Science, Technology, Society in the Middle Ages

Science and Technology in Europe

 The Feudal System

- The economy of the middle ages from the 5th century may be described as feudal.
From 11-14th centuries, the feudal system appears to be fully developed in Europe
with its religious and political heirarchies and corresponding science, technology, and
art.

 The Medieval Towns

- These towns lived by exchanging new manufactured goods through guilds of
handicraftsmen. The establishment of these towns was of crucial importance because
it was from them that eventually were to come the buorgeois class to found
capitalism.

 The church in the middle ages

- It was the order and unity of the church that counteracted the anarchic tendency of the
nobles providing in the process a common base of authority. The church was an
essential part of the feudal system.\

 Universities and Scholastics

- The first and most famous of these was the University in Paris in 1160. In the 11th
century A.D., medical school had been existence in Salermo. These universities
which were more general and systematic in their teaching mode soon acquired a
special place as repositories of learning.

 The impact of Greek and Arab Knowledge

- The period from the 10-14th century was a unitary Arabic-Latin effort to reconcile
religion and natural philosophy or science.

 The medieval science

- The medieval static rational science flourished onlyin the 12th-13th century and by
the early 15th century lapsed into obscurity. It was expected to give a share in
justifying the divine order of the universe whose main features were given by
revelation supported by reason.
 The Medieval Synthesis and Medieval World-Picture
- The rediscovered works of Aristotle and Pythagoras taught in the medieval
universities influenced the way medieval thinkers looked at the world. Later,
theologians such as Thomas Aquinas in 1250 A.D. wedded the overall beliefs of
Aristotle with the basic teachings of the church, with emotionally and intellectually
satisfying results.

 Technology in the Middle Ages Europe

- The advances in technology during the Middle Ages were made possible by the
exploitation and evelopment of discoveries and inventions of the following:
a) New Horse Harness - This innovation came from the 7th century A.D.. China
reaching Europe early in the 11th century,resulting in the horse taking the
place of oxen at the plough.
b) Water-mill and Windmill - Watermill was invented in Stone Age. It
was,however olnly in the Middle Ages that it came to be used widely. From
the start, it was an integral part of the feudal economy. By using a suitable
mechanism, it's rotary motion could be converted to reciprocal motion making
it a source of general power.
c) Clock and Watch - Just like the horse-collar, the clock and watch seemed to
have come from China,though it was developed into the present form in
Europe. In the 11th century, an ingenious mechanism was devised which
imparted a to-and-fro motion,thus the mechanical clock was born.
d) The Mariner's Magnetic Compass - The ability of a natural magnet to show
direction was known to the Chinese several centuries ago or aboutthe 6th
century A.D., before it passed to the West or Europe. Such a piece of magnet
on magnetized iron showing direction was the traditional compass.
The sternpost rudder apparently came also from China. This led to the
development of the sail that could be adjusted such that ship voyages could be
made in the rougher weather. This,together with the compass made open sea
voyages feasible and threw the oceans open to exploration for the first time.
e) The Sternpost Rudder - The sternpost rudder apparently came also from
China. This led to the development of the sail that could be adjusted such that
ship voyages could be made in the rougher weather. This, together with the
compass made open sea voyages feasible and threw the oceans open to
exploration for the first time.
f) Lenses with Spectacles - The discovery of lenses resulted in the invention of
spectacles in Italy around 1350 A.D.. This gave impetus to the study of light
or optics. The demand for spectacles gave rise to lens grinding/trading and
spectacle-making.
 g) Gunpowder and Cannon - Of all inventions introduced to Europein the Middle
Ages gunpowder of Chinese origin was to have the greatest effect
scientifically, politically and economically. Their use was initiated a technical
revolution in warfare comparable only to what happened at the start of the
Iron Age.
h) Paper - Paper and paper-making originated from China based on vegetable
fibers. It was already widely used in China as a cheap writing material in the
first century B.C.. It was introduced in Europe through the Arabs in the 12th
century.
i) Printing - Like paper, printing originated from China using movable wooden
type. It was introduced in Europe in the middle of the 15th century A.D. and
spread extraordianry and rapidly for books.
j) Distillation and Alcohol - The first preparation of strong spirits of wine was
made in the 12th century. As the distillation of perfumes and oil was already
known, alcohol was probably produced by accident in the course of some
medical preparation.

 Medicine in the Middle Ages

- The superstition and dogmatism after the fall of Rome flourished throughout the
middle ages. Astrology ruled prognosis, diagnosis was largely limited to inspection
the urine. Medical learning was devoted to the study of ancient authorative texts.
Therapy was through prayer, magic, charms, amulets and faith healing. Various herbs
were used widely. Hygiene and sanitation were at very low level.

 The Interaction of Medieval Technology and Medieval Economy

- The development of technology in the early part of the Middle Ages influenced the
economy and ideas of the late Middle Ages. Over the countryside mproved
production and transport increased surplus of the village and the amount of
consumption of manufacturers which was dominated by town of merchants.

Science and Technology in China

- The first civilization in China emerged independently in the fertilized river valleys of
Huang Ho and Yangtze rivers. China was much more efficient and productive in
applying knowledge of nature to practical purposes than the European West. There
were several great important extraordinary inventions and technological advances that
appeared first in China hundred of years before they found their way to Europe.
 Paper
- Paper making started in 140 B.C. but was officially used in writing starting in 105
A.D.. Paper was also used for clothing, wall decor, artwork and even in toilet.

 Seismograph
- A bronze vessel with pendulum sensitive to vibration was invented to detect
earthquakes in the 2nd century A.D.

 Physics
- Motion of solid objects was thought to be caused by force and cessation of motion
due to obstacle. They believe that weight is force. They were aware that convex
mirror gives only virtual image and concave mirror and inverted real image.

 Physical Theories
- According to Tsou Yen, the five elements were: earth, fire, metal,water, and wood.
Good in man in nature and society is due to equilibrium between Yan and Yin. No
distinction between mind and matter.

 Science
- Science lags behind technology. It was qualitative and dynamic.

 World View
- Organicist views are which every phenomenon was connected with every other
according to hierarchical order.

 Mathematics
- The ancient Chinese expressed numbers decimally analytically. Decimal place-value
and a blank space for zero had begun in China earlier than anywhere else in the
ancient world together with the metrology.

 Astronomy
- Official astronomer's main task was to predict the government fortunes. They
developed calendars within 365 and 1/4 days in a year and divided circle similarly in
to 365 and 1/4 degrees.

 Medicine and Biology

- The ancient Chinese believed that diseases are caused by excess of 6 chhih (breathe):
heat, cold, wind, rain, light and darkness, physicians prsecribed exercise,
hydrotherapy and wine anesthesia.
  Engineering
- Engineering in particular mechanical engineering was a field in which ancient or
classical Chinese triumphs, harness of animals and water-power for grinding and
operation of metallurgical bellows were invented.

 Gun Powder
- Gun powder appeared around 9th century A.D., followed by vigorous development of
explosive weapons from 1040 A.D., about 3 centuries before it appeared in Europe.

 Printing Press
- Wooden block printing was done in China around 700 A.D.. In 1020 A.D., the first
movable-type printer made from pottery was developed. Mass printing of paper
money and Confucian work were made around 1200 A.D..

 Magnetic Compass and Stern-Post Rudder

- The magnetic compass and the invention of stern-post rudder in 6th century A.D.
predated modern ships by centuries.

Science and Technology in India

- Indian ancient science history can be classified into a.)proto-historical b.)period of

contact with Babylonians and Greeks around 2500 B.B. and c.)period of interactions
with Romans. They divided the year into 360 days with 12 months. They considered
as elements: fire, earth, water, wind and space. Their medicine was based in nature
and ignored supernatural diseases.

Science and Technology in Arabia

- During the Middle Ages, the Arabs absorbed and preserved much work of the
Ancient Greek Philosophers. In the 8th century A.D., the science and technology they
encountered during their conquests were digested and then enriched by their own
investigations. The 9th-10th centuries A.D. were period of learning, research and
translations.
 Astronomy
- Astronomy was considered the most noble,exalted and beautiful science. They noted
precession of the equinoxes; they made observations of the sun and the planets that
led to the adoption of Neo-Platonic model. They used astronomy as an aid in
navigation.

 Mathematics
- The Arabic mathematics was superior to that of Greeks and Indians. They had tables
for trigonometric functions such as sine,cosine and tangent.

 Science
- The Arabic science was the heir of Hellenistic science during the middle ages. The
works of Galen, Prolemy and Erasthosthenes among others were acknowledged. The
influenced of the Greek sciences were tempered with those of Indian and Persians
ideas, however, the framework of Arabis science was exclusively Greek.

 Mechanics and Optics

- Al-Khazami studied center of gravity and equilibrium as thought by Aristotle and
Archimedes.; weight of a substance, spring balances, pulleys, linear and circular
motions, automatic machines, mirrors,creflection, rafraction, plane and spherical
mirrors.

 Elements
- All natural phenomena could be explained by the 4 Ancient Greek elements:
fire,earth,air and water with the 4 qualities of hot,cold,dry and wet.

 Medicine
- Diagnostic was based on elemental balance of heat, coldness, paleness, redness,
emaciation, fatness. Physician excelled in the treatment of the eye’s disease.
Pulmonary circulation was discovered by Al-Nafis in the 13th century.
Some science and technology advances in the middle ages
Science and Technology in Pre-Columbian America
 Roger Bacon Contributions
- Medieval European philosophy often relied on appeals to the authority of Church
Fathers such as St Augustine, and on works by Plato and Aristotle only known at
second hand or through (sometimes highly inaccurate) Latin translations. By the 13th
century, new works and better versions—in Arabic or in new Latin translations from
the Arabic—began to trickle north from Muslim Spain. In Roger Bacon's writings, he
upholds Aristotle's calls for the collection of facts before deducing scientific truths,
against the practices of his contemporaries, arguing that "thence cometh quiet to the
mind".
- Bacon also called for reform with regard to theology. He argued that, rather than
training to debate minor philosophical distinctions, theologians should focus their
attention primarily on the Bible itself, learning the languages of its original sources
thoroughly. He was fluent in several of these languages and was able to note and
bemoan several corruptions of scripture, and of the works of the Greek philosophers
that had been mistranslated or misinterpreted by scholars working in Latin. He also
argued for the education of theologians in science ("natural philosophy") and its
addition to the medieval curriculum.
 Opus Maius
- Bacon's Greater Work, the Opus Maius or Opus Maius, contains treatments
of mathematics, optics, alchemy, and astronomy, including theories on the positions
and sizes of the celestial bodies. It is divided into seven sections: "The Four General
 Causes of Human Ignorance" (Causae Erroris), "The Affinity of Philosophy with
Theology" (Philosophiae cum Theologia Affinitas), "On the Usefulness of Grammar"
(De Utilitate Grammaticae) "The Usefulness of Mathematics in Physics"
(Mathematicae in Physicis Utilitas), "On the Science of Perspective" (De Scientia
Perspectivae),] "On Experimental Knowledge" (De Scientia Experimentali), and "A
Philosophy of Morality" (Moralis Philosophia). It was not intended as a complete
work but as a "persuasive preamble" (persuasio praeambula), an enormous proposal
for a reform of the medieval university curriculum and the establishment of a kind of
library or encyclopedia, bringing in experts to compose a collection of definitive texts
on these subjects. The new subjects were to be "perspective" (i.e., optics),
"astronomy" (inclusive of astronomy proper, astrology, and the geography necessary
in order to use them), "weights" (likely some treatment of mechanics but this section
of the Opus Majus has been lost), alchemy, agriculture (inclusive
of botany and zoology), medicine, and "experimental science", a philosophy of
science that would guide the others. The section on geography was allegedly
originally ornamented with a map based on ancient and Arabic computations of
longitude and latitude, but has since been lost.] His (mistaken) arguments supporting
the idea that dry land formed the larger proportion of the globe were apparently
similar to those which later guided Columbus.
- In this work Bacon criticises his contemporaries Alexander of Hales and Albertus
Magnus, who were held in high repute despite having only acquired their knowledge
of Aristotle at second hand during their preaching careers. Albert was received at
Paris as an authority equal to Aristotle, Avicenna, and Averroës, a situation Bacon
decried: "never in the world [had] such monstrosity occurred before.
- In Part I of the Opus Majus Bacon recognizes some philosophers as the Sapientes, or
gifted few, and saw their knowledge in philosophy and theology as superior to
the vulgus philosophantium, or common herd of philosophers. He held Islamic
thinkers between 1210 and 1265 in especially high regard calling them "both
philosophers and sacred writers" and defended the integration of Islamic philosophy
into Christian learning.
 Calendrical reform
- In Part IV of the Opus Majus, Bacon proposed a calendrical reform similar to the
later system introduced in 1582 under Pope Gregory XIII. Drawing on ancient
Greek and medieval Islamic astronomy recently introduced to western Europe via
Spain, Bacon continued the work of Robert Grosseteste and criticized the then-
current Julian calendar as "intolerable, horrible, and laughable".
- It had become apparent that Eudoxus and Sosigenes's assumption of a year of 365¼
days was, over the course of centuries, too inexact. Bacon charged that this meant
the computation of Easter had shifted forward by 9 days since the First Council of
Nicaea in 325.] His proposal to drop one day every 125 yearsand to cease the
observance of fixed equinoxes and solstices[51] was not acted upon following the
death of Pope Clement IV in 1268. The eventual Gregorian calendar drops one day
from the first three centuries in each set of 400 years.
 Optics
- the eye and the brain, considering light, distance, position, and size, direct In Part V
of the Opus Majus, Bacon discusses physiology of eyesight and the anatomy of
 and reflected vision, refraction, mirrors, and lenses. His treatment was primarily
oriented by the Latin translation of Alhazen's Book of Optics. He also draws heavily
on Eugene of Palermo's Latin translation of the Arabic translation
of Ptolemy's Optics; on Robert Grosseteste's work based on Al-Kindi's Optics; and,
through Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham), on Ibn Sahl's work on dioptrics.]
 Gunpowder
- A passage in the Opus Majus and another in the Opus Tertium are usually taken as the
first European descriptions of a mixture containing the essential ingredients
of gunpowder. Partington and others have come to the conclusion that Bacon most
likely witnessed at least one demonstration of Chinese firecrackers, possibly obtained
by Franciscans—including Bacon's friend William of Rubruck—who visited
the Mongol Empire during this period. The most telling passage reads:
- We have an example of these things (that act on the senses) in [the sound and fire of]
that children's toy which is made in many [diverse] parts of the world; i.e. a device no
bigger than one's thumb. From the violence of that salt called saltpetre [together with
sulphur and willow charcoal, combined into a powder] so horrible a sound is made by
the bursting of a thing so small, no more than a bit of parchment [containing it], that
we find [the ear assaulted by a noise] exceeding the roar of strong thunder, and a flash
brighter than the most brilliant lightning.
- At the beginning of the 20th century, Henry William Lovett Hime of the Royal
Artillery published the theory that Bacon's Epistola contained a cryptogram giving a
recipe for the gunpowder he witnessed. The theory was criticized by Thorndike in a
1915 letter to Science and several books, a position joined by Muir, Stillman, Steele,
and Sarton.] Needham et al. concurred with these earlier critics that the additional
passage did not originate with Bacon]and further showed that the proportions
supposedly deciphered (a 7:5:5 ratio of saltpetre to charcoal to sulphur) as not even
useful for firecrackers, burning slowly with a great deal of smoke and failing to ignite
inside a gun barrel. The ~41% nitrate content is too low to have explosive properties.

 [Link] Aquinas
- Aquinas was a Christian theologian, but he was also an Aristotelian and
an Empiricist, and he substantially influenced these two streams of Western thought.
He believed that truth becomes known through both natural revelation (certain truths
are available to all people through their human nature and through correct human
reasoning) and supernatural revelation (faith-based knowledge revealed
through scripture), and he was careful to separate these two elements, which he saw
as complementary rather than contradictory in nature. Thus, although one
may deduce the existence of God and His attributes through reason, certain specifics
(such as the Trinity and the Incarnation) may be known only through special
revelation and may not otherwise be deduced.
- His two great works are the "Summa Contra Gentiles" (often published in English
under the title "On thr Truth of the Catholic Faith"), written between 1258 and
1264, and the "Summa Theologica" ("Compendium of Theology"), written between
1265 and 1274. The former is a broadly-based philosophical work directed at non-
Christians; the latter is addressed largely to Christians and is more a work
of Christian theology.
  John Duns Scotus

Relation between Philosophy and Theology

- Under the impact of the revival of Aristotle in the 13th century, several theologians
attempted to argue for the "scientific" nature of theology. This movement was short-
lived, and by the end of the 13th century the scientific quality of theology had been
rejected on the grounds that theology did not possess the same type of evidence nor
was its method demonstrative in the same sense as mathematics or Euclidean
geometry.

Epistemology and Empiricism

- Scotus shared with St. Thomas Aquinas a strong belief in the primacy of sense
experience in the process of human knowledge. Scotus, however, gave the intellect of
man a more active role in cognition than was customary in the late 13th century.

Marian Doctor

- The last important area of Scotus's thought concerns his teaching on Mary, the mother
of Jesus. Duns Scotus is known as the Marian doctor because of the high status he
accords to Mary. Scotus taught that Mary was born without the stain of original sin, a
doctrine known as the Immaculate Conception and eventually recognized as dogma in
the Roman Catholic Church.

Mathematics
- Oresme's most important contributions to mathematics are contained in Tractatus de
configurationibus qualitatum et motuum. In a quality, or accidental form, such as
heat, he distinguished the intensio (the degree of heat at each point) and
the extensio (as the length of the heated rod). These two terms were often replaced
by latitudo and longitudo.

 Albert the Great

- Albertus Magnus, also known as Albert the Great, was one of the most universal
thinkers to appear during the Middle Ages. Albert’s influence on the development of
scholastic philosophy in the thirteenth century was enormous. An examination of
Albert’s published writings reveals something of his understanding of philosophy in
human culture. In effect he prepared a kind of philosophical encyclopedia that
occupied him up to the last ten years of his life.
  Saint Bede
- The Venerable Bede. After the fall of Rome and the retreat of learning into the
monasteries, Europe produced few notable scholars who can truly be called scientists
until about the twelfth century. One exception was Bede (circa 673–735), who
became known among medieval scholars as the Venerable Bede for his great learning
and piety. He entered the monastery of St. Peter in Wearmouth, on the rocky
northeast coast of England, at the age of seven, and two years later he moved to the
nearby abbey of Jarrow, where he spent the remainder of his life. There he wrote
important ecclesiastical histories, world chronologies, and commentaries on scripture,
grammar, and music—as well as three long works on what now would be considered
natural science. De natura rerum (On the nature of things, written circa 703) is an
encyclopedic treatise on all manner of natural phenomena. Unlike other early
encyclopedias, Bede’s work is not just a catalogue. He tried to explain why things
were as they were and was the first scholar to show an interest in cause and effect.

 Robert Grosseteste
- Scientific Method; Grosseteste's numerous short scientific works made no significant
contribution to scientific theory. Yet it has been argued that Grosseteste played a key
role in the development of scientific method. In particular, Crombie 1955 (a summary
of Crombie 1953) has claimed (1) that Grosseteste was the first in the Latin West to
develop an account of an experimental method in science (98); (2) that he “seems to
have been the first writer to make systematic use of a method of experimental
verification and falsification” (107); (3) that he gave a “special importance to
mathematics in attempting to provide scientific explanations of the physical world”
(111). These claims have been the subject of considerable debate.

POSITIVE IMPACTS

 ROGER BACON
- Bacon also called for reform with regard to theology. He argued that, rather than
training to debate minor philosophical distinctions, theologians should focus their
attention primarily on the Bible itself, learning the languages of its original sources
thoroughly.

 ST THOMAS AQUINAS
- The main feature of Scotus's theology is the importance he gives to the primacy of the
will in both God and man. In contrast to St. Thomas Aquinas, who tended to
 emphasize the intellect or reason, Scotus stressed the freedom of the divine will and
the freedom of the human will within an order freely chosen by God.
- The freedom of God, for Scotus, means first of all that creation was not necessary.
God not only chose the type of world He wished to create; He chose to create. Having
once chosen, however, it is the nature of God to abide by his decisions. Although He
always retains the power to do otherwise, He never arbitrarily reverses His decisions.
- The second area where God's freedom is evidenced is in man's salvation. God, for
Scotus, predestines those He wishes to save apart from any foreseen merits.
Moreover, God retains His freedom to accept or reject the Christian who fulfils the
divine [Link] absolute power of God is limited by His own free
decision to allow man freedom and to award eternal life on the basis of human merit.
Man, for Scotus, is also primarily will and is united to God through love more than
through reason. Man has the freedom to fulfil God's demands and thus obtain
salvation.

 ALBERTUS MAGNUS
- Also known as Albert the Great, was one of the most universal thinkers to appear
during the Middle Ages. Even more so than his most famous student, St. Thomas of
Aquinas, Albert’s interests ranged from natural science all the way to theology. He
made contributions to logic, psychology, metaphysics, meteorology, mineralogy, and
zoology. He was an avid commentator on nearly all the great authorities read during
the 13th Century. His superior understanding of a diversity of philosophical texts
allowed him to construct one of the most remarkable syntheses in medieval culture.

 Robert Grosseteste
- Robert Grosseteste (ca. 1168–1253), Bishop of Lincoln from 1235 to 1253, was one
of the most prominent and remarkable figures in thirteenth-century English
intellectual life. He was a man of many talents: commentator and translator of
Aristotle and Greek patristic thinkers, philosopher, theologian, and student of nature.
He was heavily influenced by Augustine, whose thought permeates his writings and
from whom he drew a Neoplatonic outlook, but he was also one of the first to make
extensive use of the thought of Aristotle, Avicenna and Averroes. He developed a
highly original and imaginative account of the generation and fundamental nature of
the physical world in terms of the action of light, and composed a number of short
works regarding optics and other natural phenomena, as well as works of philosophy
and theology.

 BENERABLE BEDE
- The Venerable Bede. After the fall of Rome and the retreat of learning into the
monasteries, Europe produced few notable scholars who can truly be called scientists
 until about the twelfth century. One exception was Bede (circa 673–735), who
became known among medieval scholars as the Venerable Bede for his great learning
and piety. He entered the monastery of St. Peter in Wearmouth, on the rocky
northeast coast of England, at the age of seven, and two years later he moved to the
nearby abbey of Jarrow, where he spent the remainder of his life. There he wrote
important ecclesiastical histories, world chronologies, and commentaries on scripture,
grammar, and music—as well as three long works on what now would be considered
natural science. De natura rerum (On the nature of things, written circa 703) is an
encyclopedic treatise on all manner of natural phenomena. Unlike other early
encyclopedias, Bede’s work is not just a catalogue. He tried to explain why things
were as they were and was the first scholar to show an interest in cause and effect.

NEGATIVE IMPACTS

 Albert the Great

- He was Deeply involved in an attempt to understand the import of the thought of
Aristotle in some orderly fashion that was distinct from the arab commentators who
had incorporated their own ideas into the study of Aristotle.
- Yet he was not averse to using some of the outstanding Arab philosophers in
developing his own ideas in philosophy. His superior understanding of a diversity of
philosophical texts allowed him to construct one of the most remarkable syntheses in
medieval culture.
- He produced paraphrases of most of the works of Aristotle should have produced a
work, but it was missing, Albert produced the work himself. If he had produced
nothing else it would be necessary to say that he adopts the Aristotelian
philosophical-scientific program as his own.

 THE VENERABLE BEDE

- Bede was sent there at the age of seven and later joined Abbot Ceolfrith at the Jarrow
monastery, both of whom survived a plague that struck in 686, an outbreak that killed
a majority of the population there. While he spent most of his life in the monastery,
Bede traveled to several abbeys and monasteries across the British Isles, even visiting
the archbishop of York and King Ceolwulf of Northumbria.

 ROBERT GROSSETESTE
- Grosseteste had achieved the unusual status of being an authoritative figure for
Oxford thinkers—someone from whose writings quotations might be marshalled, on
the strength of his name, in defense of one's views.