DESIGN OF THE DIFFERENTIAL FOR A

TRUCK BRAND FORD MODEL RANGER

1998
Chuqui Vinicio, Guayasamı́n Esteban, Males Michelle
UNIVERSIDAD DE LAS FUERZAS ARMADAS-ESPE
DEPARTAMENTO DE CIENCIAS DE LA ENERGÍA Y MECÁNICA
INGENIERÍA MECATRÓNICA
Sangolquı́ - Ecuador

6 de agosto de 2018

Abstract

The present work seeks to reinforce the knowledge acquired on the design of
different types of gears and their application in the automotive industry by
designing the differential for a 1998 FORD Ranger truck, considering parame-
ters such as the power input to the system , the transmission ratios suitable to
achieve a successful gearing between the elements of the planetary gear train,
the crown and the pinion, the friction losses generated in each of the elements,
the efficiency of the system, etc. The verification of the results was done with
the help of Matlab and the simulation of the complete set was carried out using
the SolidWorks software.

Key Words: Ford,Ranger,differential,Gear train,Pinion,Crown

1. INTRODUCTION
In antiquity the wheels of the vehicles were fixedly mounted on an axle,
which meant that one of the two wheels did not turn well, destabilizing the
vehicle, because when the vehicle takes a curve one of the wheels travels a path
more short, since the wheel opposite the turn is on the outside of the curve.
One of the solutions that were applied in the first vehicles was to make the
engine act on one of the wheels, leaving the other free. The first to assemble a
differential after acquiring and inventing the English Pacquer was Benz, with
the implementation of differential in automotive systems, it is achieved that
each wheel can rotate correctly in a curve, without losing the fixation of both
on the axle, so that the traction of the motor acts with the proper force on
one of the wheels, so that the differential can be described as the mechanical

1
element that allows both wheels of a vehicle to turn at different speeds, as it is
taking a curve towards one or the other side.

2. OBJECTIVES
2.1. General:
Carry out the design of a differential for a FORD vehicle, based on the
parameters obtained through catalogs and workshop manuals.

2.2. Specifics:
Analyze the operation of a differential.
Determine the type of gears necessary for the correct assembly of the
differential.

Carry out the respective calculations to determine the design parameters.

Perform a simulation using software that allows you to check the functio-
nality of the design.

3. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
3.1. TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
The transmission system is the set of mechanical elements that are responsi-
ble for making the engine turn towards the driving wheels, has elements capable
of varying the transmission ratio depending on the load transported, type of road
and layout of it.
Among the main characteristics of the transmission system we have:

* Modify the transmission ratio between the crankshaft and the wheels.
* Release the crankshaft rotation of the transmission system.
* Allow the wheels to turn at different speeds either in curves.

3.2. Differential system

It is known as differential to the component in charge, to transfer the rota-
tion, which comes from the engine / transmission, to the wheels in charge of the
traction Depending on the location of the motor-propeller group in the vehicle,
the systems of transmission of the movement to the wheels are different.

3.2.1. Vehicles with front engine and traction

Where the secondary of the gearbox ends in a conical pinion, which gives
movement to a crown, which in turn transmits it directly to the wheels by means
of two transmission axes, located transversely in the vehicle.

2
3.2.2. Vehicles with front engine and rear propulsion
The movement is transmitted from the gearbox to the conical reduction
torque (located on the rear bridge) by means of a hollow shaft called the trans-
mission shaft, which is located longitudinally to the vehicle. This transmission
system is constituted by: a gearbox, transmission shaft and rear bridge.

3.2.3. Types of differentials

Open Differential
The open differential is a system of gears that maintains the same amount of
pressure on the faces of the gears that operate each of the semiaxes (the wheels).
When one wheel rotates faster than the other, such as in a turn, the pressure
in it is maintained (so more power is applied to the side that rolls faster). This
is the best possible application of power on soft and dry surfaces, and provides
the best handling. In poor traction conditions, as in sand or mud, it is the worst
possible application of power. When one of the wheels loses traction, it skids.
Since the pressure is the same in each of the axle shafts, little or no torque is
available on the side that is not skidding (and that may have traction). A typical
open differential will keep the average rpm in each axle constant in relation to
the gimbal rpm. For example, when a wheel is not rotating (0 rpm). the other
will be rotating at twice the rpm it would be if both wheels were spinning at
the same speed in relation to the cardan. This behavior is due to the ”spider
gears”(textual) and therefore will also be present in a limited displacement
differential that has the same type of gear. In a turn in which there are no
wheels skidding, an open differential will allow the outside wheel to spin faster
than in a straight line and to the inner wheel to make it slower.

Self-blocking differential or LSD

LSDs, in their types by gears and clutches transfer only a fraction of the
available torque to the side that is not skidding. This is not as good as a blocker,
but it may be enough to get out. Many vehicles are available with LSDs as a
factory option. LSDs are not suitable for use on disengageable front axles. It
works by making the speed difference between the axles activate a gear that
reduces the freedom of movement on that side. This transfers torque to the
other wheel while the speed difference is sufficient to keep the gear engaged.
This type of differential does not require special service or special lubricants. Its
main disadvantage is mechanical weakness. LSDs activated by clutches are the
most common devices to increase traction. It is the cheapest but also the least
capable. Use a clutch or set of them to join the axes when the speed difference
between both axle shafts is high enough. The clutch does not transmit all the
available torque when it is new and becomes less effective when the time passes,
eventually losing all its capacity. The clutch must be replaced periodically. It is
required to use special lubricants to increase friction in the clutch.

Differential Torsen
The torsen is the only system capable of distributing the slip independent
of the speed of rotation of the axle shafts. It works by combining three pairs

3
of helical wheels that mesh through straight teeth located at their ends (conca-
tenation gears). The retention or increase of friction occurs because the helical
wheels act as an endless screw mechanism: the point of contact between the
teeth moves on a straight line along the tooth itself, which means the union
of movement of rotation of the wheels with the sliding movement that involves
friction. The tare or degree of resistance is determined precisely by the helix
angle of these helical wheels.
In any differential autoblocante, either conventional or viscous, the distri-
bution of force between the two semiaxes is always proportional to its speed of
rotation, however the Torsen differential can distribute the force of the engine
to each semiaxis depending on the resistance that opposes each wheel to the
turn, but at the same time it allows that the inner wheel in a curve turns less
than the outer one, although this last one receives less torque.
Bioreactor: Is a container in which a chemical process involving biochemi-
cally active organisms or substances derived from said organisms is carried out
[2].

Elements and Equipment

- Pressure vessel: It is a cylindrical vessel in which the process of tran-
sesterification will be carried out, its geometry contributes to a good dis-
tribution of tensions, they are usually made of stainless steel AISI 304,
since this type of materials decrease the thickness of corrosion caused by
the fluid[3].
- ManHole Cover: It is the cover to a hole designed to perform mainte-
nance on an underground or internal surface, which is used in industrial
processes and sewer services, where the operator must enter the chamber
to perform maintenance.
- Shaker Shaft: Is a mechanical element that in its vertical configuration
transmits a torque towards the blades, forcing the fluid to adopt a circu-
latory movement inside a container.
- Blade: It is a mechanical element that creates a flow model in the system,
resulting in the liquid circulating through a container[3].
Transesterification:It is the simplest and most used process to make biodiesel,
consists of the reaction of a triester of glyceryl (triglyceride) with an alcohol to
form alkyl esters and glycerol[4].

3.3. System Operation

The simplest processes for the production of biodiesel are the discontinuous
ones, where reactors with agitation are used, which can be sealed or equipped
with a reflux condenser. The most common operating conditions in terms of
temperature range from 25 C to 85 C, since a fast agitation is needed, speeds
of 219 rpm are used to obtain a correct mixture of oil, catalyst and alcohol in
the reactor.
The agitator shaft provides circular movement to the fluid contained in the ves-
sel, transmitting the torque generated by an external actuator, in this case a
single-phase alternating current motor, coupled to the shaft through a speed

4
reducer.

When it is necessary to have access to the interior of the container, either for
maintenance, loading or unloading of solids, an opening is designed by which
the operator can access the tank, according to the ASME standard section VIII,
division 1 the size of the Manhole set will be 18 to 20 in diameter, and the fas-
tening must be through bolts that support the loads generated in the process [4].

Boilted Joints
a) Rigidity of Elements When making an assembled connection that is
subjected to an external stress load, it is necessary to know how this load
affects the rigidity of each material that makes up the joint. When there
are more than two elements included in the grip of the fastener, these act
together as compression springs [5].

b) Screw Rigidity When making a connection that can be disassembled

without destructive methods, and that can resist tensile loads, loads due
to moments and shear loads, or a combination of them, a bolted connection
is chosen, where the rigidity of the bolt will depend on the part without
thread and the threaded part [5].

c) Packing: They are thin sheets of elements with generally flexible cha-
racteristics, whose main function is to protect the elements attached to
the, for the selection of a package should be considered the characteris-
tics of the process as temperature, axial loads, pressure, among others, to
determine a package suitable. [6]

4. DESING
4.1. Operating Pressure
a) Work Pressure (Po).-t is the manometric pressure to which a device
will be in normal operating conditions [7].

b) Design Pressure(P).-It is the pressure used in the design, in order to de-

termine the minimum permissible thickness or the physical characteristics
of its various parts [7].

The design pressure is in accordance [?]:

Lb
Si P o > 300
in2
P = 1,1P o

Lb
Si P o < 300
in2
Lb
P = P o + 30
in2

5
The operating pressure for the biodiesel processing in a reactor is 14.7 Lb, due
to the thickness of the tank it is considered that the internal pressure will be
different at different heights.

4.2. Manhole Cover

4.2.1. Selection of material:
The choice of material depends on the following factors:
Temperature
Pressure
Corrosive characteristics of the fluid.
Availability
Due to the requirements of the process, the material to be used is Stainless Steel
304, since it contains a low carbon content which prevents the precipitation of
carbides during prolonged periods of high temperature.
The parameters for the design are:
Outside diameter: 508 [mm].
Internal diameter: 484 [mm].
Effective diameter: 450[mm].
Material Stainless steel AISI-304.
Kg
Design pressure:4 equivale 0,49M P a.
cm2

Material specifications:

Sy=310[MPa]
Sut=620[MPa]
E=210[GPa]
L1=20 [mm] thickness lid
L2=10 [mm] tank thickness

4.2.2. Bolt Selection:

The total length of the joint is considered. (Cover + tank)
The properties of the bolt material.
The diameter, and the pitch of the bolt.

According to the ISO classification for metric screws, a M12X1.75 carbon steel
bolt was selected.

6
Specifications:
Sy=240 [MPa]

Sut=400[MPa]
E=207[GPa]
L=45 [mm]

Packaging selection:
Characteristics:
Material Asbestos-copper [8]
E=93 000 [MPa]
Thickness=1.5 [mm]

4.3. Shaft
In industrial processes there are operations that depend on the degree of
agitation since the purpose of this is to homogenize the work mixture, so for
the design it must consider several aspects such as material, the working time
of the shaft, the fluid that must shake, etc.

4.3.1. Desing Considerations

Characteristics of the fluid.
Type of flow inside the container.

A material that is compatible with the process.

The forces generated by the impellers.
The torque of the motor that is transferred.

4.3.2. Selection of the material:

Because the shaft is in direct contact with the fluid inside the tank, a material
is chosen that does not generate chemical reactions with the fluid, and that the
corrosion layer of the same is as small as possible, so Stainless Steel AISI-304 is
chosen.

4.3.3. Actuator selection

For the application described it is recommended depending on the power,
that the gearmotor used is CNVM 3-6110 YC-SG-B-8, which has, of 3 HP of
power, an output of 219 rpm, and 60 Hz frequency of work.

7
4.3.4. Shaft design parameters:
E=210 [GPa]
L=1.5 [m]
F1=F2=42.2 [N] forces produced by the impellers.
Security factor n=2;
Flexion stress concentrator kf=2.7.
torque concentrator kt=2.2.
Engine power= 3 [HP]
Speed = 219 rpm

The values for the stress concentrators are recommended to perform the first
iterations for the calculation of the axis diameter, for processes where the coef-
ficient of concentration of stresses to flexion is not exactly known torsion.[5]
The forces produced by the impellers are considered similar designs for the type
of process.

5. FORMULATION
5.1. Bolted Joint
Calculation of Design Pressure

P o = 14,7Lb
Lb
Si P o < 300
in2
Lb
P = (P o + P h) + 30 (1)
in2
Ph, is the pressure generated at various heights, so it is considered that a
Kg 2
column of water of 1 ft. In height produces a pressure of 0.0305 As the
cm
density of the oil and biodiesel are lower than that of the water, and the specific
weight of the water is less than that of the product, it is taken Pe=1.

P h = P eH (2)

Kg 2
For tests at different heights, Ph is considered to be 0.3 Tomando
cm
unidades del SI:
Kg 2
P = (1,03 + 0,288) + 2,11) = 3,43
cm
Kg 2
As a design pressure, it is 4
cm
Thus:
P = 0,39 [M P a]

8
5.1.1. Calculation of bolt parameters
Threaded length:
LT = 2 ∗ d + 6 [mm] (3)
Length without thread:

Ld = Ltornillo − LT [mm] (4)

Thread part length:

lt = L1 + L2 − Ld [mm] (5)

5.1.2. Calculation of areas

dr = d − 0,649519 ∗ p [mm] (6)

dp = d − 1,226869 ∗ p [mm] (7)

Effective area:

πDe2
Ae = [mm2 ] (8)
4

Area of the unthreaded part:

πd2
Ad = [mm2 ] (9)
4

Area of the threaded part:

dp + dr 2
π( )
At = 2 [mm2 ] (10)
4

5.1.3. Forces and Stress

Longitudinal Stress:

P Di
G= [M P a] (11)
4L1

Force applied to each bolt:

GAe
F perno = [N ] (12)
N

9
Preload Force:

Sp = 0,85Syperno [M P a] (13)
F p = AtSp [N ] (14)
F i = 0,745F p [N ] (15)

5.1.4. Confined packaging

Plates of the same material
E1=E2:
2πd2 E1 N
K1 = (16)
L1 mm
2πd2 E2 N
K2 = (17)
L2 mm
K1K2 N
Km = (18)
K1 + K2 mm
Carbon steel bolt:
AtAdEperno N
Kb = (19)
Adlt + AtLd mm
Constant rigidity of the joint:
Kb
C= (20)
Kb + Km

Plates of different materials

E1 6= E2:
The same previous formulation is made but the modulus of elasticity for each
material must be considered.

5.1.5. Unconfined packaging

Plates of the same material
E1=E2:
2π ∗ d2 ∗ E1 N
K1 = (21)
L1 mm
2π ∗ d2 ∗ E2 N
K2 = (22)
L2 mm
2π ∗ d2 ∗ Ee N
K3 = (23)
e mm
K1 ∗ K2 ∗ K3 N
Km = (24)
(K1 ∗ K2) + (K1 ∗ K3) + (K2 ∗ K3) mm
The values of Kb do not vary for joints with unconfined packing. Constant
rigidity of the joint:
Kb
C= (25)
Kb + Km

10
Plates of different materials
E1 6= E2: The same previous formulation is made but the modulus of elas-
ticity for each material and the package module must be considered.

5.1.6. Alternating and means forces and stress

Forces and Stress

CF perno
Fa = [N ] (26)
2
F m = F i + F a [N ] (27)
Fa
Gan = [M P a] (28)
At
Fm
Gmn = [M P a] (29)
At

Stress concentrators:

kf = 5,7 + 0,02686d (30)

Syperno − kf Gan
kf m = (31)
Gmn

Alternating and means Stress:

Ga = kf ∗ Gan [M P a] (32)
Gm = kf m ∗ Gmn [M P a] (33)
Fi
Gi = kf m ∗ [M P a] (34)
At

5.1.7. Marin factors

Surface factor:
ka = 1
Form factor:
kb = 1,24 ∗ d−0,107 (35)
Torque load factor:
kc = 0,85
Temperature factor:
kd = 1,019
Reliability factor at 90 %:
ke = 0,897
Limit of fatigue resistance:

Se = ka ∗ kb ∗ kc ∗ kd ∗ ke ∗ 0,5Sutperno [M P a] (36)

11
5.1.8. Safety factor
By Goodman:

Se(Sut − Gi)
n= (37)
(Se(Gm − Gi) + Sut(Ga))

By Gerber:

p
Sut Sut2 + 4Se(Se + Gi) − Sut2 − 2GiSe
n= (38)
2Se

5.2. Shaker Shaft

5.2.1. Torque calculation

P
T = [N m] (39)
ω
T max = T T min = T
Alternating and means torque:
T max − T min
Ta = =0 [N m] (40)
2
T max + T min T
Tm = = [N m] (41)
2 2

5.2.2. Determination of reactions

Figure 1: Forces diagram

F 2(R1 + R2 + R3) + F 1(R1 + R2)

B= [N ] (42)
R1
A = B − F 1 − F 2 [N ] (43)

5.2.3. Determination of Moments

By performing the analysis for each interval, you get:

M max = RA(R1) [N ] (44)

M min = −RA(R1) [N ] (45)

12
5.2.4. Alternating and means moments

M max − M min
Ma = = M max [N m] (46)
2
M max + M min
Mm = = 0 [N m] (47)
2

5.2.5. Marin Factors:

Surface factor:

ka = aSut−b (48)

Form factor:

kb = 1

Torsional load factor:

kc = 0,59

Temperature Factor:

kd = 1,019 −→ T = 85C

Reliability factor:
For reliability of 90 %
ke = 0,897

Limit fatigue resistance :

For the calculation of the limit of resistance to fatigue, equation 36 is used,
considering the final effort to pull the material for the shaft.

5.2.6. Calculation of the diameter

r
32n 1 3
d=( ( (kf ∗ M a)2 + (kt ∗ T a)2
π Se 4
r
1 3
+ (kf ∗ M m)2 + (kt ∗ T m)2 ))1/3 (49)
Sut 4

5.2.7. Selection of the bearing

Determination of force:

P = XF r + Y F a [N ] (50)

13
Calculation of life in millions of cycles:

Co 3
L10 = ( ) (51)
P

Calculation of life in hours:

L10 ∗ 106
Lh = (52)
60ω

5.2.8. Calculation of the adjustment

φ = 28
IT = 84 [µm]
Es = −55 [µm]
Ei = Es − IT [µm] (53)
di = 55 [µm]

ds = 83 [µm]
Unique hole:
Cma = φ + Ei [mm] (54)
CM a = φ + Es [mm] (55)
Single axis:
Cme = φ + di [mm] (56)
CM e = φ + ds [mm] (57)
Determination of Adjustment:

Jmax = CM e − Cme [mm]

Jmin = Cma + CM e [mm]

5.2.9. Calculate dimensions of the key

L = 1,5d (58)
Width and height:
d
b=h= (59)
4

6. RESULTS
6.1. Bolted Joint
The results obtained after carrying out the analysis for the meetings are the
following:

14
6.1.1. Plates of the same material
Material 1: Stainless steel
Type of packaging Ga [MPa] Gm [MPa] C
Confined 71.8494 238.1506 0.0964
Unconfined 79.1001 230.8999 0.1062
Table 1: Values for equal material plates
Type of packaging n1 n2
Confined 1.89 2.04
Unconfined 1.76 1.88
Table 2: Safety factors

6.1.2. Plates of different materials

Material 1: Stainless steel
Material 2: Aluminum
Type of packaging Ga [MPa] Gm [MPa] C
Confined 111.7063 198.2937 0.1499 Table 3: Values for plates
Unconfined 118.1279 191.8721 0.1586
of different materials
Type of packaging n1 n2
Confined 1.37 1.42
Unconfined 1.32 1.36
Table 4: Safety factor to plates of diferents materials

6.1.3. Analysis of Stress and deformations

Von Misses Stress

Figure 2: Static Stresses

Figure 2 shows the stresses generated by the internal pressure of the tank and
the preload forces in each bolt, these forces cause a consecutive deformation
from the outer edges of the lid towards the center.

Analysis of Fatigue

Figure 3: Failures due to Fatigue

15
In Figure 3 the simulation of fatigue tests for the Manhole cover is presented, the
greatest efforts as observed are presented around the holes of the bolts, causing
a deformation and a low percentage of failure by fatigue.

Useful life

Figure 4: Number of work cycles

Figure 4 shows the number of work cycles that the lid will support.

6.2. Shaft
Material : Stainless steel
Diameter Ga [MPa] L10 Fit
Table 5 : Values obtained by
33.6 20.38 2,9x106 V10/v10
shaft analysis.

6.2.1. Stresses and deformations

Analysis of stresses

Figure 5: Static Stress

Analysis of Deformations

Figure 6: Radial deformations

16
In figures 5 the e Von Misses stresses and its distribution in the axis are shows,
the greater values of stress are presented in the bearing 2, in the figure 6 the
radial deformation the axis by effect is presented of the stresses generated.

Fatigue analysis

Figure 7: Fatigue Stresses

Useful Life

Figure 8: useful life

Figure 7 shows that the fatigue that is generated is in bearing 2, where by mat-
hematical formulation is located the highest bending moment. Figure 8 shows
the useful life of the shaft for said process under the design conditions.

7. COMPUTATIONAL IMPLEMENTATIONS
7.1. Matlab
7.1.1. Bolted Joint

17
 Figure 9: Script Matlab
>> EmpaqueConfinado

C =

0.0964

Ga =

71.8494

Gm =

238.1506

n1 =

1.8993

n2 =

2.0434
For the calculation with unconfined packaging the same code was used, adding
the characteristics of the packaging and the calculation of its rigidity.

18
It was obtained as a result:
>> EmpaqueNoConfinado

C =

0.1586

Ga =

118.1279

Gm =

191.8721

n1 =

1.3207

n2 =

1.3685

7.1.2. Shaft

Figure 10: Script Matlab to shaft

>> diametro

Se =

137.2060

19
df =

33.6047

Ga =

2.0389e+07

Lh =

2.9331e+06

7.2. LaView
7.2.1. Bolted Joints

Figure 11: Aplication

7.2.2. Shaft

Figure 11: Aplication

20
8. CONCLUSIONS
Once obtained the results after the analysis of forces and forces in the
bolted joint, we can conclude that the design that complies with the im-
posed characteristics is that which uses plates of the same material, for our
design of Stainless Steel, since using either a confined or unconfined pac-
kaging, values of safety factors are obtained within the range established
for processes that handle internal pressures.
For plates of different materials, the best design is not the model with
confined packaging, although the safety factor is not within the values
established for the type of process, it is a good approximation for processes
where the pressure used is lower.
The calculations made for the verification of the safety factor were made
taking into account both a conservative and an optimistic model, and
in both cases satisfactory results were obtained, since in case of using a
conservative concept, it would not be possible to over-dimensioning the
design in an exaggerated way.
Under the results obtained in the simulation of static stresses and fatigue,
we can conclude that the design for the bolted joint is adequate for the
process, since the deformations observed in the center of the lid they are
small and the fatigue analysis indicates that there is a low percentage of
faults in the edges of the bolt hole, which is considerable since the section
under the head of the bolt is the one that supports greater efforts and is
the one that is prone to failures.
The diameter obtained after the analysis of loads is approximately 33 mm,
which meets the requirements necessary to be coupled to the output of
the motor specified for the process.
For the positioning of the bearings, the shaft was designed with section
changes in two points, to obtain the right coupling between the shaft and
the bearings, an adjustment was calculated for the design , making test
and error calculations, the tightening necessary for the coupling was under
an adjustment with tolerances V10, for the axis and v10 for the bearing.
In the analysis of esthetic stresses as in fatigue, it is corroborated that the
greater stresses are generated in the bearing 2, in the same way the radial
deformations are greater in the same sector, making it liable to failures.
The analysis of the useful life made to the bearings, gives us as a result
that the chosen ball bearing supported 2.9 x106 million of work cycles, so
it is not necessary to consider another type of bearing.
In the life simulation of the shaft it is observed that the section with the
highest failure percentage is actually close to bearing 2, while the sections
farther away will have a longer useful life.
Performing the mathematical analysis for any design is not complicated, so
the implementations in the Matlab and LaView programs, helped to avoid
calculation errors, in the same way the simulations carried out, allowed to
understand in a better way the mathematical results obtained.

21
Referencias
[1] IICA Atlas de la agroenergı́a y los biocombustibles en las Ámericas,Instituto
Iberoamericano de cooperación para la Agricultura,(2010)
[2] Ruiz-Leza, H.A, DISEÑO DE BIOREACTORES PARA FERMENTA-
CIÓN EN MEDIO SÓLIDO, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, (2007)
[3] Manrique-Rebaza, J.A, Diseño de un recipiente a presión con un siste-
ma de agitación para el procesamiento de biodiesel de 3m3 de capaci-
dad,Universidad Nacional de Ingenierı́a,(2011)

[4] Grey,C. Transesterificación de aceites vegetales empleando catalizadores he-

terogéneos, Universidad del Atlántico, (2014)
[5] Richard G. Budynas y J. Keith Nisbett,Diseño de Ingenierı́a Mecánica,
McGrawHill,(2008)
[6] David A. Rico Avellaneda,Empaques y embalajes para exportación,(2010)

[7] M.M.J,Diseño de una columna de MDE,Universidad Politécnica de Carta-

gena,(2005)
[8] Robert L. Norton,Diseño de Máquinas,(IV Edición)

22