figure 15a, K decreased gradually with increasing temperature for specimens under 160,
Comparing the slopes of the fit lines at different temperatures in Figure 14a–d, under a deviatoric
190 and 220 MPa. It indicates that with increasing temperature, the variation in volume was more
stress of 160 MPa, the slope first decreased from 0.389 at 25 ◦ C to 0.119 at 300 ◦ C and then increased
obvious under spherical stress (total stress can be divide into spherical stress and partial stress), the
from 0.121 to 1.008 as the temperature was elevated from 700 ◦ C to 1000 ◦ C, as shown in Figure 14e.
volume of material was changed by the spherical stress tensor, and the shape of the material was only
changed by the differential stress tensor [65]. It is worth noting that the data used for this test were
inadequate due to the specimens at 1000 °C under 190 and 220 MPa which were above their σp. Hence,
the fits for the results from each specimen under 160 MPa are presented herein. Similarly, Figure 15b
shows the variation in GM with temperature. K and GM showed the same trend because of the
Energies 2018, 11, 212
Energies 2018, 11, 212 17 of 25
17 of 26
However, because the σp of the specimen at 1000 ◦ C was the lowest (207.36 MPa), the specimen
experienced creep rupture under a partial stress of 175 MPa. Therefore, the deformations under
190 MPa and 220 MPa could not be obtained, and the corresponding slope value also could not be
calculated. As the temperature increased from room temperature to 700 ◦ C, the slopes of the fit lines
under deviatoric stresses of 190 and 220 MPa decreased linearly.
5.2. Thermal Influence on Parameters of Creep Model
This article mainly focusses the influence of temperature on creep deformation under same
stress conditions. The presented creep damage model can also well describe the entire creep process.
Therefore, it is necessary to discuss the influence of temperature on the creep parameters of the model
under identical
Figure stress [Link]
14. Relationships Becausethe
theaxial
σc ofcreep
each strain
specimen differed
and the atcreep
lateral various temperatures,
strain at different it is
hard temperatures: (a) 25 °C; (b) 300 °C; (c) 700 °C; (d) 1000 °C; (e) Relation between the slope of fitting line
to fully consider the influence of temperature on creep parameters under each deviatoric stress.
Accordingly, thermal effects
and temperature. on creep parameters can be investigated under common deviatoric stresses
of 160, 190 and 220 MPa.
From Figure 15a, K decreased gradually with increasing temperature for specimens under 160,
From Figure 15a, K decreased gradually with increasing temperature for specimens under 160,
190 and 220 MPa. It indicates that with increasing temperature, the variation in volume was more
190 and 220 MPa. It indicates that with increasing temperature, the variation in volume was more
obvious under spherical stress (total stress can be divide into spherical stress and partial stress),
obvious under spherical stress (total stress can be divide into spherical stress and partial stress), the
the volume of material was changed by the spherical stress tensor, and the shape of the material was
volume of material was changed by the spherical stress tensor, and the shape of the material was only
only changed by the differential stress tensor [65]. It is worth noting that the data used for this test
changed by the differential stress tensor [65]. It is worth noting that the data used for this test were
were inadequate due to the specimens at 1000 ◦ C under 190 and 220 MPa which were above
inadequate due to the specimens at 1000 °C under 190 and 220 MPa which were above their σ their
p. Hence,
σp . Hence, the fits for the results from each specimen under 160 MPa are presented herein. Similarly,
the fits for the results from each specimen under 160 MPa are presented herein. Similarly, Figure 15b
Figure 15b
shows the shows thein
variation variation
GM with GM with temperature.
in temperature. K and GMK showed
and GM showed
the same thetrend
samebecause
trend because
of the
of the calculation using uniform E and µ according to the instantaneous axial strain. Those two
calculation using uniform E and μ according to the instantaneous axial strain. Those two parameters
parameters reflect instantaneous
reflect instantaneous response
response when when is
loading loading is applied,
applied, which which is inversely
is inversely proportional
proportional to
to the
the instantaneous strain. Figure 15c shows that the viscosity coefficient of the Maxwell body changed
instantaneous strain. Figure 15c shows that the viscosity coefficient of the Maxwell body changed
with temperature under the various stress levels. It first increased as the temperature rose to 300 ◦ C
with temperature under the various stress levels. It first increased as the temperature rose to 300 °C
and then decreased as the temperature rose above 300 ◦ C. In particular, it suddenly decreased at
and then decreased as the temperature rose above 300 °C. In particular, it suddenly decreased at 1000
1000 ◦ C under 160 MPa. This parameter reflects the state of steady creep and is strongly related to the
°C under 160 MPa. This parameter reflects the state of steady creep and is strongly related to the ratio
ratio of applied stress and
of applied stress and σ σp , which is proportional to the ratio. In Figure 15d, the shear modulus of
p, which is proportional to the ratio. In Figure 15d, the shear modulus of the
the Kelvin body was linearly related to temperature, which decreased with increasing temperature.
Kelvin body was linearly related to temperature, which decreased with increasing temperature. G K
G K mainly affected
mainly affected the the time from
time from attenuation
attenuation creepto tosteady‐state
creep steady-statecreep.
[Link] Figure
In Figure 15e, η
15e, η K decreased
K decreased
nonlinearly with increasing temperature, with the exception of the specimen at 25 ◦ C under a σcc of
nonlinearly with increasing temperature, with the exception of the specimen at 25 °C under a σ of
220 MPa. This occurred because the specimens failed with large creep deformation in a short time.
220 MPa. This occurred because the specimens failed with large creep deformation in a short time.
Furthermore, the viscosity coefficient of the Kelvin body mainly affected the instantaneous creep rate,
Furthermore, the viscosity coefficient of the Kelvin body mainly affected the instantaneous creep rate,
which had an inversely proportion relationship.
which had an inversely proportion relationship.
Figure 15. Cont.
Energies 2018, 11, 212 18 of 26
Energies 2018, 11, 212 18 of 25
Figure 15. Relation between creep parameters and temperature: (a) K; (b) G
Figure 15. Relation between creep parameters and temperature: (a) K; (b) GMM;; (c) ηM;; (d) G
(c) η M ; (e) ηKK. .
K; (e) η
(d) GK
Accordingly, the creep damage model considering thermal influence can be written as Equation
Accordingly, the creep damage model considering thermal influence can be written as
(26) if the fitting relationships between
Equation (26) if the fitting relationships the creep
between parameters
the creep and
parameters temperature
and temperaturecan
canbe
be obtained
obtained
according to Equation (13):
according to Equation (13):
(1 3 ) 3 3 (1 3 ) (1 3 ) G (T )(1 D) (1 3 )
= (σ1 − σ3 ) + 3σ3 (σ − σ ) (σ1 − σ3 ) (1 exp( K GK ( T )(1 −tD ))) (σ − σ t)
ε 11 = 99K
K ((TT)) +3G (T1)(1 3D) + 3G (T )(1 D ) (1 − exp
(−(T )(1 D) 3
t))+ (T )(11 D)3 t (26)
(26)
3GMM ( T )(1 − D ) K K ( T )(1 − D )
3G K ηK ( T )(1 − D ) M 3ηM ( T )(1 − D )
5.3. Thermal Influence on Creep Behavior
5.3. Thermal Influence on Creep Behavior
High temperatures seriously deteriorate the degree of consolidation and amplified the distance
High temperatures seriously deteriorate the degree of consolidation and amplified the distance
between grains, especially via boundary and thermally-induced cracks. Therefore, the total amount of
between grains, especially via boundary and thermally‐induced cracks. Therefore, the total amount
strain that can be accumulated increases with increasing temperature. It can explain the phenomenon
of strain that can be accumulated increases with increasing temperature. It can explain the
whereby the instantaneous strain and time-based axial creep strain of red sandstone increased with
phenomenon whereby the instantaneous strain and time‐based axial creep strain of red sandstone
increasing temperature under identical deviatoric stresses. The radius creep strain under same the
increased with increasing temperature under identical deviatoric stresses. The radius creep strain
stress conditions (e.g., deviatoric stresses of 160 and 190 MPa) first decreased as the temperature
under same the stress conditions (e.g., deviatoric stresses of 160 and 190 MPa) first decreased as the
increased from 25 ◦ C to 300 ◦ C and then increased as temperature rose above 300 ◦ C because the
temperature increased from 25 °C to 300 °C and then increased as temperature rose above 300 °C
work due to the external force was mainly used for axial deformation, which was the main source
because the work due to the external force was mainly used for axial deformation, which was the
of compression of the mineral particles and adjustment and closure of boundary cracks, and there
main source of compression of the mineral particles and adjustment and closure of boundary cracks,
was therefore little available work to induce lateral dilatancy deformation. As the temperature
and there was therefore little available work to induce lateral dilatancy deformation. As the
was increased to 700 ◦ C, energy was required to close the thermally-induced cracks in addition to
temperature was increased to 700 °C, energy was required to close the thermally‐induced cracks in
compressing the grains and closing the boundary cracks. Furthermore, the reduction in consolidation
addition to compressing the grains and closing the boundary cracks. Furthermore, the reduction in
degree and ductility enhancement could have enhanced the degree of shear dilatancy, especially for
consolidation degree and ductility enhancement could have enhanced the degree of shear dilatancy,
the specimen at 1000 ◦ C, whose bearing capacity decreased suddenly. When the applied stress (e.g.,
especially for the specimen at 1000 °C, whose bearing capacity decreased suddenly. When the applied
deviatoric stress = 160 MPa) exceeded its σcd , the axial bearing capacity was unable to consume much
stress (e.g., deviatoric stress = 160 MPa) exceeded its σcd, the axial bearing capacity was unable to
energy from the applied stress, so that the energy shifted to the lateral dilatancy part. Hence, its lateral
consume much energy from the applied stress, so that the energy shifted to the lateral dilatancy part.
creep strain showed large discrepancies when compared to the other thermal treated specimens.
Hence, its lateral creep strain showed large discrepancies when compared to the other thermal treated
This can also explain the phenomenon whereby the volumetric creep strain shifted from axial
specimens. This can also explain the phenomenon whereby the volumetric creep strain shifted from
axial compression‐dominant to shear dilatancy‐dominant as the temperature was increased. The
volume creep strain mainly reflected the competing states of axial compression and lateral dilatancy.
Energies 2018, 11, 212 19 of 26
compression-dominant to shear dilatancy-dominant as the temperature was increased. The volume
creep strain mainly reflected the competing states of axial compression and lateral dilatancy.
Under increasing compressive stress, rock experiences differing degrees of nucleation,
propagation, interaction and coalescence at various crack scale [67]. Hence, a specimen deforms
promptly when different stresses are applied. While keeping the loading constant, the deformation
will increase with increasing time on the basis of the former distortion. There are both elastic and
viscous plastic deformations of the red sandstone matrix, and time-dependent microcrack propagation
is generally coupled during the two processes. Another explanation is due to stress corrosion [60].
All of the above reasons promote the shear dilatancy deformation as stress level and time are increased.
Inspired by the form of normalized stress [30], herein termed the critical stress ratio (CSR),
is expressed as:
σc − σr
CSR = (27)
σp − σr
where σp is the peak strength, σr is the residual strength, and σc is the creep failure stress respectively.
From Figure 16, it can be seen that the critical stress ratio decreased with increasing temperature.
To be specific, it decreased from 0.89 at room temperature to 0.44 at 1000 ◦ C, and we can conclude that
the temperature heavily affected the critical stress ratio, such that creep failure more easily occurred
at higher temperatures. As the deviatoric stress increased to σc (reaching to the CSR), the specimen
experienced failure
Energies 2018, 11, 212 sliding along a shear fault. 20 of 25
Figure 16. Critical stress ratio versus temperature.
Figure 16. Critical stress ratio versus temperature.
5.4. Thermal Influence on Microstructure/Composition
In order to analyze the microstructure and composition of specimens before and after heating,
observation by optical and polarizing microscopy (Figures 17 and 18) and X-ray diffraction (XRD)
(Figure 19) were conducted after four temperatures (25, 300, 700 and 1000 ◦ C) were applied. Figure 17
shows the microscopic structure of specimens after the different thermal treatments by optical
microscopy. It is clear that the color variation of the specimen was marked, which varied from gray
red to bright red, and then to reddish with increasing temperature. This indicated that mineral
composition in specimens changed with the temperature. Moreover, thermally-induced cracks
appeared at temperature above 700 ◦ C, as shown in Figure 17c,d.
Figure 17. Microscopic structure of red sandstone (optical microscopy) used in this research.
Energies 2018, 11, 212 20 of 26
Figure 16. Critical stress ratio versus temperature.
Figure 17. Microscopic structure of red sandstone (optical microscopy) used in this
Figure 17. Microscopic structure of red sandstone (optical microscopy) used in this research. Commen
Figure 17. Microscopic structure of red sandstone (optical microscopy) used in this research.
research.
corner is n
1. Kachanov, L.M. Time of the rupture process under creep conditions. Izv. Akad. Nauk S S R Otd. change a
Tech. Nauk 1958, 8, 26–31. We have
Energies 2018, 11, 212 21 of 25
Figure 18. Microscopic structure of red sandstone (polarizing microscopy) used in this research.
Figure 18. Microscopic structure of red sandstone (polarizing microscopy) used in this research.
1
Energies 2018, 11, 212 21 of 26
Figure 18. Microscopic structure of red sandstone (polarizing microscopy) used in this research.
Figure 19. XRD spectra for the powder of sandstone after different thermal treatments.
Figure 19. XRD spectra for the powder of sandstone after different thermal treatments.
The main minerals in the tested red sandstone samples were recognized as feldspar, quartz, calcite,
6. Conclusions
hematite and clay minerals. XRD spectra are plotted in Figure 19. The red sandstones showing reddish
The objective of mostly
colors contain this article
a minorwas an ofinvestigation
amount ferrous mineralsof the astemperature
such influence
hematite. Hajpál and Török on
[68] the creep
reported that the color of sandstones depended on the mineral composition. As quartz is grey and
behavior of red sandstone under a high confining pressure (σ 3 = 25 MPa). Hence, a series of creep
most coloured (brownish-reddish) sandstones contain iron-bearing minerals. Therefore the colour
experiments was performed. The following conclusions are drawn:
changes in the specimens are related to the transformation of iron-bearing mineral phases at different
temperatures. From Figure 19, not distinguishable change can be seen for the quart and feldspar,
(1) The axial instantaneous strain increased linearly with increasing partial stress at the same
although the peaks for them decreased sharply as temperature at 300 ◦ C. The kaolinite was becoming
temperatures. As the deviatoric stress increased, both the lateral creep strain and the increment
less and less with increasing temperature. The calcite disintegrated above 700 ◦ C. Heap et al. [69]
in the axial creep strain with time gradually rose, whereas the volumetric creep strain decreased
reported that the calcite started to decompose as temperature above 680 ◦ C. Hajpál [70] reported that a
new mineral phase of hematite appeared and goethite and jarosite disappeared at 900 ◦ C. The hematite
from positive to negative values, which represented the initial compression, dilation, and finally
was the final reaction product of any iron-bearing oxy-hydroxide at high temperature. Figure 18
failure by shear dilatancy of the specimens.
illustrates the microscopic structure of specimen after high-temperature treatments by polarizing
(2) Under the same
microscopy. deviatoric
From stress
Figure 18, as and as
temperature the temperature
increased was
by 700 ◦ C and 1000 increased,
◦ C, the instantaneous
hematite appeared and
deformation modulus (E ) decreased nonlinearly, the axial creep strain increased gradually, but
some minerals melted, which can explain the color variation of heated specimens.
0
the lateral creep strain first decreased when the temperature was below 300 °C and then
6. Conclusions
increased when the temperature increased above 300 °C. The bulk expansion became easier as
The objective of this article was an investigation of the temperature influence on the creep behavior
the applied stress approached σp. In addition, as the temperature increased, CSR decreased.
of red sandstone under a high confining pressure (σ3 = 25 MPa). Hence, a series of creep experiments
(3) A creep damage model based on strain energy was established, and a secondary development
was performed. The following conclusions are drawn:
was implemented in FLAC3D; the latter can effectively reproduce the entire creep process. In the
(1) The axial instantaneous strain increased linearly with increasing partial stress at the same
model, the two damage parameters mainly affect the onset of tertiary creep and its duration.
temperatures. As the deviatoric stress increased, both the lateral creep strain and the increment
(4) The axial increep strain
the axial had with
creep strain an apparent linear
time gradually relationship
rose, whereas with the
the volumetric creeplateral creep strain. In
strain decreased
addition, fromthe positive
slopes toof negative
fit lines increased
values, gradually
which represented the with increasing dilation,
initial compression, deviatoric stress. Under
and finally
failure by shear dilatancy of the specimens.
identical deviatoric stresses, the elastic parameters (K, G M and GK) and the viscosity coefficient
(2) Under the same deviatoric stress and as the temperature was increased, the instantaneous
deformation modulus (E0 ) decreased nonlinearly, the axial creep strain increased gradually,
but the lateral creep strain first decreased when the temperature was below 300 ◦ C and then
Energies 2018, 11, 212 22 of 26
increased when the temperature increased above 300 ◦ C. The bulk expansion became easier as
the applied stress approached σp . In addition, as the temperature increased, CSR decreased.
(3) A creep damage model based on strain energy was established, and a secondary development
was implemented in FLAC3D ; the latter can effectively reproduce the entire creep process. In the
model, the two damage parameters mainly affect the onset of tertiary creep and its duration.
(4) The axial creep strain had an apparent linear relationship with the lateral creep strain. In addition,
the slopes of fit lines increased gradually with increasing deviatoric stress. Under identical
deviatoric stresses, the elastic parameters (K, GM and GK ) and the viscosity coefficient (η K ) of the
creep model decreased with temperature, whereas the viscosity coefficient (η M ) at first increased
as the temperature rose to 300 ◦ C and then decreased as temperature exceeded 300 ◦ C.
(5) Nevertheless, despite the preliminary experimental investigation of the thermal influence on the
time-dependent behavior and creep damage model of red sandstone, more refined studies are
necessary. In particular, further experimental work is essential to provide sufficient tests data
to gain a deeper understanding of the mechanism of thermal effects. Furthermore, the coupled
thermal and creep damage model requires study, verification and optimization.
Acknowledgments: The research was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province for
Distinguished Young Scholars (BK20150005), National Natural Science Foundation of China (51734009) and the
Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (2015XKZD05). We would also like to acknowledge the
editor and two anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments, which have greatly improved this paper.
Author Contributions: Sheng-Qi Yang conceived and designed the experiments; Bo Hu and Peng Xu performed
the experiments; Sheng-Qi Yang and Bo Hu analyzed the data; Sheng-Qi Yang and Bo Hu wrote the paper, which
was revised by Pathegama G. Ranjith.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
List of Symbols
CSR Critical stress ratio
D Damage variable (0 ≤ D ≤ 1)
E0 Instantaneous deformation modulus
GM Shear modulus of Maxwell body
GK Shear modulus of Kelvin body
K Bulk modulus
P Differencial stress (P = σ1 − σ3 )
Q The sum of the least error square
R2 The square of correlation coefficient
S Deviatoric stress
Sij Partial stress tensor
Se , Sv , Sve Partial stress tensors on elastic, viscosity and visco-elastic portions
SN New deviatoric stress for a time step
S◦ Old deviatoric stress for a time step
Ṡ The derivative of S
T Temperature
t Creep time
t0 Beginning time of accelerating creep
Ud Dissipation energy
U0d Dissipation energy corresponding to the initial damage
U Strain energy
U0 Critical strain energy
Energies 2018, 11, 212 23 of 26
Greek Symbols
σ1 , σ2 , σ3 Principle stresses (σ1 ≥ σ3 = σ2 compression positive)
σij Stress tensor
σp Triaxial peak strength
σcd Triaxial damage stress
σr Triaxial residual strength
σc Creep failure stress
σm Spheric stress
εij Strain tensor
εm Spheric strain
ε0 Instantaneous axial strain
εcr Creep strain
eij Partial strain tensor
ee , ev , eve Partial strain tensors of elastic, viscosity and visco-elastic portions
ėK Partial strain rate of Kelvin body
eK Partial strain of Kelvin body
eM Partial strain of Maxwell body
eN New deviatoric strain for a time step
e◦ Old deviatoric strain for a time step
eKN New deviatoric strain for a time step of Kelvin body
eKO Old deviatoric strain for a time step of Kelvin body
eMN New deviatoric strain for a time step of Maxwell body
eMO Old deviatoric strain for a time step of Maxwell body
∆t Increment step of creep time
ηM Viscosity coefficient of Maxwell body
ηK Viscosity coefficient of Kelvin body
µ Poisson’s ratio
α Parameter related to the material
β Parameter related to the material
Ω0 Initial creep parameter
Ωcd Creep parameter rafter creep damage
References
1. Yang, S.Q.; Ranjith, P.G.; Jing, H.W.; Tian, W.L.; Ju, Y. An experimental investigation on thermal damage and
failure mechanical behavior of granite after exposure to different high temperature treatments. Geothermics
2017, 65, 180–197. [CrossRef]
2. Yang, S.Q.; Xu, P.; Li, Y.B.; Huang, Y.H. Experimental investigation on triaxial mechanical and permeability
behavior of sandstone after exposure to different high temperature treatments. Geothermics 2017, 69, 93–109.
[CrossRef]
3. Zhao, Y.S.; Wan, Z.J.; Kang, J.R. Introduction to Geothermal Extraction of Hot Dry Rock; Sciences Press: Beijing,
China, 2004; pp. 9–18.
4. Yang, S.Q.; Tian, W.L.; Huang, Y.H. Failure mechanical behavior of pre-holed granite specimens after elevated
temperature treatment by particle flow code. Geothermics 2018, 72, 124–137. [CrossRef]
5. Stiegel, G.J.; Ramezan, M. Hydrogen from coal gasification: An economical pathway to a sustainable energy
future. Int. J. Coal Geol. 2006, 65, 173–190. [CrossRef]
6. Ranjith, P.G.; Daniel, R.V.; Chen, B.J.; Perera, M.S.A. Transformation plasticity and the effect of temperature
on the mechanical behaviour of Hawkesbury sandstone at atmospheric pressure. Eng. Geol. 2012, 151,
120–127.
7. Yang, S.Q.; Tian, W.L.; Ranjith, P.G. Experimental investigation on deformation failure characteristics of
crystalline marble under triaxial cyclic loading. Rock. Mech. Rock Eng. 2017, 50, 2871–2889. [CrossRef]
8. Voight, B. Structural stability of andesite volcanoes and lava domes. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A 2000, 358,
1663–1703. [CrossRef]
Energies 2018, 11, 212 24 of 26
9. Watters, R.J.; Zimbelman, D.R.; Bowman, S.D.; Crowley, J.K. Rock mass strength assessment and significant
to edifice stability, Mt Rainer and Mt Hood, Cascade Range volcanoes. Pure Appl. Geophys. 2005, 157, 957–976.
[CrossRef]
10. Heap, M.J.; Baud, P.; Meredith, P.G. The influence of temperature on brittle creep in sandstones.
Geophys. Res. Lett. 2009, 36, L19305. [CrossRef]
11. Heap, M.J.; Baud, P.; Meredith, P.G.; Vinciguerra, S.; Bell, A.F.; Main, I.G. Brittle creep in basalt and its
application to time-dependent volcano deformation. Earth Planet Sci. Lett. 2011, 307, 71–82. [CrossRef]
12. Logan, S.E. Deep self-burial of radioactive wastes by rock-melting capsules. Nucl. Technol. 1974, 21, 111–124.
[CrossRef]
13. Heuze, F.E. On the Geotechnical Modelling of High-Level Nuclear Waste Disposal by Rock Melting; UCRL-53183;
Lawrence Livermore Laboratory: Livermore, CA, USA, 1981.
14. Gibb, S.E. High-temperature, very deep geological disposal: A safer alternative for high-level radioactive
waste? Waste Manag. 1999, 19, 207–211. [CrossRef]
15. Qin, B.D.; Chen, L.J.; Liu, X. Experimental research on the swelling stresses in limestone at high temperatures.
J. China Univ. Min. Technol. 2009, 38, 326–330.
16. Michalski, S.R. The jharia mine fire control technical assistance project: An analysis. Int. J. Coal Geol. 2004, 59,
83–90. [CrossRef]
17. Otto, C.; Kempka, T. Thermo-mechanical simulations of rock behavior in underground coal gasification
show negligible impact of temperature dependent parameters on permeability changes. Energies 2015, 8,
5800–5827. [CrossRef]
18. Goetze, C.; Brace, W.F. Laboratory observations of high-temperature rheology of rocks. Tectonophysics 1972,
13, 583–600. [CrossRef]
19. Weertman, J.; Weertman, J.R. High temperature creep of rock and mantle viscosity. Annu. Rev. Earth
Planet Sci. 1975, 3, 293–315. [CrossRef]
20. Post, R.L. High temperature creep of Mt. Burnet dunite. Tectonophysics 1977, 42, 75–110. [CrossRef]
21. Zhou, Y.S.; He, C.R.; Huang, X.G.; Song, J.; Sang, Z. Rheological complexity of mafic rocks and effect of
mineral component on creep of rocks. Earth Sci. Front. 2009, 16, 76–87.
22. Chen, L.; Wang, C.P.; Liu, J.F.; Li, Y.; Liu, J.; Wang, J. Effects of temperature and stress on the time-dependent
behavior of Beishan granite. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 2017, 93, 16–323. [CrossRef]
23. Lipponen, A.; Manninen, S.; Niini, H.; Ro, E. Effect of water and geological factors on the long-term stability
of fracture zones in the Päijänne Tunnel, Finland: A case study. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 2005, 42, 3–12.
[CrossRef]
24. Cao, P.; Wan, L.H.; Wang, Y.X.; Huang, Y.H.; Zhang, X.Y. Viscoelasto-plastic properties of deep hard rocks
under water environment. Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 2011, 21, 2711–2718. [CrossRef]
25. Yang, S.Q.; Jing, H.W.; Cheng, L. Influences of pore pressure on short-term and creep mechanical behavior of
red sandstone. Eng. Geol. 2014, 179, 10–23. [CrossRef]
26. Tsai, L.S.; Hsieh, Y.M.; Weng, M.C.; Huang, T.H.; Jeng, F.S. Time-dependent deformation behaviors of weak
sandstones. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 2008, 45, 144–154. [CrossRef]
27. Heap, M.J.; Baud, P.; Meredith, P.G.; Bell, A.F.; Main, I.G. Time-dependent brittle creep in Darley Dale
sandstone. J. Geophys. Res. 2009, 114, 4288–4309. [CrossRef]
28. Yang, D.S.; Chen, L.F.; Yang, S.Q. Experimental investigation of the creep and damage behavior of Linyi red
sandstone. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 2014, 72, 164–172. [CrossRef]
29. Maranini, E.; Brignoli, M. Creep behaviour of a weak rock: Experimental characterization. Int. J. Rock Mech.
Min. Sci. 1999, 36, 127–138. [CrossRef]
30. Brantut, N.; Heap, M.J.; Meredith, P.G.; Baud, P. Time-dependent cracking and brittle creep in crustal rocks:
A review. J. Struct. Geol. 2013, 52, 17–43. [CrossRef]
31. Cristescu, N. Rock Rheology; Kluwer Academic: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1989.
32. Chopra, P.N. High-temperature transient creep in olivine rocks. Tectonophysics 1997, 279, 93–111. [CrossRef]
33. Ferrero, A.M.; Marini, P. Technical note experimental studies on the mechanical behavior of two thermal
cracked marbles. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 2001, 34, 57–66. [CrossRef]
34. Du, S.J.; Liu, H.; Zhi, H.T.; Chen, H.H. Testing study on mechanical properties of post-high-temperature
granite. Chin. J. Rock Mech. Eng. 2004, 23, 2359–2364. (In Chinese)
Energies 2018, 11, 212 25 of 26
35. Brotóns, V.; Tomás, R.; Ivorra, S.; Alarcón, J.C. Temperature influence on the physical and mechanical
properties of a porous rock: San Julian’ calcarenite. Eng. Geol. 2013, 167, 117–127. [CrossRef]
36. Tian, H.; Kempka, T.; Xu, N.X.; Ziegler, M. Physical properties of sandstones after high temperature.
Rock Mech. Rock. Eng. 2012, 45, 1113–1117. [CrossRef]
37. Tian, H.; Kempka, T.; Yu, S.; Ziegler, M. Mechanical properties of sandstones exposed to high temperature.
Rock Mech. Rock. Eng. 2016, 49, 321–327. [CrossRef]
38. Tian, H.; Ziegler, M.; Kempka, T. Physical and mechanical behavior of claystone exposed to temperature up
to 1000 ◦ C. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 2014, 70, 144–153. [CrossRef]
39. Li, M.; Mao, X.B.; Cao, L.L.; Mao, R.R.; Tao, J. Experimental study of mechanical properties on strain rate
effect of sandstones after high temperature. Chin. Rock Soil. Mech. 2014, 23, 3479–3488.
40. Ye, G.L.; Nishimura, T.; Zhang, F. Experimental study on shear and creep behaviour of green tuff at high
temperatures. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 2015, 79, 19–28. [CrossRef]
41. Sun, Q.; Lü, C.; Cao, L.W.; Li, W.C.; Geng, J.S.; Zhang, W.Q. Thermal properties of sandstone after treatment
at high temperature. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 2016, 85, 60–66. [CrossRef]
42. Carter, N.L.; Horseman, S.T.; Russell, J.E.; Handin, J. Rheology of rock-salt. J. Struct. Geol. 1993, 15, 1257–1271.
[CrossRef]
43. Main, I.G. A damage mechanics model for power-law creep and earthquake aftershock and foreshock
sequences. Geophys. J. Int. 2000, 142, 151–161. [CrossRef]
44. Burgers, J.M. Mechanical Considerations-Model Systems-Phenomenological Theories of Relaxation and of Viscosity;
Nordemann Publishing Company: New York, NY, USA, 1935.
45. Fahimifar, A.; Tehrani, F.M.; Hedayat, A.; Vakilazdeh, A. Analytical solution for the excavation of circular
tunnels in a visco-elastic Burger’s material under hydrostatic stress field. Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol. 2010,
25, 297–304. [CrossRef]
46. Zhao, Y.L.; Wang, Y.X.; Wang, W.J.; Tang, J.Z. Modeling of non-linear rheological behavior of hard rock using
triaxial rheological experiment. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 2017, 93, 66–75. [CrossRef]
47. Valanis, K.C. Theory of viscoplasticity without a yield surface Part.1. Gen. Theory Arch. Mech. 1971, 23, 517.
48. Yang, C.H.; Wang, W.L.; Fan, J.H. A kind of endochronic constitutive description of mechanical properties of
soft rock under static loading. Rock Soil Mech. 1987, 8, 11–17. (In Chinese)
49. Abu Al-Rub, R.K.; Darabi, M.K. A thermodynamic framework for constitutive modeling of time- and
rate-dependent materials. Part I: Theory. Int. J. Plast. 2012, 34, 61–92. [CrossRef]
50. Xie, H.P.; Peng, R.D.; Ju, Y. Energy dissipation of rock deformation and fracture. Chin. J. Rock Mech. Eng.
2004, 23, 3565–3570. (In Chinese)
51. Yoshida, H.; Horii, H. A micromechanics-based model for creep behavior of rock. Appl. Mech. Rev. 1992, 45,
294–303. [CrossRef]
52. Lu, Y.L.; Elswort, D.; Wang, L.G. A dual-scale approach to model time-dependent deformation, creep and
fracturing of brittle rocks. Comput. Geotech. 2014, 60, 61–76. [CrossRef]
53. Shao, J.F.; Chau, K.T.; Feng, X.T. Modeling of anisotropic damage and creep deformation in brittle rocks.
Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 2006, 43, 582–592. [CrossRef]
54. Kachanov, L.M. Time of the rupture process under creep conditions. Izv. Akad. Nauk S S R Otd. Tech. Nauk
1958, 8, 26–31.
55. Lemaitre, J. Evaluation of dissipation and damage in metals under dynamic loading. In Proceedings of the
International Congress on Mechanical Behavior of Materials (ICM), Kyoto, Japan, August 1971.
56. Murakami, S. Notion of Continuum Damage Mechanics and Its Application to Anisotropic Creep Damage
Theory. J. Eng. Mater. Technol. 1983, 105, 99–105. [CrossRef]
57. Kyoya, T. A damage mechanics theory for discontinuous rock mass. In Proceedings of the Fifth International
Conference on Numerical Methods in Geomechanics, Nagoya, Japan, 1–5 April 1985; pp. 469–480.
58. Lockner, D.; Byerlee, J. Acoustic emission and creep in rocks at high confining pressure and differential
stress. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 1977, 67, 247–258.
59. Baud, P.; Meredith, P.G. Damage accumulation during triaxial creep of Darley Dale sandstone from pore
volumometry and acoustic emission. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 1997, 34, 24.e1–24.e10. [CrossRef]
60. Atkinson, B.K. Subcritical crack growth in geological materials. J. Geophys. Res. 1984, 89, 4077–4114.
[CrossRef]
Energies 2018, 11, 212 26 of 26
61. Meredith, P.G.; Atkinson, B.K. Stress corrosion and acoustic emission during tensile crack propagation in
Whin Sill dolerite and other basic rocks. Geophys. J. Int. 1983, 75, 1–21. [CrossRef]
62. Yang, S.Q.; Xu, P.; Ranjith, P.G. Damage model of coal under creep and triaxial compression. Int. J. Rock
Mech. Min. Sci. 2015, 80, 337–345. [CrossRef]
63. Xie, H.P.; Li, L.; Peng, R.; Ju, Y. Energy analysis and criteria for structural failure of rocks. J. Rock Mech.
Geotech. Eng. 2009, 1, 11–20. [CrossRef]
64. Lin, Q.X.; Liu, Y.M.; Tham, L.G.; Tang, C.A.; Lee, P.K.K.; Wang, J. Time-dependent strength degradation of
granite. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 2009, 46, 1103–1114. [CrossRef]
65. Yu, T.Q.; Wang, X.W.; Liu, Z.H. Elasticity and Plasticity; China Architecture and Building Press: Beijing,
China, 2004.
66. Sun, J. Rheological Behavior of Geomaterials and Its Engineering Applications; China Architecture and Building
Press: Beijing, China, 1999.
67. Wong, T.F. Effects of temperature and pressure on failure and post-failure behavior of Westerly granite.
Mech. Mater. 1982, 1, 3–17. [CrossRef]
68. Hajpál, M.; Török, Á. Mineralogical and colour changes of quartz sandstones by heat. Environ. Geol. 2004,
46, 311–322. [CrossRef]
69. Heap, M.J.; Mollo, S.; Vinciguerra, S. Thermal weakening of the carbonate basement under Mt. Etna volcano
(Italy): Implications for volcano instability. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 2013, 250, 42–60. [CrossRef]
70. Hajpál, M. Changes in Sandstones due to Thermal Effect. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Budapest University of
Technology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary, 2002. (In Hungarian with English and German Abstract).
© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license ([Link]
Reproduced with permission of copyright owner. Further reproduction
prohibited without permission.
You might also like
- Investigating The Thermal Cracking Processes of A Concrete Disk Considering The Influences of Aggregates and Pores: A Numerical Study Based On DEMNo ratings yetInvestigating The Thermal Cracking Processes of A Concrete Disk Considering The Influences of Aggregates and Pores: A Numerical Study Based On DEM23 pages
- Thermal Effects on Indian Sandstone PropertiesNo ratings yetThermal Effects on Indian Sandstone Properties13 pages
- Thermo-Plasticity in High-Temperature RocksNo ratings yetThermo-Plasticity in High-Temperature Rocks29 pages
- Cement Sheath Integrity in Thermal CyclingNo ratings yetCement Sheath Integrity in Thermal Cycling11 pages
- 2019 - Influence of Thermal Cycles On The Deformation of Soil-Pile Interface in Energy Piles - IS GlasgowNo ratings yet2019 - Influence of Thermal Cycles On The Deformation of Soil-Pile Interface in Energy Piles - IS Glasgow5 pages
- Mechanical Properties of Grouting Materials at High TemperaturesNo ratings yetMechanical Properties of Grouting Materials at High Temperatures36 pages
- Elevated Temperature Effects on Radiation Shielding MortarsNo ratings yetElevated Temperature Effects on Radiation Shielding Mortars11 pages
- Rock Strength Degradation from Temperature VariationsNo ratings yetRock Strength Degradation from Temperature Variations10 pages
- Thermal Cycling Effects on Bedrock PropertiesNo ratings yetThermal Cycling Effects on Bedrock Properties12 pages
- 2009-Effect of Curing Temperature On Cement HydrationNo ratings yet2009-Effect of Curing Temperature On Cement Hydration13 pages
- E Ect of Elastic Deformation and Rough Grain Surface On HeatConduction in Partially Saturated Granular Porous MediaNo ratings yetE Ect of Elastic Deformation and Rough Grain Surface On HeatConduction in Partially Saturated Granular Porous Media16 pages
- Development of Composite PCMs by Incorporation of Paraffin Into Various Building MaterialsNo ratings yetDevelopment of Composite PCMs by Incorporation of Paraffin Into Various Building Materials20 pages
- Thermal Effects on Carbonate Rock PropertiesNo ratings yetThermal Effects on Carbonate Rock Properties10 pages
- High-Strength Lightweight Cement CompositesNo ratings yetHigh-Strength Lightweight Cement Composites17 pages
- Thermal Insulation Cement for Geothermal WellsNo ratings yetThermal Insulation Cement for Geothermal Wells22 pages
- Moderate-Temperature Carbon Capture with DolomiteNo ratings yetModerate-Temperature Carbon Capture with Dolomite30 pages
- Heating Effects on Bourgogne Limestone PropertiesNo ratings yetHeating Effects on Bourgogne Limestone Properties13 pages
- Cement and Concrete Research: Florian Deschner, Barbara Lothenbach, Frank Winnefeld, Jürgen NeubauerNo ratings yetCement and Concrete Research: Florian Deschner, Barbara Lothenbach, Frank Winnefeld, Jürgen Neubauer13 pages
- FTIR Analysis of Carbonate Loss in ApatitesNo ratings yetFTIR Analysis of Carbonate Loss in Apatites7 pages
- Temperature Effects on Superplasticizers in CementNo ratings yetTemperature Effects on Superplasticizers in Cement10 pages
- Capric-Myristic-Stearic Acid Composite PCMNo ratings yetCapric-Myristic-Stearic Acid Composite PCM8 pages
- Identifying The Effect of The Hydrated Lime On SelNo ratings yetIdentifying The Effect of The Hydrated Lime On Sel11 pages
- PCM-Enhanced Cement Composites PerformanceNo ratings yetPCM-Enhanced Cement Composites Performance24 pages
- Optimizing Sintering of MgO-PSZ CeramicsNo ratings yetOptimizing Sintering of MgO-PSZ Ceramics6 pages
- Thermomechanical Behavior of RefractoriesNo ratings yetThermomechanical Behavior of Refractories7 pages
- Thermal Shock in Recycled Glass ConcreteNo ratings yetThermal Shock in Recycled Glass Concrete12 pages
- Residual Strength of Ternary Concrete at High TempsNo ratings yetResidual Strength of Ternary Concrete at High Temps8 pages
- Compressive Strength of Nano Concrete Materials Under Elevated Temperatures Using Machine LearningNo ratings yetCompressive Strength of Nano Concrete Materials Under Elevated Temperatures Using Machine Learning32 pages
- Preparation and Performance Test of Mixed EV-EP Concrete ThermalNo ratings yetPreparation and Performance Test of Mixed EV-EP Concrete Thermal10 pages
- Prediction of Compressive Strength of Concrete at High Heating Conditions by Using Artificial Neural Network-Based Bayesian ReNo ratings yetPrediction of Compressive Strength of Concrete at High Heating Conditions by Using Artificial Neural Network-Based Bayesian Re12 pages
- ATE Effect of High Temperature On Mechanical and Acoustic Emission Properties of Calcareous-Aggregate ConcreteNo ratings yetATE Effect of High Temperature On Mechanical and Acoustic Emission Properties of Calcareous-Aggregate Concrete9 pages
- Thermal Cracking in Mass Concrete ModelingNo ratings yetThermal Cracking in Mass Concrete Modeling27 pages
- Multiscale Model for Concrete ElasticityNo ratings yetMultiscale Model for Concrete Elasticity9 pages
- Reducing Heat of Hydration in Mass ConcreteNo ratings yetReducing Heat of Hydration in Mass Concrete11 pages
- Modelling The Thermal Energy Storage of CementitioNo ratings yetModelling The Thermal Energy Storage of Cementitio16 pages
- 2025-09 CIA Thermal Management in Mining Khan Jong PapworthNo ratings yet2025-09 CIA Thermal Management in Mining Khan Jong Papworth10 pages
- Heating Effects on Concrete Radiation ShieldingNo ratings yetHeating Effects on Concrete Radiation Shielding7 pages
- Heat Dissipation and Crack Resistance in ConcreteNo ratings yetHeat Dissipation and Crack Resistance in Concrete9 pages
- High Strength Concrete with Polypropylene Fibres at 200°CNo ratings yetHigh Strength Concrete with Polypropylene Fibres at 200°C7 pages
- Optimizing Concrete Strength with Taguchi MethodNo ratings yetOptimizing Concrete Strength with Taguchi Method7 pages
- Thermal Effects on Mass Concrete in TropicsNo ratings yetThermal Effects on Mass Concrete in Tropics19 pages
- Materials: Development of Vegetation-Pervious Concrete in Grid Beam System For Soil Slope ProtectionNo ratings yetMaterials: Development of Vegetation-Pervious Concrete in Grid Beam System For Soil Slope Protection16 pages
- Innovative Coastal Protection SolutionsNo ratings yetInnovative Coastal Protection Solutions20 pages
- Reinforcement Specifications ACI 318M-19No ratings yetReinforcement Specifications ACI 318M-1979 pages
- [Springer Series in Solid and Structural Mechanics 4] Alessandro Freddi, Giorgio Olmi, Luca Cristofolini (auth.) - Experimental Stress Analysis for Materials and Structures_ Stress Analysis Models for.pdfNo ratings yet[Springer Series in Solid and Structural Mechanics 4] Alessandro Freddi, Giorgio Olmi, Luca Cristofolini (auth.) - Experimental Stress Analysis for Materials and Structures_ Stress Analysis Models for.pdf509 pages
- Home Guide To Plumbing, Heating, and Air Conditioning PDF67% (3)Home Guide To Plumbing, Heating, and Air Conditioning PDF194 pages
- Catholic Youth Ministry Camp 2024 GuidelinesNo ratings yetCatholic Youth Ministry Camp 2024 Guidelines2 pages
- Grade 9 Geography Assertion & Reason GuideNo ratings yetGrade 9 Geography Assertion & Reason Guide15 pages
- HPTLC Method for Caffeine IdentificationNo ratings yetHPTLC Method for Caffeine Identification9 pages
- Review Engagements: SRE 2400 & 2410 GuideNo ratings yetReview Engagements: SRE 2400 & 2410 Guide3 pages
- MFA Challenges in Zero Trust ArchitectureNo ratings yetMFA Challenges in Zero Trust Architecture7 pages
- Hair Cuticle Patterns in Langurs and LorisesNo ratings yetHair Cuticle Patterns in Langurs and Lorises5 pages
- 2nd BHMS (CBDC) - Materia Medica - 48 DrugsNo ratings yet2nd BHMS (CBDC) - Materia Medica - 48 Drugs21 pages
- Inevitable Conflict in Industrial RelationsNo ratings yetInevitable Conflict in Industrial Relations15 pages
- Performance Enhancing Drugs Literature ReviewNo ratings yetPerformance Enhancing Drugs Literature Review51 pages
- Skylite Roofings: Innovative Roofing SolutionsNo ratings yetSkylite Roofings: Innovative Roofing Solutions23 pages