A Training Course for Rig Electricians

Basic Eddy Current Brake

Section 1
Eddy Current Brake

1 Equipment Overview ................................................ 2

2 How Does It Work .................................................... 4
3 How Do I Operate It ............................................... 10
3 Inspection............................................................. 12
5 Maintenance.......................................................... 15
6 Spare Parts ........................................................... 19
4 Trouble Shooting ................................................... 20
5 Questions ............................................................. 21
6 Reference Material ................................................. 22
7 Work Place Assignments ......................................... 22
8 Glossary ............................................................... 25

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Basic Eddy Current Brake

1 Equipment Overview
1.1 Dynamic Brakes

The Eddy Current, or “Elmagco”, brake is an AUXILIARY

BRAKING DEVICE for drilling rig drawworks and other rotating
equipment requiring high braking torque at speeds from near
zero up to 500 RPM. This braking is produced entirely
electrically without the aid of friction braking devices, slip rings,
or other wearing elements. The brake is water cooled.

The Eddy Current brake, when used in conjunction with the

main drawworks brake, (Friction brake bands or Disc brakes)
maximises drilling efficiency whilst minimising maintenance and
critical downtime of the main drawworks braking system.

1.2 History

When the drilling industry moved offshore into waters requiring

subsea blowout preventers (BOP) and marine risers, it was no
longer considered safe to use hydromatic brakes to control the
huge weights involved. F. P. "Red" Gribbin and William B.
Baylor had acquired the rights to build dynamic brakes for rigs
in 1946. The eddy-current braking system does not depend
upon water pressure to work and is not at risk in the case of
burst connections. Moreover, the dynamic brake can handle the
cyclic overloads often encountered when floating vessels heave
in ocean swells. In 1954, they formed the Baylor Company to
build and install "Elmagco" Brakes. They were assisted by H.L.
"Duke" Zinkgraf who modified and improved the design, adding
a new control system.

So effective was their product that it can be said that almost

every offshore rig is equipped with the Baylor-Dynamic
Elmagco Brake. The same can be said for land rigs which use
the more modern SCR Drilling control system as opposed to the
smaller truck based drilling rigs, which are suited to the more
compact and less powerful hydromatic type brakes. However
with the event of new designs and changes in technology a
company called ETN is producing a large capacity hydromatic
brake. These brakes are occasionally being used as an
alternative to eddy current brakes on large drilling rigs.

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These brakes are manufactured in a variety of sizes to suit the

size and capacity of the drawworks on which the brake is to be
installed. Therefore the larger the drawworks, the higher the
load capacity rating of the Eddy Current Brake.

Figure 1 Typical “Elmagco” Brake

The brake selected will be required to be able to control the

weight of the drill string or casing string being lowered into the
well.

Figure 2 Baylor Brake & Drawworks Package

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2 How Does It Work

2.1 Eddy Current Brake General Theory

When the iron rotor, rotates through a stationary magnetic

field, currents are induced in the rotor. These currents,
commonly called “eddy currents”, produce a magnetic field
which interacts with the stationary field. This field interaction
produces a force which opposes rotor rotation and provides the
braking torque for the eddy current brake.

The eddy current brake provides high braking torque at low

rotor speeds. This is a distinct advantage over other types of
braking systems such as water brakes i.e. hydromatic brakes.
The braking torque is dependent upon the strength of the
stationary magnetic field, rotor speed and rotor temperature.
Torque increases with magnetic field strength and rotor speed.
Torque decreases as the rotor temperature rises. The strength
of the stationary magnetic field is controlled by the electronic
brake controller. The driller can vary the electric power supplied
to the field coils in proportion to the braking requirements.

Figure 3 Construction of Eddy Current Brake

The eddy currents induced in the rotor produce heat. The

rotor’s temperature must be maintained within acceptable
limits or the braking torque will be reduced.

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To maintain the rotor temperature within acceptable limits, a

cooling system is required. A steady flow of water is directed
into the area containing the rotor (see Figure 3). The
movement of the rotor through this water as it turns provides
uniform cooling of the rotor surface. If the flow of cooling water
fails while the brake is in operation the rotor will become
overheated and distorted. In this state the rotor, and possibly
the coils, will be damaged. Proper cooling techniques and
procedures are absolutely essential to maintain efficient braking
performance

Figure 4 Cooling Water Flow

Because of the tendency of eddy currents to oppose, eddy

currents cause energy to be lost. More accurately, eddy
currents transform more useful forms of energy such as kinetic
energy (rotation) into heat, which is generally much less useful.
In many applications the loss of useful energy is not
particularly desirable, but there are some practical applications.
One is in the brakes of some trains.

During braking, the metal wheels are exposed to a magnetic

field from an electromagnet, thereby generating eddy currents
in the wheels. The magnetic interaction between the applied
field and the eddy currents acts to slow the wheels down. The
faster the wheels are spinning, the stronger the effect, meaning
that as the train slows the braking force is reduced, producing
a smooth stopping motion. This example demonstrates the
same principle of operation for the Elmagco Brake.

In an eddy current brake a rotor is introduced into an

electromagnetic field which generates a counter EMF in the
rotor, and the faster the rotor is spinning the greater the effect.
This results in smooth braking but will not cause the load to be
stopped as the brake requires rotation to create the eddy
currents in the first place.

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The braking force is reduced proportionately as the speed of

the rotor through the magnetic fields is reduced. It will however
cause the load to slow depending on the current supplied to the
magnets and the actual weight of the load.

Figure 5 Cross Section of an Eddy Current Brake

2.2 Air Gaps

As previously mentioned the further the rotor is away from the

stationary magnetic field the weaker the counter EMF will be.
Consequently the bigger the air gap between the rotor and the
magnets, the less braking power available.

Figure 6 Air Gap Measurement

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The total air gap will increase if the metal is lost from the rotor
due to corrosion. For this reason it is imperative to maintain
adequate concentration levels of coolant inhibitor in the
drawworks and Elmagco brake cooling water.

Figure 7 Signs of Severe Corrosion

Below is a table of recommended air gaps for various models of

brake;

Brake Model Air Gap / inches

15050 0.040 – 0.050

7838 0.055 – 0.065
7040 0.055 – 0.065
6032 0.040 – 0.045
5032 0.040 – 0.045
19RD130 0.040 – 0.045
9RD130 0.040 – 0.050
7RD150 0.040 – 0.050
9650 0.040 – 0.050

Table 1 – Recommended air gaps

When the Elmagco brake air gaps reach the manufacturer’s

maximum allowable limits, the performance of the brake is
seriously reduced. At this point the brake should be overhauled
at an OEM approved facility or replaced. As previously
mentioned the useful life of the Elmagco brake is highly
dependant upon the quality of the coolant and the inhibitor
used in the coolant to reduce the rate of material loss due to
corrosion, which in turn will prevent the air gap increasing.

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2.3 Brake Formula for Power Reduction

The formula used for checking brake power reduction with an

increase in air gap is as follows:

Equation 1 - Brake Power Reduction

Where;

T1 = Original Torque

T2 = Torque at present

A1= Original Air Gap

A2 = Air Gap at present

If we apply this formula to the 6032 Baylor brake with a

measured air gap of 0.110 the reduction in braking capacity is
drastic.

45000/T2 = (0.110)2 /(0.050)2

T2 = 9297 (ratio of almost 1 to 5 loss of braking capacity)

2.4 Brake Cooling

The energy absorbed by the brake, is converted into heat,

which is carried away by the cooling water. The cooling water
inlet is near the bottom of the housing. Therefore when the
rotor is stopped, or turning very slowly, the top of the rotor and
the top of the coils are not cooled at all. The upper part of the
brake will only be cooled if the rotor turns sufficiently fast
enough to carry the water up and disperse it around the top of
the brake. Applying continuous full power to the brake, while
drilling will generate heat in the top of the coils, this will not be
carried away by the cooling water. Without cooling water being
dispersed over the coils, they will overheat.

The maximum allowable temperature is only 165°F or 74°C. If

suddenly the brake is rotated (to make a connection) cold
water will flow over the hot parts and cause them to contract
rapidly. Repeated heating and cooling will cause rapid
expansion and contraction which can cause the welded joints of
the coils to fail. For this reason drilling with the brake applied
full on is prohibited.

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2.5 Summary

In general, the brake may be used while drilling provided the

maximum current is limited to 50% or less. There are a
number of different controllers in use in the industry. Early
model controllers have a three-position switch to enable the
selection of High, Medium or Low braking power levels.

Figure 8 Brake Cooling Diagram

More recently “smart” controllers have been made available

to monitor and automatically control braking levels
depending on the operation being carried out at the time.
Some controllers have a selectable output that can be set to
“Tripping” or “Drilling” mode to ensure that the correct
current limit is applied. Other models monitor the maximum
current and automatically reduce it by 50% after a preset
time has elapsed.

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3 How Do I Operate It
As a result of various studies, experience, and discussions
with manufacturers, the following recommendations for the
operation of the Elmagco brakes are advised:

3.1 Voltage setting

Under normal tripping conditions the brake can be operated

with the full output of the controller, 240 volts DC. During
tripping the brake is operated only intermittently and the
rotor is constantly in motion. However the coils of the
Elmagco brake should only be energized to a maximum of
120 volts DC during normal drilling operations as the speed
of the rotor is greatly reduced, or practically at a standstill
for long periods of time. Constant high voltage levels result
in thermal loads that are too high, which will decrease the
life expectancy of the coils considerably.

3.2 Brake Control Systems

There are normally three different types of Elmagco brake

circuit controllers in operation, which have different
influences on the control arrangement and therefore also on
the working temperature of the coils, these are as follows:

• SCR Control (Silicon controlled rectifier)

The SCR control system is fitted with a three position

switch with Minimum, Medium and Maximum positions.
From these switches the brake coils receive different
voltage values (80V, 120V, 240 V). Units which have
these controllers in operation should only use the control
switch in "Minimum" or "Medium" positions during drilling
operations.

• PWM Control (Pulse Width Modulation)

The PWM controller does not have a selectable power

output switch, which means the coils receive the full 240
volts all the time that the driller’s control handle is at the
maximum position. The drillers control handle should not
be used at all during drilling operations.

PWM CL Control (Pulse Width Modulation with timer)

The PWM CL controller works in the same manner as the

PWM, but has the added feature that if maximum voltage
is applied for 10 minutes the controller output is
automatically reduced to 120 volts.

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If the brake is used for “drill assist” where the speed of

rotation is very limited, it is recommended that no more
than half of full voltage is applied to the coils
continuously.

When the shaft is rotating at moderate speed, the rotor

picks up water and drops it on the top side of the
magnets, which helps to remove the heat from the coils.
However, when the speed is reduced, this cooling method
is no longer effective. The brake magnet coils are
sensitive to heat in the same way as a transformer or
motor windings, the hotter they operate, the shorter their
operational life.

Figure 9 Baylor Brake Drillers Control

Operation of the brake coils at half the rated voltage

causes only a slight loss of torque at low speeds.
However, the reduction of heat dissipation is significant;
only 25% as much coil heat is generated. Continuous
operation at full voltage will considerably shorten the
operational life of the magnets.

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4 Inspection
Routine inspections are absolutely necessary to ensure
proper trouble free operation of the Elmagco Brake.

4.1 Daily Inspection

• Observe brake water overflow vents while lowering drill

string into the hole. If constant flow is observed
coming from the vents, slowly begin to reduce the
inlet flow rate until discharge from the overflow vents
ceases.

• If reducing the inlet flow rate results in too high a

temperature of the discharged cooling water (above
165°F or 74°C), check the brake cooling water return
line to see if it has become restricted. Discharge flow
from the brake back to the reservoir or brake cooling
tank should be unrestricted.

• To maintain the lubricant volume add two ounces of

lithium-based ball and roller bearing grease to each
bearing cavity every 24-hour period, or before every
tripping operation. Note: It requires 43 strokes of a
typical hand grease gun or 21 strokes of an air-
operated grease gun to produce two ounces of grease.

4.2 Weekly Inspections

• Check DC voltage to the brake under full load

conditions (electrical full load, driller’s control in full
on position). Full voltage should be 240 volts DC +/-
10 volts DC at the brake.

4.3 Monthly Inspections

• Remove the brake magnet coil cavity explosion-proof

drain/breathers (four in total, two on each side of the
brake) and the brake junction box vent (if fitted).
Clean with kerosene. These drain/breathers should be
open for the passage of air or liquid. Replace all
breathers correctly before returning the brake to
operation.

IMPORTANT: To ensure the full operational life of

the coils the condensation that may form in the coil
cavities must be drained.

To ensure the free flow of air, these breathers must

be inspected every month and cleaned if necessary.

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NOTE: Disengage the brake shaft from the drum

shaft by using the disconnect clutch to disconnect the
brake from the drawworks, before taking any air gap
measurements so that the brake can not be rotated
while being measured.

Figure 10 Taking Air Gap Measurement

Figure 11 Coil Cavity Breathers

• Inspect and record the brake air gaps. Remove the

1¼” NPT pipe plugs in the brake end plates (three
each side). Using feeler gauges (minimum length 6
inches), insert the gauges into the air gap between
the brake magnet and the rotor.

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4.4 Quarterly Inspections

Quarterly inspections consist of voltage, coil resistance and

insulation resistance value checks at the brake junction box
as described in OEM manual. After voltage checks are
complete turn off the main supply to the brake control
system, including the battery back up system if installed.
Disconnect each coil from their installed position in the brake
junction box. Remove only one set of leads at a time, for
example F1 & F2. Mark their position carefully; check the coil
resistance and insulation resistance then return the leads to
their correct position. Failure to do this will compromise the
operation of the brake. Log the readings that you have
taken and compare them with earlier readings and the OEM
specifications.

Figure 12 Measuring Coil Insulation Resistance

Test across Coil Resistance Insulation Resistance

Coil Ohm Meter 500 VAC

F1 & F2 14.1 ohm > 340

F1 & F2 13.9 ohm > 500

F1 & F2 13.8 ohm > 550

F1 & F2 14.0 ohm > 350

Table 2 Insulation Measurements

Insulation resistance should be 5 Megohms or higher when

checked with a 500 Volt DC insulation resistance tester
(Megger).

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5 Maintenance
5.1 Corrosion Inhibitors

Find below a section of a report done on a platform rig that

was regularly mothballed and might have a work over or
drilling program for one or two months each year.

Moduspec Survey Report

“In February 2001, the Elmagco brake was fully refurbished.

New bearings were installed and the rotor and the two
magnets were built up so that the correct rotor gap could be
re-machined. The existing coils were then still found in
acceptable condition and were reinstalled upon reassembly of
the Elmagco brake.

During this present ModuSpec survey, we megger tested and

measured the resistance of the four coils; they were found to
be in good condition. When measuring the gap between rotor
and magnets, heavy corrosion was noted. Gap values
measured were between 0.010” and 0.020”. When last
measured in December 2001 the gaps were between 0,035”
and 0.040”. These gap measurements when new (or
refurbished) would be 0.055”.

The Elmagco brake is regularly (every two weeks) turned

over by the maintenance crew, but this does not slow down
the corrosion in the cooling water spaces when not in use.
The cooling water treatment that was in use can not take
effect during the long inactive periods of the brake. The
brake cooling system must be kept inhibited with a
recommended corrosion inhibitor like Nalfleet 2000 or
equivalent. Other corrosion inhibitors may be used providing
they are compatible with the materials used for pumps,
valves, heat exchangers and brakes.

Follow the chemical manufacturer's recommendations for

maintaining adequate corrosion protection and ensure
suitable test kits and test chemicals are on hand to routinely
evaluate the degree of corrosion protection. Homebrews,
using soluble oil for example are not recommended since
they leave an oily film on the heat transfer surfaces causing
a degradation of the cooling system. Additionally they can be
subject to the cultivation of hydrocarbon utilizing microbes
that form an acid sludge if not inhibited with an appropriate
biocide”. Protection of the equipment from corrosion and
scale formation is best done using a mixture of clean water
with the specified proven inhibitor concentration and
constant rotation of the brake.

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5.2 Instrumentation

A minimum amount of instrumentation is essential to permit

continuous monitoring of the brake under operational
conditions, and the Elmagco is often fitted with a self
contained alarm panel mounted above the main junction box
that will monitor water flow, and over temperature;

• There are water flow sensors in the cooling water pipes

to the Elmagco Brake to provide a signal warning the
driller on the rig floor of failure of the cooling water
flow.

• There is a water temperature thermocouple switch

fitted on the outlet of the cooling water system of the
Elmagco Brake which should close to activate an
alarm from the Elmagco alarm panel if the
temperature rises above the alarm set point of 165°F
74°C, to warn of over temperature.

• If any of these switches close, they will latch a relay

which will ring a bell, and bring up a red light to warn
the driller of the problem. There is a push button to
silence the bell, but the red light will remain on until
the offending switch is open again to cancel the
alarm.

Figure 11 Water Flow Instrumentation

Most new Baylor brakes have a plate mounted on the

housing warning that the Elmagco brake is not to be
operated in any conditions without flow and temperature
monitoring devices installed.

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5.3 Brake Cooling Water Flow Rate Requirements

The following information was supplied by National Oilwell.

Table 3 is listing of nominal cooling water flow rate
requirement for various Eddy Current Brake models in typical
applications. Flow rate requirements are also indicated on
each Eddy Current Brake nameplate.

Brake Model Required Flow Rate

15050 230 GPM
7838 150 GPM
9650 150 GPM
7040 140 GPM
8350 140 GPM
6032 75 GPM
5250 75 GPM
5250 75 GPM
5032 50 GPM
3550 50 GPM
19RD-130 30 GPM
3630 40 GPM
19RD-130 30 GPM
7RD-150 40 GPM

Table 2-Brake cooling water flow rate requirements

The piping from the brake cooling water pump to the Eddy
Current Brake inlets must be of adequate size and no less
than recommended for the particular brake. The piping
should be routed in the straightest possible way, with no
more elbows and fittings than absolutely necessary.

The point at which the main supply line splits to feed both
sides of the Eddy Current Brake should be located so that the
distance to each inlet is about the same distance from the
“T” in the main supply, and the number of elbows, etc., in
each branch should be equal in both legs of the installation
from the “T” to each side of the brake casing to maintain
equal flow to both sides of the brake.

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5.4 Battery Backup Systems

Most rigs have a set of batteries installed which will supply

emergency power to the Elmagco Brake System in case of a
power failure, should it occur, to maintain control of the drill
string or casing string long enough for the driller to safely
secure (hang-off) the string.

The batteries are connected to a battery charger to maintain

them in a fully charged state.

Figure 12 Baylor Brake Battery Back Up System

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6 Spare Parts
These units are normally returned to the manufacturer for
bearing replacement or repair, and the most common spares
kept on hand are flow switches and temperature sensors for
the alarm system on the brake, and spares for the alarm
system control box such as relays and lamps.

Figure 12 Spare Parts Store

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7 Trouble Shooting
7.1 What If It Breaks Down

The Elmagco (Baylor brake) is a critical piece of drilling

equipment. If this unit breaks down the first indication will be
the automatic activation of the back-up battery system if this
is fitted. This will allow time for the driller to control the rate
of decent of the drill string and bring the load to a safe stop.
Before the drilling operation can commence the fault will
have to be diagnosed and rectified as soon as possible.

7.2 Fault Finding Procedure

Always utilize the manual and the wiring schematics, they

will show you all of the main power and backup feeds to this
system. Verify that these are healthy. The next step is to
confirm that all control voltages are present. Normally in the
case of brake failure it can be traced to the hand controller,
or cabling between the hand controller and the control box,
this will usually be cable damage or bad plug and receptacle
connections, sometimes due to corrosion if they have been
installed for a long time where moisture has entered the plug
and receptacle connection creating a poor connection.

Figure 13 Drillers Baylor Brake Control

The driller’s hand control receives a control voltage from the

brake controller unit. As the Driller operates the hand control
the variable voltage is then returned to the controller, which
in turn controls the DC output, normally between 0 and 240
volts, to the brake. There are various voltages used on the
hand controller, and these can fail if a low voltage unit is
used on a higher voltage system. The serial numbers for the
controller assembly and hand control should be checked to
make sure they are compatible for the installed brake control
system.

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8 Questions
1. What is a counter EMF?
It is the voltage, or electromotive force, that pushes
against the current which induces it and is caused by
a changing ________ field.

2. What provides the braking force of an Elmagco brake.

(a) Electro magnetic radiation. (b) Disc brakes.
(c) Electromagnetic attraction.

3. Mention the three items which have an influence on

the braking force of an Elmagco brake.
(a) Voltage & current (b) Speed of rotor.
(c) Temperature. (d) a, b,& c.

4. Explain why an Elmagco brake cannot bring the

drawworks to a complete halt.
The braking effect of an electromagnetic brake will
only work when the ______is turning.

5. What is the maximum outlet temperature of the

cooling water of an Elmagco brake?
(a) 80° C (b) 100 ° F (c) 180° C (d) 270° F

6. Why is drilling with a fully applied Elmagco brake

prohibited?
Damage to the Brake will occur because of______.

7. What will happen to the brake force if the speed of

the drawworks increases but doesn’t exceed the Max.
(a) Increase braking force (b) Decrease braking force
(c) Fading braking force (c) loss of braking force

8. Is there a maximum speed of the drawworks for the

Elmagco brake force to be most efficient?
(a) No (b) Yes (c) Maybe

9. Mention the required cooling-water flow rate of the

Baylor 7838 Elmagco brake and the smaller 6032
model.
(a) 150 & 75 GPM (b) 230 & 40 GPM
(c) 140 & 50 GPM (d) 150 & 30 GPM

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9 Reference Material
The service manual supplied by Baylor/Elmagco, with a new
brake assembly, contains the installation and service
information for that brake. The manual also contains
information on the alignment requirements for the coupling
during the initial installation and the flow requirements for
the proper cooling of the particular model of brake installed
on that rig.
There are other items apart from the brake that must be
considered, particularly with regards to the cooling system,
and the route the cooling water takes to return to the brake
cooling water tank.
There should be reference material on the rig for the brake
cooling water pump sizing to ensure the pumps are of
sufficient size to maintain the pressure required at all times
for the cooling of the brake.
There should also be reference material there for the type of
cooling installed, and this will come from the manufacturer of
the condenser or radiator system used to cool the water,
giving the flow and cooling data of those units.

2.6 Web Sites

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

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10 Work Place Assignments

Note. Please refer to your equipment documentation for
specific voltages & test point locations.

1. Check the input voltage to the Elmagco Brake

Transformer to be sure it is getting the correct supply.

2. Check the output voltage from the Elmagco Brake

Transformer to be sure the correct supply is going to
the Elmagco Control Box.

3. Check the supply voltage at the Elmagco Control Box

to be sure the required voltage is present at the
supply terminals.

4. Check the Control Voltage at the output terminals of

the Elmagco Control Box to the Hand Controller at the
Drillers Console.

5. Check the input terminals of the Hand Controller at

the Drillers Console to confirm supply from the
Elmagco Control Box, which will be a constant
voltage.

6. Check the output terminals of the Hand Controller,

which will be a variable signal, adjustable by the
Driller on demand according to the load on the blocks
at any one time.

7. Check the Control Voltage input terminals of the

Elmagco Control Box for the variable volts from the
Hand Controller at the Drillers Console.

8. Check the DC output voltage and current from the

Elmagco Control Box to the Elmagco Brake, which
again will be variable, depending on the demands of
the Driller and the Drill String.

9. Open the explosion-proof junction box on the Elmagco

Brake, by removing the ring of stainless-steel bolts,
and inspect the flame path which will have been
machined to a polished finish. The matching faces
may have been protected from corrosion with a thin
film of non drying grease, but must still be a clean
polished surface to be accepted as explosion-proof.
When closed up again the surfaces must be clean and
dry. The surfaces of the flame path may be very thinly
coated with non drying grease, or a product called
“Senson” to prevent corrosion.

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10. Check the terminations inside the Elmagco junction

box and make sure all the cables are marked to
identify them, and if they are not marked, then they
should be, to make sure they will be returned to the
same terminals as they were removed from when
testing for resistance, and continuity, during routine
inspections

11. The Elmagco Brake connection cables should be

disconnected in the brake junction box, and tested
with a good quality multimeter for continuity and
resistance measured at the ends of each coil to find
out the resistance value of each coil, and the
resistance reading will to some degree depend on
temperature, but should all be about the same value,
then each coil should be measured with a Megger set
to 500 volt range, between the core and ground to
determine the value of the insulation of that coil to
make sure that they are above 2 Megohms.

12. The Flow Switches on the Cooling Water Pipes into the
Brake can be tested with Alarm Power off and the
cover of the switch removed, so that the probes of a
Multimeter can be placed across the switch terminals
to determine if the switch is open or closed, with the
Brake Cooling Water Pumps on and off to see if the
mechanism is working, the contacts are normally
closed, and opened by flowing water, so if the water
stops flowing the contacts will close and ring the bell.

13. The Thermocouple which is placed in the water outlet

from the brake is more difficult to test, as it is usually
difficult to reach, and requires to be immersed in
water of the correct temperature to close the contacts
to operate the alarm system. The test temperature
should be 165 degrees F (74 degrees C).

14. The plugs need to be removed from three positions on

each side of the Brake so that long feeler gauges can
be inserted between the rotor and the coil faces to
determine the Air Gap Clearance. The ideal gap
measurement is 0.055 to 0.065 inches (1.39mm to
1.65mm). Ensure that corrosion scale is removed
before attempting to conduct gap measurements.

15. The explosion-proof vents (breathers) for the coil

chambers need to be inspected for corrosion and to
ensure that the non-return device is operational. They
should be shaken to make sure the internal valve
components are still free to move and that the
“check” function is satisfactory. If, after cleaning, the
device’s non-return ability is in doubt replace the
breathers. When these units are reinstalled, thread
lubricant should be used on the thread to make it
easier to remove them next time.
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11 Glossary
Dynamic Braking A method that produces
electromagnetic braking forces in the motor by dissipating
generated power from armature/shunt field reaction into a
resistive load. Braking force is determined by the field
strength, armature voltage, and thermal capacity of the
resistors. The result is a logarithmic braking characteristic
(curve) that diminishes with motor speed.

Regenerative Braking A method that produces

electromagnetic braking forces in the motor by electronically
controlling the return of generated power to the AC supply.
The result is a controllable linear braking characteristic
(ramp) that does not diminish with motor speed.

Bridge rectifier A diode bridge rectifier is a non-

controlled full-wave rectifier that produces a constant
rectified DC voltage.
An SCR bridge rectifier is a full-wave
rectifier with an output that can be controlled by the
switching of the gate control element.

Drive Controller Also called variable speed drive, or drive.

An electronic device that can control the speed, torque,
horsepower, and direction of an AC or DC motor.
• PWM drive is a motor drive using pulse-width
modulation techniques to control power to the motor. A
high-efficiency drive used for high-response applications.

• SCR drive is a motor drive that uses SCRs as the

power control elements. Usually used for low-bandwidth
high-power applications.

Direct Current Type of power supply available from

batteries, generators or a rectified source used for special-
purpose applications.

Eddy Current Currents induced in motor components and

transformers from the movement of magnetic fields.
Eddy currents produce waste heat and are minimized by
lamination of the motor poles and armature. Transformer
cores are also laminated to minimize induced currents.

Efficiency The ratio between useful work performed and

the energy expended in producing it. It is the ratio of output
power divided by the input power.

Insulation Non-conducting materials separating the

current-carrying components of an electric machine from

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Basic Eddy Current Brake

each other or from adjacent conducting material at a

different potential.

Insulation Class A letter or number that designates the

temperature rating of an insulation material or system with
respect to thermal endurance.

Megohmmeter (Megger) An instrument for measuring

insulation resistance.

Rated Temperature Rise The permissible rise in

temperature above ambient for an electric machine operating
under load.

Trending Analysis of the change in measured data over at

least three data measurement intervals.

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Section 2
Generators

1 Equipment Overview ................................................ 2

2 How Does It Work .................................................... 3
3 How Do I Operate It ............................................... 28
4 Inspection............................................................. 32
5 Maintenance.......................................................... 34
6 Spare Parts ........................................................... 36
7 Trouble Shooting ................................................... 37
8 Questions ............................................................. 40
9 Reference Material ................................................. 41
10 Work Place Assignments....................................... 42
11 Glossary ............................................................ 43
12 Power Factor ...................................................... 44

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1 Equipment Overview
1.1 History

Before the SCR system became the normal method of control

of Drilling Power, a DC system was used where a DC
generator was the power source for a DC motor using
basically the same system as was used in Diesel Electric
Railway systems and Diesel Electric Mining Vehicles.

An 8, 12, or 16 Cylinder Diesel Engine was used to drive a

DC Generator, and the output was used to drive a DC motor
controlled by systems such as the Ward Leonard system of
control to vary the speed and output of the motor.

1.2 AC Supplying SCR Drives

With the development of the SCR system the Generators

became AC Generators/Alternators being driven by the same
diesel engines with the AC Current being converted to DC
current via an SCR System. This through a DC control
module also controls the speed of the DC motors by
controlling the output of the SCR system. The engines are
controlled by the AC modules in the same SCR system to
match the engine output with the DC Traction Motor demand
on the Drilling Equipment by maintaining the speed of the
engines regardless of the load placed on them.

1.3 AC Supplying VFD Drives

On the latest systems the AC Generators are now used to

drive AC Traction Motors using frequency control to achieve
the same level of control over these motors and removing DC
motors and their high maintenance from the Drilling System.

With these systems the AC output from the generators is still

rectified to DC and smoothed to remove the AC ripple. It is
then fed into the inverter section of the system to be
switched by insulated gate bipolar transistor in order to
simulate AC voltage and current. This is then supplied to an
AC traction motor. The time the transistors are switched on
and off will determine the voltage and frequency supplied to
the motor to control the motor speed.

1.4 Generator Manufacturers

Kato, Caterpillar, Stamford, Westinghouse, General

Electric etc.

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2 How Does It Work

2.1 Magnetic Field Generators

The most important source of electricity is the magnetic field

generator, which converts the mechanical energy supplied by
a diesel engine into electrical energy. Even the storage
battery, which is the second-most important source of
electricity, gets its energy from a magnetic field generator
via a battery charging system.

As the name suggests, the magnetic field generator is based

on the relationship between electricity and magnetism. The
power generated can be used either near the site where it is
generated or it can be transmitted over vast distances. The
power generated is either direct current (DC), where the
current flows continuously in the same direction or
alternating current (AC) where the current is flowing in one
direction the first half of the cycle and in the opposite
direction during the second half of the cycle.

Whether the electric current is AC or DC is determined by the

way it is brought to the external circuits from the generator.
Until recently DC motors were preferred to AC motors
because DC motors develop the most torque at low speeds,
with excellent controllability which is required for drawworks,
rotary tables, Top Drives, mud pumps, propulsion motors
and large marine anchor winches.

This was previously not possible with AC motors,

consequently DC generators were used to power the DC
motors being utilized. Some older oil rigs still have DC
generators, but the majority of the modern rigs use AC
generators. Particularly since the advent of reliable SCR
control systems for use with the DC motors, which have been
used to drive the drilling equipment on oil rigs until recent
times.

2.2 AC/DC Generator Comparison

Since most of today's rigs still have DC motors, it might

seem strange to generate AC power and rectify it to DC,
compared to generating straight DC power.

Rig equipment needs a lot of raw power to operate, and

because of the AC generator design, manufacturers can build
AC generators bigger, cheaper and more powerful than DC
generators. In addition as modern AC generators are
“brushless”, maintenance of modern AC Generators is less
labour intensive than DC Generators which have brushes.

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As a result, rig owners can use more powerful diesel engines

to drive large AC generators, leading to a reduction of the
amount of engines and generators required to power a
standard rig. Power and maintenance costs are thus reduced.
The rigs operation requires a variety of different size auxiliary
AC motors along with lighting and small power panels. Step
down transformers are used to reduce the voltage from the
main generating plant to supply power to the Motor control
cubicles and small power and lighting distribution panels.

When using AC generators to supply power to the drilling

SCR units and all other AC requirements, no auxiliary
generators are necessary, except for emergency or stand by
generators to give power to the operation in the event of
total power failure. These are normally self contained units,
independent of the main system. As the AC generators do
not use commutators, AC generators require less
maintenance than the DC generators from a brush point of
view. Even if the generator has slip rings for excitation, these
rings are continuous and do not suffer the same amount of
brush wear that would be expected on a DC generators
commutator.

Commutators on DC Generators or Motors have a rotating

segmented surface, that tends to wear out the brushes that
are in contact with them. But the current that is transferred
between the brushes and the commutator while the motor is
running is the main cause of brush wear and sparking, as
current is transferred from coil to coil in the armature to
allow rotation.

Figure 1. Induced Voltage in a Magnetic Field

2.3 Induced Voltage

The basic principles to produce electricity are explained in the

next sections. When a conductor is moved through a
magnetic field, an electromotive force (emf) or voltage is
induced in the conductor. This induced voltage is proportional
to the rate at which the magnetic lines are cut by the
conductor passing through it (speed).
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There are many lines of force in a strong magnetic field.

Consequently, a conductor moving through a strong field will
have a strong voltage induced by it.

A conductor which is moved fast will cut more lines of force

in a given time than one that is moved slowly. Therefore, the
speeds of the conductor as well as the strength of the
magnetic field affect the strength of the induced voltage.

2.3.1 Direction of the induced voltage

Left-hand rule for generators. See figure 2.

The direction in which the induced voltage will attempt to

move the electrons depends on the direction of the field
which the conductor is cutting and the direction in which the
conductor moves through it.

Figure 2 Left - Hand Rule for Generators

The relationship between the conductor motion, the direction

of the flux and the direction of the induced voltage can be
remembered through the use of the left-hand rule for
generators:

• Extend the thumb, the forefinger and the middle finger of

the left hand at right angles (90°) to each other.

• Point the thumb in the direction of the conductor motion

and the forefinger in the direction of the magnetic flux
from north to south.

• The middle finger will then point in the direction of the

induced voltage as shown in Figure 2.

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2.3.2 Direction of the magnetic flux

Left - hand rule for conductors. See figure 3.

If the direction of the current is known, the direction of the

magnetic flux around a conductor can be found by using the
left-hand rule for conductors if the conductor is grasped in
the left hand. With the thumb pointing in the direction of the
flow, the fingers will curve around the conductor in the same
direction taken by the lines of the force of the magnetic field,
as shown in the figure below.

Figure 3 Left - Hand Rule For Conductors

2.4 DC Generators

Since some older rigs still use DC-to-DC systems we will

explain these generators as well as the AC generators.

The standard operation is explained by following the

schematic in drawings Figures 4, 5, & 6

Figure 4 DC Generator Simplified Drawing

A rectangular loop of stiff copper wire rotates between the

north and south poles of an electromagnet that creates lines
of force called magnetic flux. These lines of force flow from
the magnet's North Pole on the right to the South Pole on the
left. The parallel dashed arrows show the magnetic flux
flowing between the two poles.

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At Figure 4 the black side of the loop is moving up, while the
white side is moving down. Current flows clockwise through
the loop. The current goes to the commutator segment on
the right, through the brush and to the meter. The pointer at
the meter is showing that the current is flowing.

As the loop rotates through the magnetic flux, it generates

an electric current. Each end of the loop is connected to a
commutator segment. The simple commutator in the
schematic diagram is composed of two segments of copper,
but in the actual generator commutators are composed of
dozens of these segments.

Each half of the commutator segments rotates against a

brush (a small block of carbon with a concave face to match
the curvature of the commutator and a flexible copper cable)
that conducts electricity, from the rotating parts to the
stationary parts of the generator. The brushes conduct
electricity to a circuit outside the generator. The meter on
the schematic drawings deflects to the right to show the DC
flow.

Figure 5 DC Generator with Windings Perpendicular

In Figure 5 the loop has rotated 90 degrees so that it is

perpendicular to the magnetic flux lines. No current flows at
this particular moment. The commutator segments are NOT
touching the brushes, so the meter shows that no current is
flowing.

Figure 6 DC Generator with the Winding at 180°

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Figure 6. shows that the loop has turned 180 degrees

compared to figure 4. The current however still flows
clockwise through the loop. Consequently, the meter's
pointer still deflects to the right as it did in drawing 4. This
simple generator therefore generates direct current.

A practical result of the brushes touching/not touching the

commutator is that almost all DC generators show small
sparks between the commutator and the brushes resulting in
rapid wear of the brushes.

The contamination of carbon residue between the segments

of the commutator and around the insulators of the brush
holders and arms, has a bad influence on the insulation value
of the generator, the commutator operates as a rotating
switch, turning on and off coils in the armature as the
segments make contact with the brushes.

2.4.1 Construction of DC Generators

Figure 7 DC Motor Stator

Figure 8 DC Motor Armature

The DC generator consists of a steel frame or yoke

containing the field poles and the armature.

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2.4.2 Field Construction

The pole pieces, supporting the field windings, are mounted
on the inside circumference of the yoke. These pole pieces
are usually built of sheet steel laminations riveted together
and have faces shaped to fit the curvature of the armature.
The electromagnets or field poles are arranged in the stator.
The electricity flows through the windings to create
electromagnets. This electricity comes from a small
generator, called an exciter, which the engines powers. This
power is converted into a magnetic field between the North
and South Poles of the field windings, and in turn induces a
voltage into the armature coils as they rotate through these
fields.

2.4.3 Armature Construction

An armature consists of a group of copper conductors
mounted in a slotted cylindrical core made up of thin steel
discs, called laminations. The commutator is designed for
maintaining the current flow in one direction through an
external circuit. This includes the brushes and brush holders
that carry the current from the commutator segments to the
external circuit. The outer surface of the cylindrical armature
core is slotted to provide means of securing the armature
coils, which on most generators are form-wound to the
correct size and shape.

2.4.4 Commutator
The free ends of the armature coils are connected to the
commutator segments so that commutation takes place as
shown in Figures a, b,& c. The current flows from the loop
into the external circuit through one brush and from the
external circuit back into the loop through the other brush.

2.4.5 Limitations DC generators

The DC generated is fed to the external circuits through the
commutator segments and brushes. These contact points
between the brushes and the commutator are subject to
wear. Making them potential trouble spots inside the
generator, these connections make up the biggest proportion
of the maintenance tasks assigned to this type of Generator.

When the generator is subjected to heavy load, excessive

sparking is likely to occur at the brushes unless the
commutator and brushes are continuously kept in good
condition. The generation of high voltages within the DC
generator would obviously be hazardous because of the
sparking tendency at the commutator and brushes. Sparking
also induces electrical noise, as modern rigs develop and
electronics and computer systems are introduced electrical
noise is definitely something to be avoided.

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2.5 AC Generators

Alternating current generators, also referred to as

alternators, are the most common means of electrical power
production. Like the DC generator, the alternator has an
electromagnet that generates magnetic flux from the North
to South Pole as indicated by the parallel arrows.

This example has a single copper-wire loop rotating clockwise

through the magnetic flux. Each end of the loop connects to
a slip ring, which is in contact with brushes. Unlike the
segmented commutator, the slip ring is a continuous ring. A
wire from each brush conducts current to a meter.

Figure 9 Simple AC Generator or Alternator

In Figure 9 the black side of the loop is rotating upward

through the flux. At the same time, the white side is rotating
downward. The current flows through the grey slip ring,
makes contact with the brush, and flows into the circuit and
meter. At this moment the current flows clockwise through
the circuit as indicated by the arrow and the meter pointer
will be deflecting to the right.

Figure 10 Simple AC Generator turned 180°

In Figure 10, the white side of the loop is rotating upward

through the flux, while the black side is going down. The
current flows now through the black slip ring, which touches
the brush and flows into the wire and meter.

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At this moment, the current flows counter clockwise through

the wire and meter as indicated by the arrow and meter
pointer which is deflecting to the left. As the loop alternates
in contacting two separate slip rings, the current flow
changes from clockwise to counter clockwise on each rotation
of the loop.

2.5.1 Construction of AC Generators

All generators consist fundamentally of a field and an
armature, one of which must rotate. In the AC generator
shown in Figure 11, the armature or rotor is the rotating
member. Notice the DC exciter at the left, mounted on the
alternator shaft.

Figure 11 Cross section of a small AC generator.

Many small-size single-phase AC generators are designed

with the armature as the rotor, closely resembling the DC
generator, the significant difference being the slip rings that
bring the current out as an alternating current.

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The picture shown in Figure 12 shows a segment of the AC

generator with the slots in which the coil windings will be
placed. Better isolation of the coils is possible because of
their stationary position. In most large AC generators known
as alternators, the alternating windings are mounted on the
stator. In this way it is possible to supply the load current
directly to the external circuit without going through the
sliding contacts required in DC generators. Large AC
generators may have currents of several thousands amperes
per terminal, and sliding contacts would not stand such
heavy loads because they tend to spark, or arc over, and
sometimes even produce a short circuit.

Figure 12 Stator of an AC Generator

However, the voltage and current supplied as exciting

current to the rotating field are relatively small, and the slip
rings and brushes are adequate for such a circuit. The stator
of the revolving-field alternator is built up from steel
laminations, somewhat similar to the construction of the
armature core of a DC generator. The laminations of an
alternator stator, however, form a steel ring that is keyed or
bolted inside the circumference of a steel frame.

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The rotor of the revolving-field alternator shown in Figure 13

consists of protruding poles on which the DC field windings
are mounted. The field windings are connected either in
series or in series groups connected in parallel.

Figure 13 Rotating-Field Unit on an AC Generator

The ends of the field windings connected to the slip rings are
mounted on the rotor shaft and separately excited by the DC
generator. This application is called the exciter and which is
often mounted on the alternator shaft. The excitation voltage
is usually 120 or 240 Volts

Figure 14 Detailed look at Coils of a Generator Rotor

The alternators used on DP vessels are large in size and they

generate 6,000 Volts. These alternators are large three-
phase generators as shown in Figure 14.

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Generator is the term used universally for both Alternators,

which produce Alternating Current AC and Generators, also
known as dynamos, producing Direct Current DC.
Generators will be used throughout too indicate both AC and
DC machines, when necessary any specific information to
each will be indicated.

Figure 15 Large Three Phase Generator.

To produce electricity a magnetic field must pass an electrical

conductor; this conductor has a voltage induced in it. This
voltage is the machines output. Simple machines have
permanent magnet rotating in the stator. As machines
increased in electrical output the permanent magnet became
too small to provide this output. Once this point was reached
the use of coils were introduced. With the coils came the
possibility of controlling the output voltage from external
sources. This control developed into the modern Automatic
Voltage Regulator (AVR).

In a throw back to older designs, modern generators are

being fitted with permanent magnets once again. The
reasoning behind this is simple, upon start up the Generator
relies on residual magnetism still being present to actually
begin the generation process. If left for some time without
use the residual magnetism simply dies away to a level
where little or no generation actually occurs on start up. The
fitting of a small permanent magnet ensures the generation
process can begin to a level where the AVR control can pick
up voltage and begin to operate and bring the generator
voltage up to the specified levels of output.

Without the permanent magnet installation the process of

“flashing” the generator had to be carried out by connecting
a battery momentarily to the field circuit in order to give the
generator enough residual magnetism to start to generate
voltage.
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2.5.2 Generators Have Three Main Parts

1. The stator which contains the power coils which carry
the main current on a AC machine.

2. The rotor which located inside the stator is rotated by

the driving engine.

3. The exciter provides the power to the rotor coils which

produces the final output voltage of the generator.

2.5.3 The Stator

This is the main part of the generator it is large and heavy.
The output terminals carry the full current the generator can
produce. There are few maintainable parts on the stator. The
terminals need to be tight and secure to prevent arcing or
hot spots. Any filters on the alternator need to be kept clean,
if the air flow through the alternator is reduced, the
maximum safe temperature of the alternator will be reached
before the alternator has reached its maximum output.

2.5.4 The rotor

The rotor of a generator is made up of a set of coils fixed to
the rotors shaft. These coils on an Alternator are powered
from the excitation circuit, the Alternator has the magnetic
field fixed, relative to the shaft, and this means the whole
field rotates relative to the stator. On a DC generator it is the
stator which is supplied from the excitation circuit, a DC
generator has the field fixed in one place provided by the
stator, and the output is through the commentator and
brushes. In general terms the output of a DC generator is
from the rotor via a commutator. This is in contrast to the
output of an AC alternator, which is from the stator.

2.5.5 Exciter
Excitation is the system which provides the controlled small
electrical input current to the rotor, which then controls the
machines output power in the stator.

2.5.6 Excitation is Split into two Basic Types

1. Brushed Exciters which need a set of slip rings
mounted on the rotor shaft.

2. Brushless Exciters these have more equipment

mounted on the rotor shaft but do not have the
problems with carbon from the brushes and slip-rings.

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2.5.7 Brushed Machines

On a brushed machine the rotor coils are the same as those
on a brushless machine with the same electrical output. On
the main shaft a set of two slip-rings are fitted. The
associated brushes and brush gear mounted on the main
frame are supplied from the small DC generator driven by an
auxiliary drive shaft from the generators engine. The DC
exciter which is a small DC generator in its own right has its
output controlled by its own stator coils. In this system there
is maintenance required on the exciter commutator and
brush-gear. The carbon build up from these brushes is
required to be removed from insulators to remove possible
earth faults and the possibility electrical tracking or burning.

2.5.8 Brushed Exciters

These exciters are normally feed from a small DC generator
whose input is controlled by an Automatic Voltage Regulator
(AVR). A brushed exciter system has a set of slip rings
mounted on the rotor main drive shaft. These and their
associate slip-rings, supply the rotor with current to create
the revolving field, which creates the voltage in the stator of
the generator.

It is common to have a small DC generator to supply the

main rotor of the generator set. The output from this small
generator / exciter is controlled by the AVR circuit. The
disadvantage of this system is the quantity of equipment
needed and the additional maintenance of the brushgear,
that DC generator commutation and brushes require. In
certain applications the supply to the slip-rings is supplied
from a static converter. This is a small, relative to the output
of the generator, power supply used instead of the DC exciter
generator.

2.5.9 Brushless Machines

On a brushless Alternator, there are two sets of coils and a
diode bridge located on the main shaft.

Figure 16 Exciter Assembly on a Brushless Generator.

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The main rotor coils which produce the magnetic field, which
is rotated within the stator coils, are the same size physically
and electrically no matter which method of excitation is used.

The exciter generator also known as the auxiliary generator

has its stator coils feed from the generators AVR system. The
excitation generator rotor coils supply the current to the
main coils. The Diode Bridge or revolving diode plate is used
to produce the DC for the rotor coils from the AC generated
in the exciter generator.

2.6 Generators Operating in Parallel

To understand how generators behave when in parallel, the

characteristics of load response of an individual machine
must be explained. The system frequency is fixed and
expected not to alter from the 60Hz when under steady state
conditions. The frequency is directly proportional to the
speed of the engine, and control of the frequency is achieved
controlling the speed of the engine. The system voltage is
also maintained at 600V under steady state conditions by the
AVR. In the drilling industry the continuous application of
varying high power loads means the system is rarely in a
steady state and the Automatic Voltage Regulator and Engine
Governor are continually working to keep the voltage and
frequency stable.

Several conditions need to balance within the

Engine/Generator control system to maintain the required
frequency and voltage. If any one of the parameters is
incorrect the control system will alter the signals to adjust
the Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) and or Governor to
bring the system back to 600V 60Hz.

Generally speaking the systems steady state conditions

(Voltage and Frequency) are as follows.

2.6.1 Governed by two Independent Factors.

1. System frequency is governed by the actual speed
of rotation of the generator; this is of course the
speed of the engine. So by adjusting the speed of
the engine the controller can keep the frequency
at the desired setting.

2. System voltage is controlled by the excitation

levels of the generator sent by the AVR. By
varying the excitation level the output voltage
levels of the Generator can be controlled.

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2.6.2 System Frequency

With the system running in stead state of 600 V and 60 Hz
the governor on the engine would be steady at a level
proportional to the load on the system and the number of
generators on line. When a load is applied to the system, by
starting a mixing pump, the system load would increase, and
each generator and engine load would increase. The control
system would increase the signal to the governor, and the
governor would move the fuel rack to increase the quantity
of fuel to the engine. The engine would speed up back to the
60Hz, and once back at or just over 60Hz the governor
control system would reduce the fuel, to ensure the systems
speed did not increase above the set point of 60Hz. The
system would once again return to the steady state.

2.6.3 System Voltage

At the same time when a load is applied to the steady
system the voltage on the system would drop, and the
voltage drops and the load amps increase because of this
voltage drop. This double drop places a larger load on the
generator engine, and the AVR responds in the same way as
the governor and increases, this time, the supply to the
excitation of the generator. As both these parts of the
system, governor control and AVR, operate automatically the
operator observing the system would find it difficult to
observe the drops in speed/frequency or voltage unless the
applied load was large. As you can see there are two distinct
parts to the load response on a generator.

Figure17 Mobile Generator Skids

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2.7 Speed/Frequency & Voltage.

All generators in the system contain these two control loops,

with both of these loops containing several adjusting points,
for controlling response time and set points. To maintain any
system in a steady state the feedback of the signals need to
be controlled as well as amplified, damped and stabilised. If
one of these control points is incorrectly or even differently
set from another, the overall response to an equally applied
load will be different.

This different response causes the machines to react in a

different way and if exaggerated would lead to generator sets
fighting each other until the steady state was achieved. If
each machine responds the same way the system will react
to any changing load as a single unit. Once this has been
achieved it will be the aim to maintain the system in this
state at all times.

2.7.1 System Causes & Effects

To determine which machine is defective is a skill, which
needs thought and a logical approach. In a worse case
scenario you can get circulating currents between parallel
engine/generator sets where a generator is being driven by
the switchboard system, and the generator can and will act
as a motor and therefore the generator is trying to drive the
engine that is driving it against the engines rotation.

This is called reverse power and normally the Generator that

is being driven “backwards” will trip off line when the reverse
power levels exceed a preset figure. If no reverse power
protection is fitted or it is not functioning, in extreme cases
the engine could suffer severe damage in the transmission
train. For Generator sets to operate in parallel and balance
the system load between them, these main conditions must
be met.

• All engines must be running at the same speed.

• The voltage of the alternators must be the same.

• The response of the AVR & Governor control must be the

same.

To safely place an alternator on to the system, on line, the

speed and voltage must be the same. If either are out by any
significant degree the person carrying out the operation can
easily be in danger and the equipment can be seriously
damaged.

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There are well documented cases where engines have

received twisted crank shafts due to incorrect
synchronization or failure of an automatic synchronizing
system.

Figure 17 Main Generator

These statements may seem to be obvious to experienced

generator operators, but at many locations the balancing of
the system is automatic, and never clearly understood by the
operators. Synchronization is the act of bringing a generator
on line, and connecting it to the live electrical main bus
system. This may have one of more generators synchronised
to it and running together.

2.8 Speed

The speed of the system is called its frequency and is either

50Hz or 60Hz. This relates directly to the number of coils
built into the generator and the speed of the engine driving
the generator. Engine speed for a Caterpillar 399 is
1,200RPM on a 60Hz system. The exact speed needs to be
checked with your own system, if the speed is exactly the
same as the system the generator would just run on line
without generating power or taking power from the system.
To generate load the generator must be trying to move
faster.

2.9 Voltage

2.9.1 Preparing To Synchronize

To synchronize a generator, not only the speed but also each
generator must be producing the maximum voltage on the
same phase at the same time. If the voltage on the on red
phase, for example, reaches maximum at the same time on
both the system and the incoming generator the voltages are
running together and there will be no voltage difference
between the system and the incoming generator.

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It is possible for the incoming generator and the system to

be running at exactly the same speed but the red phase of
the system is reaching its maximum at a different time to the
incoming generator. (Incoming generator is not in sync) This
situation produces a voltage between the system red phase
and the incoming machines red phase. The same voltage
difference can also be measured across the white and blue
phases. If the circuit breaker is closed at this time a very
large current will flow due to this voltage.

This very large current will cause damage to equipment and

danger to personnel. When the voltages are rising and falling
at the same time they are said to be in synchronism.
Therefore synchronization can be achieved by safely closing
the generators circuit breaker. Once on the line the machine
will be required to take load and supply power to the drilling
unit. For a machine to generate power the engine must be
trying to go faster. The faster it is trying to go the more
power it will generate. This may sound strange when the
speed is not allowed to increase, but examine the example of
a car going over a hill. Where to climb the hill the throttle
has to be increased, but on reaching the summit the amount
of throttle is reduced to prevent the car over speeding. The
relationship between the throttle pedal in a car and the
governor should make the generator control situation easier
to understand.

2.9.2 Governor Actuator

To control the engine the governor actuator is energised to
move the fuel rack which alters the amount of fuel delivered
to the engine. A governor actuator is the device mounted on
the engine and is commonly called just the governor. This
device, which is driven from the engine uses a small
hydraulic system within itself to change the small electrical
control signal to the mechanical force required to move the
fuel rack and hence the speed and power output of the
engine.

As can be seen in the Figure 17, this is a very poor electrical

installation, with terminal blocks and PVC insulating tape,
subject to high vibration on the engine. Termination is
normally achieved with a plug and receptacle or socket
connection, which has a threaded locking ring on the cord
grip receptacle to prevent loose connections due to vibration.
This type of connection allows for quick disconnection if
actuator replacement is required or to enable the actuator to
be tested on the engine for coil resistance.

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The control of the governor needs to react to the ever

changing loads during drilling operations and is therefore
reactionary. The speed of reaction is an amplification of any
signal difference and the damping of the response is all
adjustable. It is usual with modern equipment that they are
stable, reliable and very seldom need to be adjusted. Most
setting faults can be traced back to either initial set up, or
when some one has adjusted one machine with the best
intentions.

Figure 18 Governor Actuator on a Caterpillar 399

When setting up a system you must be able to put the full

dynamic loading onto the system to observe and adjust each
machine to balance reactions and responses. To try and do
this when in operation is fraught with difficulties, and not to
be contemplated unless you are fully conversant with the
system and have the support of the drilling management.
It is easy to cause a black out when adjusting a generator
governor even by experienced electricians, so you have been
warned. Once off line the off line machine should be checked
to see that it is running at 60Hz and 600V. This saves time
when putting the generator on line the next time. It may be
necessary to do it quickly and any reduction in the time
taken is beneficial.

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2.10 Generator Protection

Earthing of the alternator is important, as some of the

protection circuit devices are dependant upon the faults
having a return path back to the point of supply.

Figure 19 Generator Control Switchboard.

The protection of generators is split into two sections.

2.10.1 Engine and Generator.

1. The engine protection is just the protection of the
engine, and is normally confined to overspeed,
lubricating oil pressure and temperature, and jacket
cooling water temperature to protect the engine from
mechanical failure.

2. The generator is protected against several failures or

conditions as is shown in the following table listing
protection, explanation, and possible causes.

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2.10.2 Causes and Explanations

Protection Explanation Possible causes

Reverse When the generator Engine slowed down

Power is taking load from or stopped.
the system like a
motor rather than Engine cannot
giving as a produce the required
generator. power, fuel
starvation.

Over The generator has The system load was

Frequency for some reason reduced very quickly
been going faster and the engine/s
than the specified could not react fast
frequency. enough,

governor actuator
problems.

Under The voltage Failure of the

Voltage generated by the excitation system
generator was below working in
what expected conjunction with
system. reverse power.
Depending upon the
two settings it may
be one trips before
the other.

Overload The generator load Too much load on

in Amps was above system or not
the maximum of the enough generators
system. on line for
operations.

Short A fault on the A fault on the

Circuit system that takes a system, which needs
very large current. to be investigated.

Table 1 Cause and Effect Chart

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2.10.3 Secondary Protection Covers

• Preferential trips

• DC load control

• Alternator imbalance

• Earth fault detection

• Loading alarms.

These can again be split into two distinct types, one the
control and the other switching of system loads.

Figure 20 No Protection No Generator

2.10.4 Protection Controls.

The first group is the system protection controls. These are
used to protect the system from excessive load and the
possibility of blackout. A blackout on a drilling unit when in
operation can cause major “hole problems” and being stuck
in the hole is a likely outcome of a blackout.

To reduce the likelihood of a blackout, the generation system

is protected by load management systems. The complexity of
the load management can be a simple “Open circuit breakers
on certain non-essential loads” to remove those loads from
the system. To more complex systems, which will start, run
up, synchronize, and put on line the extra generators
required by the load.

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We will concentrate on the simpler types, and leave it to the

new recruit to furnish himself with the information on the
particular system employed on the drilling unit he is involved
with. As the load on the system increases the generator
circuit breaker protection system will be monitoring this. As
the load approaches a preset figure (normally 90-95% of the
individual generator load) the control system closes a relay.

2.10.5 Protection Relay Characteristics

The system design will dictate what these relay contacts do.

2.10.6 Executive Tripping

These relays can give “Open Circuit Breaker” signals to non-
essential loads, which have been defined at the design stage
of the unit. The contacts can also be used to “Ramp Down”
the DC load by reducing the SCR output to the DC motors.
The most dramatic is the opening of circuit breakers
supplying certain SCRs, which instantly reduces a major part
of the load but leaves the drilling department to manage the
available power to the best of their ability. This can lead to
dire consequences while drilling such as getting stuck in the
hole

2.10.7 SCR Phase-Back Signal

In one system the control point is an analogue signal, which
is used to control the maximum speeds of DC motors
connected to the system. The nearer the system gets to
100% load the further the DC motor outputs are ramped
down. Ramping down reduces the load and therefore the
system should be able to maintain the system running at
near full load by using this system, until another generator is
put on line to increase generating capacity.

Once the load reaches the 90-95% load figure, an overload

alarm is normally fitted to the drillers console to ensure he
knows the load is approaching a dangerously high level. This
alarm, which is normally in the form of a load limit light,
should initiate action from all departments to reduce the load
or place additional generators on line.

2.10.8 Generator Protection

The second group is dedicated to the protection of the
generator itself. It is difficult to provide protection against a
fault occurring within the generator. A short-circuit fault
within the generator would be fed from the generator itself
and all other generators on the system would feed this fault.
This causes a very large current to pass into the fault and
could result in major damage. The failed generator would be
tripped on either instantaneous short circuit protection or
reverse power trip dependant upon the severity of the fault.

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To reduce this imbalance, protection is fitted within the

generator itself. With each of the phase coil groups being
monitored, protection circuits would open the circuit breaker
at a lower value than the short circuit value. Earth or Ground
fault monitoring of the power generation system on the main
switchboard will indicate a ground fault anywhere in the
supply system.

Figure 21 Engine Control Modules

Figure 22 Generator Synchronisation Panel

In many generators the temperature is monitored by placing

thermocouples in the stator windings to warn of high
operating temperatures. This can be a good tool in the
prevention of major problems, as all generators have a
maximum operating temperature, which should not be
exceeded if possible for long periods.

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3 How Do I Operate It

Figure 23 Generator Control Panel

3.1 Generator Parallel Operation

For Generator sets to operate in parallel and balance the

system load between them, these basic conditions must be
met.

• All engines must be running at the same speed.

• The voltage of the alternators must be the same.

• The response of the AVR & Governor control must be the

same.

When the voltages are rising and falling at the same time
they are said to be in synchronization and connections can be
made by safely closing the generators circuit breaker in this
state to put the generator on line.

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3.1.1 Putting Generator on Line

The circuit breaker is made ready (Charged) by whatever
method it is designed for. Either by mechanical charging
using the lever, which will normally need to be operated
several times until the spring is charged. This action will
disengage automatically to prevent overcharging the spring.
Or it will be charged by an internal electric motor, in the
same way, ready for the circuit breaker to close at the push
of a button, or automatically by the system. To safely place a
generator on to the system, on line, the speed and voltage
must be the same. If either are out by any significant
degree, the person carrying out the operation can easily be
in danger, and the equipment can be seriously damaged.
There are well documented cases where engines have
received twisted crank shafts due to incorrect
synchronization, or failure of an automatic synchronizing
system. These statements may seem to be obvious to
experienced generator operators, but at many locations the
balancing of the system is automatic and never clearly
understood by the operators.

3.1.2 Synchronizing Procedure

Synchronization is the act of bringing a generator on line,
connecting it to the live electrical system.

The actual synchronizing procedure is the adjustment of the

generator frequency (speed) to match that of the generators
on the switchboard. The incoming generator’s speed pot, on
the switchboard, is used to adjust the frequency or speed of
that machine to the speed of the machines already on the
switchboard.

3.1.3 Synchroscope and Lamps

Before the incoming generator circuit breaker can be closed
the synchronization lamps and the synchroscope must
indicate the incoming generator and switchboard are exactly
in phase with each other. It is said that they are “In sync”,
when the lights will go out to indicate there are no potential
difference across the contacts of the breaker it is intended to
close. There should be only a small voltage flowing per
phase between the incoming generator and the switchboard,
and the breaker can be closed, to put the incoming machine
on line. This small voltage is there to prevent the
switchboard seeing the incoming generator as a motor.

3.1.4 Rule of Thumb

As a rule of thumb with the generator to be put on line, it
should be running slightly faster than the machines already
on line, and the breaker is closed at roughly the 5 to
12position, and by the time breaker closes the generator will
be exactly in sync with the system.

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To ensure the incoming generator will be generating a small

load when the circuit breaker is closed it should be running
slightly faster than the switchboard. By slightly faster it is a
common to have the synchroscope running in the faster
direction at about the speed of the second hand of a watch.

The reason for the system running faster is that if the

generator was running slower than the switchboard it could
be that generator would be taking load from the switchboard.
It would be in a Reverse Power situation and the generators
electrical protection could trip the machine off the board. This
tripping off can easily cause confusion to the operator and
start a fault-finding process which is not needed.

3.1.5 Balancing The Load

Once the circuit breaker has been closed and the generator is
on line, the generator needs to be balanced with the rest of
the machines on the switchboard. To balance the loads it
may just need a switch to be set to automatic or to adjust
the speed and voltage.

Balancing kW is controlled by using the speed of the

Engine.

Balancing kVAR is controlled by using the voltage

Regulator.

Once balance is achieved the system can be left to control

itself.

3.1.6 Master / Slave

It is common in offshore power systems, where a number of
generators are used in parallel, for one of them to be the
Master for speed control. This function is accomplished either
via a manual selector at the generators’ switchboard control
panels or designated within the control system by a software
command. Normally either the highest or lowest numbered
generator on line will be the master for speed control.
Adjusting this generator will cause all the generators on line
to react. This function will normally preclude the individual
adjustment of generators making it more important to get
the speed of any generator coming on line correct.

Once all generators are on line and settled the control

system only has to adjust one engine for speed control and
all the engines on line will follow it. The last thing to do is
switch off the synchroscope and lights. The log book or
switching records need to be completed with a time and
signature. The reason why the intended operation is put in
the book beforehand is that if an accident or incident occurs
the operator can show what was being done at the time.

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3.1.7 Controls And Indicators

The basic controls and indicators available to the operator
are:

• Voltage control pot Control point

• Speed control pot Control point

• Circuit breaker close Direct control on or off

• Circuit breaker open Direct control on or off

• Generator load switch Generator load man/ auto

• Synchronization lamps Incandescent Lamps

• Synchroscope Indicator Meter

• Switchboard voltage Indicator

• Generator voltage Indicator

• Switchboard frequency Indicator

• Incoming generator frequency Indicator

• Generator load Ammeter (A) Indicator

• Generator load Watts (kW) Indicator

• Generator on line indication Indication lamp

As you can see there are only two controls, which are used to
adjust the frequency and voltage. The others are either
indicators or switches.

3.1.8 Taking Machine off Line

When taking a machine off line, it is recommended that the
load be reduced to a lower value, reducing the current on the
circuit breaker contacts. Once off line, the off line machine
should be checked to see that it is running at 60Hz and
600V. This saves time when putting the generator on line the
next time.

It may be necessary to do it quickly, and any reduction in the

time taken is beneficial. As you can see there are only two
controls, which are used to adjust the frequency and voltage.
The others are either indicators or switches.

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4 Inspection
4.1 Generator Inspection

Generators need to be inspected on a regular basis to

prevent problems occurring in the future. While the machine
is shut down, the covers should be removed, and the dust or
dirt should be blown out with dry air, or washed out with CRC
Electra clean to remove any grease or dirt from inside the
unit.

4.1.1 Brushed Type

If the unit is of the brushed type, the brushes and pig tails
should be checked for condition and replaced if the brushes
are too short, or the pig tails frayed or broken, and the brush
holder springs and arms inspected to make sure they are
able to move freely and are undamaged by corrosion, as they
are required to maintain a constant pressure on the carbon
brush.

4.1.2 Brushless Type

If the unit is of the brushless type, the pig tails on the diodes
should be checked to see if they are in good condition, and
not frayed or damaged by the centrifugal force exerted on
them by the rotor spinning, and the bolt connections checked
for tightness to make sure they are not lose.

4.1.3 General Checks

• All cable connections should be checked to make sure
they are tight and there are no hot spots.

• A visual check should be made of the mounting bolts to

make sure they are tight and the cooling fan and fan
covers to make sure they are secure and undamaged. On
Kato generators the cooling fan should be visually
checked for damage to make sure these have not been
used to bar the engine over/rotate the engine, causing
damage to the fan blades, as these can disintegrate at
speed if badly damaged.

• If the generator is not close coupled, the coupling should

be checked for damage or wear and greased if required,
and the coupling guard checked for damage and
reinstalled before the generator is run again to prevent
accidents.

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• When greasing the coupling it should be observed that

the grease is leaving the coupling, or the pressure
relieved after greasing to be sure the coupling is not
under pressure. The same applies when greasing the
bearings on generators or motors. Always remove the
lower plug on the bearing housing to relieve pressure as
grease is pumped into the top grease nipple.

• The generator should then be run with the bottom plugs

out for about an hour to remove any excess grease, and
then the generator should be stopped and the bottom
plugs replaced, and the greasing operation is complete.

Figure 24 Generator with the Side Cover Removed

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5 Maintenance
5.1 Generator Maintenance

The Generators need to be opened on a regular basis and

blown out with dry air to remove dust and dirt, also washed
out with CRC Electra clean or an electrical cleaning solvent
that will not damage the insulation or brush gear, to remove
any foreign matter and grease from within.

Figure 25 Example of a Dirty Generator

5.1.1 Brushed type

If the Generator is of the brush type, the slip rings need to
be checked for any damage that may create brush wear, and
polished if required, but the skin on the surface of the slip
ring should not be broken unless absolutely necessary.

The brushes should be checked for condition to make sure

they are not cracked or too short, and the pig tails checked
to make sure they are not brittle or broken, and replaced if
required. The brush springs and arms should be checked to
make sure they are free and operating as they should to
exert the correct pressure on the brushes.

5.1.2 Brushless Type

With the brushless type Generator they to should be blown
out with dry air to remove dust and dirt, and washed out
with Electra clean or electrical cleaning solvent that will not
damage the insulation. The pig tails on the diodes of the
brushless exciter assembly should be checked to see if they
are brittle or damaged by the centrifugal force of the rotor
spinning during its operation.

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These should be replaced as and all electrical connections

should be checked for tightness and signs of heat damage
from a hot joint between the diodes and plate/heat sink.

5.1.3 Bearings
The bearing should be only greased strictly according to
manufacturer’s recommendations and not over greased as
this will cause the bearings to overheat and the grease to
leak past the seals into the Generator interior throwing
grease everywhere in the windings.

It is normal during the bearing greasing procedure to remove

plugs at the bottom of each bearing, and then grease the
bearing. After this the Engine/Generator is run for a set
length of time (Nominally 1 hr) before being shut down and
the plugs replaced. This is to allow any excess grease to
purge through the plug vent and avoid being pushed through
the bearing lip seals.

If the Generator is not close coupled, the coupling should be

inspected to make sure it has been lubricated at regular
intervals, but should not be over lubricated as this will lead
to surplus grease being thrown off. Care should be taken to
ensure the coupling has not be pressured up if the seals do
not release the pressure, as this can lead to mechanical
damage.

5.1.4 Cooling Fan

The Generator cooling fan at the engine end should be
checked for damage, to make sure it has not been used to
rotate the engine with a crow bar, as this can in some cases
lead to failure where the fan can disintegrate when up to
speed.

In some generators, particularly General Electric, the bearing

housing cover will be insulated from the generator end cover,
and if the bearing housing is not insulated it has been known
for the bearing race to become pitted during operation by
arcing, leading to catastrophic bearing failure, which has
occurred in the past.

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6 Spare Parts
6.1 Brushed Type

Normally the only spares required for the brush type

Generators will be spare bearings front and rear, and spare
brushes if it is an older machine, with possibly a spare brush
arm assembly complete with springs.

6.2 Brushless Type

With the brushless type, again front and rear bearings, and
spare diodes positive and negative in case of failure.

6.3 Close Coupled Generators

In the case of close coupled Generators there may only be a

rear bearing as the front may be supported by the engine
rear bearing.

6.4 General

Where a governor system other than an SCR system is used,

for example the Woodward system, it would be wise to have
a spare engine control unit on hand with a spare actuator,
and at least one spare engine speed sensor for the flywheel.
It would be good policy to carry a spare Automatic Voltage
Regulator or AC Control Module in the case of an SCR
system.

Figure 26 Spare Parts Store

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7 Trouble Shooting
7.1 What If It Breaks Down

Generally speaking the heart of the power system is the

generating plant. If for any reason this power supply is
interrupted it is essential to get the system up and running
as soon as possible. On plants that have an emergency
generator incorporated into their system, the power outage
will be less dramatic as this emergency unit will automatically
come on line after a short delay. However it must be noted
that this emergency backup is designed to only feed the
essential services because of its lower capacity.

7.2 Symptoms to Look For

Normally trouble shooting is confined to lack of excitation,

which will come back to the Automatic Voltage Regulator unit
or AC Control Module, which in turn determines the amount
of excitation, and output from the Generator.

This can be a component in the Generator control system, in

smaller units. Or in SCR systems part of the AC control
system, which in harmony with the DC control system, will
respond to the demands of the Drilling system. This is
achieved by ramping back the SCR output to protect the AC
system from overload.

Apart from a failure in the windings or a bearing failure, this

is normally where trouble will be located, and it will depend
on the size of the system as to where the Automatic Voltage
Regulator unit will be found, in larger systems such as SCR
systems it is replaced by changing out the AC Module.

If it is a case of component failure, changing the control unit

will in most cases solve the problem unless there is a
problem with the inputs and output to and from the system,
such as the wiring being open circuit or grounded, which may
have caused the component failure in the first place.

In the case of speed control problems, such as actuator

oscillations, one of the first places to look is the Engine
Speed Sensor at the flywheel, which being magnetic, may
have picked up steel filings from the flywheel, and in doing
so is no longer producing a clean signal.

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Another check should be done on the ball joints of the

actuator linkage system, as any slack will be chased by the
control unit. This will cause a hunting effect on the generator
and can be easily rectified by replacing the worn ball joints.
Attention should also be paid when setting up the actuators
on the diesel engines, to get the input current set to the
manufacturer’s specifications in milliamps, when the engine
is in the run mode. This can be achieved by adjusting the
linkage between the actuator and the fuel rack on the
engine, to get the angle of the actuator operating lever
correctly set.

If this actuator current is not the same on all the engines in

the system, this can affect the engine response, so that the
engines do not react in the same way to the throttle signal
when it is applied. The response should be the same with any
combination of engines in the system on the rig, to ensure
the engine response is consistent throughout all of the
engines, no matter which engines are in use at the time.

7.3 To Assist in Fault Finding

Always write down the details of the equipment and

operation the drilling unit is undertaking. This must include
all the machines on line and both individual and system
loads. From these any problem can over time be narrowed
down to a specific machine.

Below is a typical small generator termination panel, showing

the output connections from the bus-bar. The cable glands
for the outgoing cables are shown at the top. The terminal
strip at the bottom of the panel shows the control
connections required for the remote controls such as the
switchboard controls.

Figure 26 Generator Termination Housing.

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7.4 Emergency Generator

This is the usual type of emergency generator arrangement

to be found on many offshore rig operations. Normally this
can be found in a compartment or room high up on the rig,
possibly near the accommodation or helideck. It will be
required to maintain emergency power, in the event of total
power failure of the main generators, in situations where the
main engine room may have been flooded. The aim with this
arrangement is that emergency equipment can still be
powered, such as fire fighting equipment, life boats, lighting,
cranes, and accommodation. These systems will receive
power until the rig is abandoned in the event of a serious
situation.

Figure 27 Emergency Generator

The emergency generator system has to be totally self

contained, and in many cases are self starting and able to
put themselves on line to provide for a reduced load when
the main power fails. This is to create a survival situation in
the event of an unforseen situation where the rig may have
to be abandoned.

These systems should be serviced regularly, and run once a

week, to make sure they are in good condition and ready for
use. The batteries need to be on trickle charge to ensure
immediate starting, and some have dual start facilities with
electric and air starters installed.

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8 Questions
General

1. Explain the left-hand rule for conductors:

a) The direction of the current in the conductor is

shown by the direction the _______ of the left hand is
pointing. b) The direction of magnetic flux in the
conductor is shown by the direction of the _______ of
the left hand. c) What will show the lines of force by
the use of the left hand rule for conductors?

2. Name the three main parts of an AC generator that

are required for it to operate:

a) The rotating assembly of the generator.

b) The stationary assembly of the generator.
c) The source of excitation in the generator.

3. Why is the earthing of the generator so important:

a) It will prevent personnel getting shocks. b) It is

the return path for the generated power. c) It is
critical to the safe operation of the system so that
fuses and breakers will open in cases of fault currents.

4. What is required for a generator to generate load?

a) For the generator to be rotating. b) To be trying to

go faster. c) To have an exciter assembly attached to
provide excitation.

5. What is the normal frequency (in Hz) of offshore

generators?

a) 50Hz. b) 60Hz c) 70Hz.

6. What can be the danger of a short circuit inside a

generator?

a) That it will burn out the generator. b) That the

windings will short to ground. c) That other
generators in the system will feed into that fault
causing a major melt down of that generator.

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9 Reference Material
Reference material for a particular make of generator should
be available to the maintenance staff on the drilling rig and
should be kept in the maintenance office. It is in the interest
of the electrician to become familiar with these manuals for
the particular model used on the rig and also the manuals for
the engine control system such as Woodward or the AC
control modules of the SCR system used on the rig to control
the engines.

With the generators there are normally few problems once

the system is commissioned unless there is damage from an
external source, such as water or oil, a major mechanical
failure. The same can generally be said about the governor
control system with an SCR system once it has been
commissioned, but it is not always the case with systems
such as Woodward which have adjustments that can be
made to potentiometers on the front of the unit and are open
to abuse by the uninformed. It is always wise to consult the
manufacturer’s manuals before setting about making
adjustments where possible to governor systems. If the
generator is one of the smaller units, and it is possible to
make adjustments to the automatic voltage control unit, the
manual should be consulted before doing so to prevent
damage to equipment in the system from voltage spikes or
surges in the system.

In all cases the simple items should always be checked first,

such as the magnetic pick at the flywheel, or the linkage
between the actuator before any adjustments are made to
the system, because once the system has been disturbed it
may take some effort to synchronise everything back to
being in balance. It is always good practice to mark the
original position before changes are made, so that if it does
not work out, it can be returned to the original position.

9.1 Web Sites

[Link]
city/machine/dc_generator.htm

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

41
A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Generators

10 Work Place Assignments

Note.

This assignment is designed to familiarise you with the main

& Emergency generating units that supply all the power to
your rig.

1. Locate the main generation and power path one line

electrical schematic, this will show the number of
main generators in your system. It will also allow you
to see the power path of the supply via the generators
main circuit breaker, which inturn feeds the main
switchboards bus system, then on to feeder circuit
breakers which will supply power to motor control
cubicles (MCC’s) and Light and small power
switchboards that will exist in the field.

2. Go and find the main engine room or generating skids

that is appropriate to your rig.

3. Ask the question of how many generators are

required to be run in parallel to supply the Drilling
load, for both drilling and tripping. Also, check to see
if your system has a load phase back ability built into
the system ( This generally is built into the SCR
system which monitors the available KVA and phases
back (reducers the load) on the SCR system by
slowing down the DC drilling motors.

4. Look to see the how many generators make up your

main power system.

5. Check out the name plate on each unit to ascertain

the kW output.

6. Look for the Generator control panel which houses all

of the generator controls and familiarise yourself with
the synchronization instrumentation and controls. Pay
particular attention to the generators main circuit
breaker and the means by which this is closed. Eg.
automatically or manually.

7. Go and find the Emergency generator if applicable to

your rig.

8. Check out the name plate and note the kW output.

9. Look for the Emergency Generators main circuit

breaker and control panel.

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Generators

11 Glossary
Alternating Current (AC) Current which varies from zero
to a positive maximum to zero to a negative maximum to
zero, a number of times per second, the number being
expressed in cycles per second of Hertz (HZ)

Alternator A device for converting mechanical energy into

electrical energy.

Electro-Motive Force (EMF) The force which causes

current to flow in a conductor; in other words, the voltage
potential.

Generator A general name for a device that converts

mechanical energy into electrical energy. The electrical
energy may be direct current (DC) or alternating current
(AC).

Ground A connection, intentional or accidental, between an

electrical circuit and the earth or some conduction body
serving in the place of the earth.

Phase The uniform periodic change in amplitude or

magnitude of an alternating current. Three phase alternating
current consists of three different sine wave current consists
of three different sine wave current flows, different in phase
by 120 degrees from each other.

Rated Speed Revolutions per minute at which the set is

designed to operate.

Rated Voltage The rated voltage of an engine generator set

is the voltage at which it is designed to operate.

Stator The stationary part of a generator.

Voltage Regulator A component which automatically

maintains proper generator voltage by controlling the
amount of DC excitation to the rotor.

Watt Unit of electrical power. In DC equals volts times

amperes. In AC equals effective volts times effective amps
times power factor times a consistent dependent on the
number of phases. 1 kilowatt = 1,000 watts.

Winding All the coils of a generator. Stator winding consists

of a number stator coils and their interconnections. Rotor
windings consist of all windings and connections on the rotor
poles.

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Generators

12 Power Factor
12.1 Unity is Everything

A power factor of one or "unity power factor" is the goal of any

electric utility company since if the power factor is less than
one, they have to supply more current to the user for a given
amount of power use. In so doing, they incur more line losses.
They also must have larger capacity equipment in place than
would be otherwise necessary. As a result, an industrial facility
will be charged a penalty if its power factor is much different
from 1.

12.2 Power factor correction

Industrial facilities tend to have a "lagging power factor",

where the current lags the voltage (like an inductor). This is
primarily the result of having a lot of electric induction
motors - the windings of motors act as inductors as seen by
the power supply. Capacitors have the opposite effect and
can compensate for the inductive motor windings. Some
industrial sites will have large banks of capacitors strictly for
the purpose of correcting the power factor back toward one
to save on utility company charges. Most loads in modern
electrical systems are inductive, which means that they
require an electromotive field to operate. Example AC
motors, heater banks and transformers etc.

(Everything you need to know about KVAr but were afraid to

ask.)

It is also known as:

• Pf

• Cos Ǿ

• Impedance phase angle

Most loads in modern electrical systems are inductive, which

means that they require an electromotive field to
operate(i.e. Motors)

Remember the “flux” created by an EMF flowing in a

conductor

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Generators

Inductive loads require two kinds of current:

• Working Power, which performs the actual work of

creating heat, light, motion, etc.

• Reactive Power, which sustains the electromagnetic

field.

• Working Power is measured in kilowatts (kW). It does

the “work” for the system –providing the motion, heat, or
whatever else is required.

• Reactive Power is measured in kilovolt-amperes-

reactive(KVAr). It doesn’t do useful “work”. It simply
sustains the electromagnetic field. For motors it is
inductive in nature. For power lines it is “capacitive” in
nature.

Power Factor
In a vector relationship, Working Power and Reactive
Power make up Apparent Power.

Working Power

Reactive Power Apparent Power

Apparent Power is measured in

kilovolt-amperes kVA.

Power Factor is the ratio of Working Power to Apparent

Power

45
A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Generators

Working − Power
Power Factor =
Apparent − Power

Power Factor of 1 is best but practically unobtainable

without PF correction.

Example: 1200 kVA/900 kW generator

900
PF = = 0.75
1200

2000kW load, 4000kVA generated.

2000
PF= = 0.5
4000

Power factors of 0.6 are common on drilling rigs. And values

of 0.4 are known.

Power Factor Correction:

Power Factor Correction can be used to “correct” the

power factor and reduced the reactive load.

Ross Hill supply power factor correction units that “produce”

VAr of a “capacitive” nature which counteract up to 1600kVAr
of an inductive nature.

Power Factor
Capacitive load (PF Correction) counteracts
inductive load.
The vector diagram after PF correction:

• The aim should be to maintain the PF at approximately

0.8

• This can be done with PF correction

• PF<is a waste of generating capacity

46
 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Transformers

Section 3
Transformers

1 Equipment Overview ................................................ 2

2 How Does it Work .................................................... 5
3 How Do I Operate It ................................................. 8
4 Inspection............................................................... 9
5 Maintenance.......................................................... 10
6 Spare Parts ........................................................... 12
7 Trouble Shooting ................................................... 13
8 Questions ............................................................. 14
9 Reference Material ................................................. 15
10 Work Place Assignments ......................................... 16
11 Glossary............................................................... 17

1
A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Transformers

1 Equipment Overview
1.1 Transformers

A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers

electrical energy from one circuit to another by magnetic
coupling. It usually comprises two or more coupled windings,
and, in most cases, a core to concentrate magnetic flux. An
alternating voltage applied to one winding creates a varying
magnetic flux in the core, which induces a voltage in the
other windings. Varying the relative number of turns between
the primary (input) and secondary (output) windings
determines the ratio of the input and output voltages, thus
transforming the voltage by stepping it up or down between
circuits.

Figure 1, A Typical Dry Transformer Installation.

The primary voltage of a transformer can be anything from

110V for your portable radio to 400,000V (400kV) used to
distribute power over the long distances throughout the
country. Transformers come in several styles or types but it
is common practice for only dry types to be used within
drilling units. For this reason, only dry type transformers,
which are cooled by natural convection or “forced air” cooling
fans will be described in this section. Inside the enclosure,
the transformer coils are solidly secured to the frame of the
unit, which is then secured to the drilling unit’s main
structure, usually by welding or bolting.

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Transformers

1.2 Drilling Transformers

Drilling transformers usually are 600V primary and 480V

secondary dry type transformers, where the rig generators’
output voltage is 600 VAC. But if the generating voltage is
higher, say 11,000 VAC, then there may be more than one
transformer to step the voltage down. The voltage will be
stepped down to 600 VAC for the SCRs, then down to 480
VAC for the three phase AC motors, then down again to
208/110 VAC for the lighting and utility power. These
voltages will depend on the geographical location from which
your rig originates.

It is important to note that transformers do not change

frequency under any circumstances. This is important to
consider when changing three phase electric motors. It may
not seem a very big change to substitute a 60 Hz motor with
a 50 Hz unit however the speed of an AC motor is
determined by frequency and the difference between 50Hz
and 60 Hz is 20 percent.

Using a motor designed for 50Hz operation at 60Hz means it

will run 20 percent faster than it should and the full load
current will exceed its specifications. The certification for that
motor becomes both invalid and unsuitable if run with a 20
percent speed differential. The motor will run but will rapidly
burn out under these conditions.

Figure 2 Transformer Enclosure on a Land Rig

In Figure 2 the transformers are clearly visible in this picture,
with the main transformers at the rear, and the smaller
lighting and utility power transformers at the front, as will be
found on land rigs everywhere.

3
A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Transformers

There are many manufacturers of transformers in all the

industrial countries of the world, and these are produced to
meet the local demand wherever voltage reduction is
required, from the main power grid system of up to 400,000
volts down to 120/240 volts for the domestic market.

Figure 3 Basic Rig Power Distribution Layout

Figure 4 Drilling Transformer Skid

On oil exploration rigs, many of the transformers are

produced by the manufacturers of the power distribution
systems used, such as GE, Westinghouse, Ross Hill, Siemens,
Allen Bradley, to mention a few.

4
 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Transformers

2 How Does it Work

2.1 Distribution System

The power is generated and originates from the top of the

diagram to the various stages and voltages of the system as
shown in (Figure 3) above.

• From the generator to the 600V main switchboard,

from the 600V switchboard via a circuit breaker to the
600/480 volt main transformer, to the 480V
switchboard for three phase power for the rig three
phase motors. The secondary of the main transformer
is 480 volts.

• From the 480 volt switchboard a supply is taken via a

circuit breaker to the primary windings of a 480/208
volt three phase transformer to reduce the voltage to
208 volts three phase, which in turn can be changed
from three phase to single phase by the way in which
the transformer is wound.

• If the primary windings are wound in Delta to receive

the 480 volts from the switchboard, and the
secondary windings are wound in " Y " configuration
or Star, the 208 volts produced will have a neutral
connection to allow a phase to neutral voltage of 120
volts, with the neutral taken from the centre common
connection of the " Y ".

• The primary of the lighting & small power transformer

is 480V, so you cannot automatically assume the
highest voltage on a system is always the primary
voltage.

2.2 Transformer Construction

Transformers are formed by placing both primary and

secondary windings on a laminated steel core, which is
magnetised by the AC voltage. The magnetic effect in one coil
induces a voltage in the other coil in the simplest terms.

2.3 Transformer Temperature

A transformer or any coil or winding can only sustain a certain

temperature safely. This is the limiting value of most electrical
equipment. If they get too hot the insulation, which has a laid
down maximum working temperature, fails and the equipment
is destroyed. If an electrician can smell a hot transformer they
should endeavour to find out the cause and carry out actions
to reduce the transformer temperature by whatever method is
possible.

5
 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Transformers

The first line of defence with a hot transformer is to reduce the

electrical load on the transformer and reduce the current being
drawn from the transformer. The losses in a transformer are
given off as heat. This heat has to be dissipated in some way
or other. In a dry type transformer the windings are made
with gaps between each layer of the winding, which allows the
heated air to rise causing a cooling flow through the
transformer. This is called Air Natural ventilation (AN); a high
proportion of transformers of this type are used within the
drilling units. As the electrical size in kVA of the transformer
increases the size of the cooling air flow needs to increase as
well.

This can only go to a pre-determined level before external

devices are needed. At this point cooling fans are normally
fitted to make the air flow much higher and taking a much
larger quantity of heat from the transformer. This reduction in
heat allows the transformer to carry more current before the
temperature reaches the maximum allowable. Cooling of the
transformers is therefore an important point to observe.
Checking that the fans are running or that none of the vents
are blocked should be a regular practice. If temperature
detectors are fitted to the transformers the readings including
the current on primary and secondary should be recorded as
an indication of reduced cooling or of excessive loading.

Figure 5 Transformer Heat Exchanger

2.4 Transformer Characteristics

A transformer by definition does not produce power it just

changes the values.

In a transformer Power In = Power Out (neglecting losses

which are less than 1%.)

A transformer is used to change the system voltages to what

have become the normal voltages round the world.

6
 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Transformers

2.4.1 Why 600 Vac Is Used

DC was the most common type of motor introduced to the
drilling industry to drive drawworks and mud pumps. The
normal maximum voltage for DC motors is around 750V DC,
where 600VAC converts to 750 VDC through an SCR system
to drive the traction motors. Therefore the primary voltage
for main step down transformers on rigs with SCR systems is
600 Vac.

Figure 6 Dry Type Transformers

Transformers are used to change the voltage of the power

source in alternating current systems. This can be either by
stepping down the voltage or stepping up the voltage. In the
case of isolation transformers this voltage can be the same
on the primary and secondary windings. These are used to
isolate the power source from the load.

7
A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Transformers

3 How Do I Operate It
3.1 Energising

The transformer is normally operated, or energised, by

closing a breaker on the primary input side to supply it with
power, or put it on line, whereby a higher or lower output
can be drawn from the secondary side by closing a breaker
to connect it to the load it is required to drive.

Figure 7 Main Power Distribution Switchboard

The Transformer is normally an integral part of an electrical

system and is used to transform the voltage in one section of
the system to a different voltage for another section of that
system. The transformer is used to raise or lower the voltage
supplying various pieces of electrical equipment in the
system to the different voltages required.

8
 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Transformers

4 Inspection
4.1 Transformer Inspection

Transformers normally require little attention if they are in a

clean dry environment, away from areas where they may be
subject to water ingress, where people are washing down
areas or equipment. If they are outside, they are normally in
weatherproof enclosures which would only be subject to wind
and rain, and are designed for such conditions.

Figure 7 Transformer Earthing Leads

After the transformer has been electrically isolated a normal

inspection would be confined to removing the covers or doors
and looking for excess dust/dirt on the coils and signs of
water ingress into the enclosure. A more through inspection
would be to check for loose connections or signs of hot joints,
and possible cable damage or deterioration of insulation.

Figure 8 Panels Removed for Transformer inspection

If the unit is fan cooled the condition of the fan bearings,

fixtures and cable should be checked for damage or
deterioration. The fan control circuit should be checked to
make sure the thermal sensor, if installed, is operating to
start the cooling fan at the required temperature.

9
A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Transformers

5 Maintenance
5.1 Transformer Testing

The testing of transformers, for maintenance purposes, is

relatively straightforward. The correct isolation of the
transformer before work commences is of the utmost
importance. Depending upon the specific layout of the
system it is possible for the transformer to be live even
though the transformer primary circuit breaker has been
isolated. To ensure the transformer is isolated and dead,
both sides of the transformer needs to be Isolated.

Isolation needs to be fully effective and tested by a voltage

tester, which has been tested on a known source before and
after testing the primary and secondary transformer
terminals. It is advisable to test at the transformer to ensure
there cannot be any mistakes in identification. Testing of the
transformer for electrical maintenance reasons is normally
limited to an insulation resistance of the primary and
secondary windings to ground. An additional test of the
insulation, between the primary and secondary windings, is
also carried out.

Table 1 Test Procedure for a Transformer

When testing one winding the other winding is required to be

earthed, that is connecting the terminals to earth/or ground
temporarily. This is to ensure that any voltage applied, to the
one winding, for testing purposes is not capable of producing
a voltage on the other winding. This induction of voltage on
the terminals of the transformer if not earthed would create
a dangerous situation to personnel on other parts of the
installation who are unaware the isolated system is alive. In
addition the induced voltage, from the test equipment, may
expose the windings to voltage levels above the designed
test voltage of the windings.

10
 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Transformers

5.2 Transformer Checks

In general little maintenance is required for Dry Transformers

in that there are very few moving parts to be considered in
the system. They should be checked when isolated for loose
connections and cable damage, and any general appearance
of overheating to the windings, insulation, and terminations,
and to make sure they are clean and dry inside their
enclosure. If they have cooling fans, these should be heard
running while listening for bearing noise, and checked while
still for bearing end float or movement, damaged fan blades,
or fan guard.

Figure 9 Test Connections for a Transformer

The supply cable to the fan should be checked for damage or

wear, and any thermal sensors should be checked to make
sure they are operating and that the fan is starting when the
Transformer gets hot enough to require cooling. It is very
important to include all transformer connections when
carrying out a thermo graphic infrared survey. Even if you
cannot immediately do anything about it, it is vital any faults
found are corrected at the first opportunity.

Figure 10 Earthing of Transformer for Inspection

11
A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Transformers

6 Spare Parts
6.1 Spares

Very few spare parts are required for Dry Transformers due
to the lack of moving parts. The only parts that may be
required will be for the cooling fans, for which one might
wish to keep spare bearings, blades, and guards, and if
installed on your operation, a spare thermal switch for
controlling the fans, and any contactors or relays for the fan
starters or control systems.

Figure 10 Spare Parts Store

12
 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Transformers

7 Trouble Shooting
7.1 What If It Breaks Down

The loss of any transformer will obviously mean that all down
stream or secondary connected equipment will be without
power. Depending on what is connected to this transformer
will dictate the seriousness of the blackout. It can generally
be assumed that the loss of any of your facilities
transformers will cause flow on effects that must be rectified
ASAP.

7.2 Fault Finding

Troubleshooting is fairly straight forward as there are no

moving parts apart from the cooling fans, which are separate
items from the main units. If the main breaker for the
Transformer should trip on overload, it will normally be one
of two things, a short circuit, or a ground fault, both of which
can be checked with the aid of a Megger and Multi-Meter. If
Meggered between the windings and ground, and a zero or
very low reading is obtained, the insulation has probably
failed and the copper windings are touching the steel core
somewhere.

If it is shorted within the windings, this is much harder to

find as the normal resistance is very low anyway, and will
need instruments more sensitive than a Multi-meter to
measure the internal resistance of the windings. If the
reading to ground is good (above 1MegOhm), all the output
circuit breakers are open, and it still trips the supply circuit
breaker when switched on, there is a very good chance the
Transformer is shorted internally.

There will be an inrush of current when the unit is switched

on and this should be allowed for in the current settings of
the breaker during commissioning and should require no
further adjustment afterwards. If a cooling fan fails to
operate, it can well be a failed thermal sensor, which has
failed to bring on the fan starter, or in the case of bearing
failure where the rotor has locked up, the circuit breaker may
have tripped to protect the fan motor if that or something
else has prevented the motor rotating.

13
A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Transformers

8 Questions
1. What is the function of a transformer.

a) To change the frequency in a system. b) To

change the voltage in a system. c) To change the
current in the system.

2. What is the normal type of transformer used on rigs?

a) Oil cooled transformers. b) Oil filled fan cooled

transformers. c) Dry transformers.

3. What maintenance is required on transformers?

a) None. b) Blow out with dry air to remove dirt and

dust, and check the connections when isolated and
earthed. c) Test with Thermographic equipment.

4. What is the normal cause of failure of transformers?

a) High temperature due to overloading. b)

Insufficient loading of the transformer. c) Standing
out in the open in the weather.

6. During normal maintenance what should be looked

for:

a) A clean, dry, transformer. b) A build up of dirt,

dust, and moisture that may cause a fault to ground. c)
Damaged insulation or loose connections.

7. What precautions should be taken when doing

megger testing on a transformer?

a) Ensure the transformer is isolated. b) Open the

output breakers and ground the output side of the
transformer. c) Ensure that instrumentation will not
be damaged through current or potential
transformers.

8. What should always be on the outside of transformer

enclosures?

a) Space to remove the outside covers. b) A safe

working environment. c) Clear signs on all
approaches to the transformer of the danger inside
the transformer enclosure.

14
 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Transformers

9 Reference Material
The best reference material for any equipment is the
manufacturer’s service manuals that are usually supplied
with the equipment.

These manuals cover everything from installation to the

commissioning when it is newly installed to trouble shooting
and fault finding when the system is in normal operation.

There have been many reference books written over the

years on the construction of transformers, where much of the
information related to coil winding, or motor rewinds will
have relevance to the construction of transformers, with the
sizing of the wire and the types of insulation used to wind
these coils.

In most cases there are people employed with the

manufacturers who can assist in time of need by email or by
telephone who can talk over a problem with you on the
company technical support line.

One of the most important pieces of information is the data

plates on the transformer which will give the winding
information, and the input and output current ratings of the
transformer. This will be the first reference point if the
transformer is getting too hot, so the input and output
current can be checked to find out if it is being overloaded.

9.1 Web Site

[Link]
[Link]

[Link]

[Link]
ransformers

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

15
A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Transformers

10 Work Place Assignments

Note. To assist you with these checks first find the one line
schematic for power generation associated with your rig.
Take this with you so as to familiarise yourself with the main
power system.

1. Go and locate the position of the main 600 to 480 volt

Transformer/s, after getting hold of the one line diagram
of the Rigs main distribution power system.

2. Look at the specification label and note the type of

transformer and the max KVA. & Temp

3. Are any warning signs displayed near or at the

transformers.

4. Is a high temperature indication or alarm installed. Check

and record the transformer temperature for reference.
Value_________ deg. C.

5. Ask the question when was a thermal inspection of the

busbars and connections last carried out.

6. Check if there are any Ventilation cooling fans and

observe that they are functioning and not making any
unusual noises

7. Check for general cleanliness and make sure that there is

no obstruction with the storage of materials or objects
that could effect air flow.

8. Go and check the main switch board for the location of

the main transformer feeder breaker. This will be
connected to the 600 Volt bus system.

9. If there is more than one main power transformer, check

to see how these are connected to the switchboard and if
a bus tie breaker is incorporated in the bus system.

10. Go and locate all other Transformers in the system. The

power distribution diagram should also indicate what
other distribution transformers are connected to your
system. Eg. general lighting & small power transformers.

11. Carry out the same checks on these units. Of particular

importance is finding all of these transformers to
familiarise yourself as to there location.

16
 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Transformers

11 Glossary
Alternating Current (AC) An electrical current flow of
continuously changing polarity, which rises to a maximum
voltage in one direction, decreases to zero and then sinks to
the maximum voltage in the other direction before changing
polarity once again. This pattern is referred to as a sinusoidal
wave and the number of cycles per second is equal to the
frequency, which is measured in "Hertz"

Ambient Temperature The normal surrounding

temperature of the environment in which a transformer will
operate .

Auto Transformer A transformer used to step voltage up

or down. The primary and secondary windings share common
turns and thus provide no isolation.

Core The ferrous centre part of a transformer or inductor

used to increase the strength of the magnetic field.

Core Saturation Condition that occurs when an inductor or

transformer core has reached maximum magnetic strength.

Current Transformer (CT) A transformer used in

instrumentation to assist in measuring current. It utilizes the
strength of the magnetic field around the conductor to form
an induced current that can then be applied across a
resistance to form a proportional voltage.

Delta A standard three phase connection with the ends of

each phase winding connected in series to form a closed loop
with each phase 120 electrical degrees from the other.

Delta-Delta The connection between a delta source and a

delta load.

Delta-Wye The connection between a delta source and a

wye load.

Duty Cycle The percentage of time a transformer will be

supplying the Full Rated Power to the load. Percentage of
time a unit is expected to perform at Full Rated power versus
time spent in idle.

Efficiency The percentage of input power available for use

by the load.

Encapsulation A process in which a transformer or one of

its components is completely sealed with
epoxy or a similar material. This process is normally
performed when a unit might encounter harsh
environmental conditions such as moisture, salt spray, full-
water submersion or corrosive elements.
17
A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Transformers

Exciting Current The current drawn by a transformer at

nominal input voltage in its unloaded (open-circuit)
condition.

Filter A selective network of resistor, inductors, or

capacitors which offers comparatively little
opposition to certain frequencies or direct current, while
blocking or attenuating other frequencies.

Flux The lines of force of a magnetic field.

Forced Air A method of temperature regulation that

involves air from an external environment being
forcibly exchanged with a transformer's enclosed
environment.

Ground Fault Any undesirable current path from a current

carrying conductor to ground.

Impedance Forces, including resistance and capacitive or

inductive reactance, which resist current
flow in AC circuits.

Inductance The ability of a coil to store energy and

oppose changes in current flowing through it. A
function of the cross sectional area, number of turns of coil,
length of coil and core material.

Inductor A coiled conductor that opposes change in

current.

Inrush Current A brief and momentary surge of current

through the transformer, due to residual flux,
experienced at the instant the transformer is energized.

Isolation Transformer A transformer with primary and

secondary windings physically separated by
design to permit magnetic coupling between isolated circuits
while minimizing electrostatic coupling.

Nominal Voltage The normal or designed voltage level.

For three phase wye systems, nominal
voltages are 480/277 (600/346 Canada) and 208/120 where
the first number expresses phase to
phase (or line to line) voltages and the second number is the
phase to neutral voltage. The nominal
voltage for most single-phase systems is 240/120.

Nominal Voltage The normal or designed voltage level.

For three phase wye systems, nominal
voltages are 480/277 (600/346 Canada) and 208/120 where
the first number expresses phase to phase (or line to line)
voltages and the second number is the phase to neutral
voltage. The nominal voltage for most single-phase systems
is 240/120.
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Power Factor Watts divided by volt amps, kW divided by

kVA. Power factor: leading and lagging of voltage versus
current caused by inductive or capacitive loads, and
harmonic power factor: from nonlinear current.

Primary Winding The coil winding that is directly

connected to the input power.

Rated Power The total output power available from all

secondary windings, expressed in
Voltamperes (VA) or Kilovoltamperes (kVA).

Reactance Opposition to changes in flow of alternating

current. Capacitive reactance is opposition
in change from a capacitor, and inductive reactance is the
opposition in change from a coil or other
inductor.

Regulation The percentage difference between a

secondary winding's output voltage when operating under
no-load or open-circuit and full load conditions.

Secondary Winding(s) The coil winding(s) supplying the

output voltage to the load(s).

Shielding Imposing a metallic barrier to reduce the

coupling of undesirable electromagnetic signals.

Taps or Voltage Taps Additional connections to a winding

allowing different voltages to be obtained from the same
winding. Often used on the primary winding to allow the
transformer to be used in different countries having different
line voltages available.

Temperature Rise(DT) The additional maximum heat

above ambient temperature that the transformer itself will
generate in the normal course of operation.

Test Potential A voltage applied to a winding to insure

adequate insulation performance. Normally applied between
a winding and all other windings, and between a winding and
ground. Also known as the Dielectric Withstanding Voltage
and the Hipot Voltage.

Three Phase Power Three separate outputs from a single

source with a phase differential of 120 electrical degrees
between any two adjacent voltages or currents.

Transformer A static electrical device, which, by

electromagnetic induction, regenerates AC power from one
circuit into another. Transformers are also used to change
voltage from one level to another. This is accomplished by
the ratio of turns on the primary, to the ratio of turns on the
secondary.

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Transformers

Transient A high amplitude, short duration pulse

superimposed on the normal voltage wave form or ground
line.

Voltage Regulation Maintaining stability of output voltage

under conditions of fluctuating input voltage.

Working Voltage The voltage that a winding will operate

at, but not necessarily the output voltage of the winding.

Wye A wye connection refers to a polyphase electrical

supply where the source transformer has the conductors
connected to the terminals in a physical arrangement
resembling a Y. Each point of the Y represents the connection
of a hot conductor. The angular displacement between each
point of the Y is 120 degrees. The centre point is the
common return point for the neutral conductor.

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Section 4
Basic SCRs

1 Equipment Overview ................................................ 2

2 How Does It Work .................................................. 11
3 How Do I Operate It ............................................... 18
4 Inspection ............................................................ 24
5 Maintenance.......................................................... 28
6 Spare Parts ........................................................... 29
7 Troubleshooting..................................................... 30
8 Questions ............................................................. 31
9 Reference Material ................................................. 33
10 Work Place Assignments ......................................... 34
11 Glossary ............................................................... 35

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1 Equipment Overview
1.1 SCR Systems

1.1.1 History
Diesel electric rigs using diesel engines to power DC
generators, which in turn power DC motors much like the
diesel electric railway systems from manufacturers such as
EMD, were the first on the scene.

In the late 1960s, when transistors and other solid-state

electronic devices were introduced, rig designers and
manufacturers began to develop other ways to transmit and
control electric drilling power. They began using diesel
engines to turn AC generators, converting or rectifying the
AC to DC and using the DC to power motors on the
equipment.

1.1.2 System Information

The SCR drive system provides electrical power conversion
and control for DC motors on a drilling rig. The system
regulates AC power from engine-generator set and delivers
continuously variable DC power to traction motors which are
coupled to functions such as Drawworks, Rotary Table, Top
Drive, Cement Pumps and Mud Pumps.

Figure 1 General Rig Power Distribution System

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A typical system consists of the following units:

• Generator Units for AC Power generation to SCR’s.

• SCR Units for AC to DC rectification for traction

motor power and control.

• Transformer Feeder Unit for AC feeder breakers to

feed step down transformers that deliver low voltage
power for AC auxiliaries such as motor blowers, water
pumping, lighting and living accommodation.

• DW Dynamic brake for electrical resistance or

regenerative brake for Drawworks motors.

• Field Supply Unit for DC field supply to shunt

wound, separately excited DC traction Motors.

• Drillers Console for control of all drilling functions

on drill floor and mud pump room.

• Mud Pump/Cement Pump Console for local

control of the pumps during maintenance.

• Motor Control Centres containing starters for AC

auxiliary motors and feeder breakers for lighting
panels and smaller distribution transformers.

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1.2 Silicon Controlled Rectifiers

An SCR rectifies AC to DC utilizing the same principle as a

standard diode. However, unlike the diode an SCR will not
conduct electricity until it receives a ”trigger pulse” to its
gate circuit.

Figure 2 SCR Operation

A Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) is a semiconductor

rectifier that has the added feature of controllability. The SCR
is capable of conducting OR blocking current in the forward
direction, depending upon the gate signal. The SCR, like the
diode, will always block current flow in the negative or
reverse direction. The act of controlling or turning on an SCR,
(i.e. telling it to conduct current) is also known as gating or
firing the SCR. If only one SCR in an AC circuit is fired, only
one – half of the AC current waveform is conducted.
Current flows only when the device is gated. The device will
only turn off when the gate is turned off and the applied
voltage reaches zero. The device will only conduct current in
the positive, forward direction, if it is gated.

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Current flows when the device is gated. The device will

only turn off when the gate is turned off and the voltage
reaches zero.

Figure 3 SCR On/Off Cycles

When the gate is not energized, the current is blocked in

both directions. The SCR and its controlling voltage can
operate very rapidly, up to hundreds of times per second.
Thus, the SCR gate opens and closes rapidly to allow and
stop the voltage/current flow. This rapid opening and closing
allows the Driller to control the power going to the DC
Traction Motors controlling the Drilling Equipments’ various
functions.

Figure 3 Various Types of SCR’s

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For example, once the Driller selects a function on the

Drillers Console, and operates the associated hand throttle,
the control signals are received at the corresponding DC
Module. This in turn controls the SCRs in the selected
cubicles. This applies to all the drives such as the
Drawworks, Rotary Table, Top Drive, Mud Pumps, Cement
Pumps and propulsion drives for Marine units using the same
system.

Figure 4 General Rig Power Distribution System

Controlling Power

AC power or voltage is pulsating in nature. A technician can

measure the AC voltage by displaying it on an oscilloscope,
which is somewhat like a small TV set. An oscilloscope
projects a picture of AC voltage in the shape of a wavy line,
which looks similar to an ocean wave. Called a sine wave, the
line pulses above and below the base line. If the driller
makes the SCR conduct electricity all the time, the SCR
conducts full current in only one direction, thus converting
AC to DC at maximum power capacity.

Figure 5 DC Voltage Shown as a Sine Wave

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The sine wave diagram in Figure 5 indicates maximum power

if DC flows the entire time the wave is above the base line,
only one phase is shown in this diagram. If three phases
were to be shown, overlapping the above sine wave equally
spaced, one then gets a continuous series of half waves
above the base line producing power.

If, however, the driller makes the SCR conduct during only
one part of each sine wave, the SCR converts and transmits
only a part of the current at reduced power. By using a
special controller, the driller can govern the point of the
single wave when the SCR starts to conduct, and thus vary
from zero to maximum amount of rectified power relayed to
the motor. To satisfactorily control the gate voltage, the
manufacturer has to combine several input signals. For
example, the driller has to be able to control a motor's power
input, so the manufacturer includes a throttle signal.

As explained before the throttle is used to accurately control

the gate pulse firing angle. Using the Figure 5 diagram
imagine the gate being fired on the ascending side of the
wave for a brief time, then fired again on the descending side
of the wave at the exact point relative to the firing on the
ascending side. The DC voltage produced would be the same
and repeating this action on all wave forms would give you a
constant series of pulses at the same voltage, as far as the
DC motor is concerned these pulse are so rapid that it sees
basically a DC voltage.

Now, if we change the gate pulse firing to a moment either

slightly before or slightly after the previous occasion, we will
see a lower or higher voltage appearing at the DC motor. As
speed is directly proportional to voltage in DC motors we can
see that the speed of the motor actually varies. This is the
principle of speed control using the hand throttle to vary the
gate pulse timing via the DC module which in turn is
controlling the output of the SCR Bridge DC voltage and
current to the assigned DC traction motor.

Other signals fed to the gate control system are:

• Current Limit Signal to limit the maximum amount

of current conducted.

• Rate Limit Signal to control the rate of current

turn-on, to limit the electrical surges.

• Paralleling Signal to allow the rig operator to run

more than one SCR in parallel (paralleling SCRs may be
required to power a large motor)

• Motor Speed Limit Signals to prevent the motor

from being run too fast.

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1.3 Assignment Contactors

The DC output of the main SCR bridge is connected to the DC

motors via assignment contactors. If the bridge is dedicated
to a single motor only, one contactor in the positive
connection is needed. However, if the bridge is assignable to
more than one motor, positive and negative contactors are
necessary.

Figure 6 SCR Cubicle & Power contactor

1.4 AC Bus And Control Units

In the SCR (AC-DC) system, three-phase alternators

generate AC power, which is rectified to DC power via the
SCR Cubicle. Figure 7 below shows a combined Cubicle
containing both the SCR Bridge and the Generator control
systems.

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The size and type of the rig determine the size and number
of the alternators required. Heavy-duty cables feed the
power from the alternators to common conductors. This set
of conductors is called the AC bus or the common bus. The
common bus is made up of larger copper bars, usually called
bus bars. Power from the bus bars then flows to special units
or cabinets, where the SCRs rectify the AC and other controls
are located.

Figure 7 Rig SCR System ( AC to DC )

1.5 Meeting Power Demands

In the operation of the SCR rig, the system has to generate

just enough power to meet the total DC motor demands at
any particular time. In addition to the DC motor demands the
rig has to generate what is commonly called “Hotel” loads,
which is basically the loading that is always present
regardless of the rigs operational state. This includes, but is
not limited to Cooking facilities, Accommodation, Sewage,
Potable water supplies, Sea water pumps and Lighting small
Power.
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Good practice however calls for keeping a little surplus AC

capacity. Indeed, proper planning and consultation with the
driller and Toolpusher regarding the operation will allow you
to have suitable power available for all expected loads. This
avoids having frantic telephone and P.A. calls for more
power. It will also be seen by the clients representative as
good management, reflecting on the whole operation.

The rig might need this extra capacity when some operation
suddenly requires more DC power. For instance, more friction
in the hole creates more torque for the rotary or Top Drive
and increases the power demand. As a result, rig owners do
not have to run all the AC generators when they know that a
particular operation requires less power than the system at
full capacity; for instance, during logging and wire line
operations the demand will be much smaller.

This economy, along with the ease and flexibility of control,

is the real advantage of the SCR system.

1.6 The Most Common Manufacturers

Power Systems, Baylor, Bautiel Ross Hill/Hill Graham,

GE, Tech-Power, Integrated, Westinghouse, CEGELEC,
Alstrom, Haier Haisi Control Technologies,(HHCT) and
ASEA.

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2 How Does It Work

2.1 General Explanation

An SCR puck or thyristor is used to provide controlled

rectification of a fixed voltage AC supply. The main SCR
Bridge is made up of six SCR pucks. Each incoming AC phase
connects to two SCR pucks; one connects to the positive DC
busbar, and the other to the negative DC bus bar. An SCR
puck can only carry current if it has been triggered by the
firing pulses from the electronic module. By changing the
moment in time during each cycle of AC waveform that the
firing pulse is applied to the device, the amount of voltage
passed to the DC motor can be varied from zero to full
output. The standard SCR cubicle contains one six pulse
bridge capable of carrying between 1000 and 2300 amps
depending on model type.

Each Cubicle contains an incoming AC circuit breaker, blower

fan for the SCR Bridge, outgoing contactors, electronic
control module, and in some cases the field supply cubicles if
the drive motors are Shunt wound.

2.2 AC Control Module

Included in the SCR system is the AC control module which is

designed to maintain the speed of the engine driving the
generator under all conditions during drilling operations.

Figure 8 AC Control Module

The AC module is designed to control the speed of the engine
driving the generator at all times. It does this by sensing the
engine speed from the flywheel teeth and converting this to a
signal.

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This is converted into an output by the AC Modules

electronics. Finally this output drives the actuator which
controls the fuel rack on the generators diesel engine. This
in turn controls the amount of fuel supplied to the engine,
resulting in a constant speed under varies load conditions.

Figure 9 Bank of SCR Modules

Once the controls are set on the main switchboard and the
generator is on line, the AC module will be left to control that
engine/generator speed and reaction to the changes in load
and conditions. It has to maintain constant speed and
voltage in company with the other generators on the
switchboard running in parallel.

The AC module contains the electronic circuits for the running

and control of the associated Generator units. These can be
grouped into assemblies.

1. Engine governor control

2. Voltage regulator

3. Protection circuits

4. Master/Slave circuits

2.2.1 Engine Governor

The engine governor controls the engine speed, and thereby,
the generator frequency. The controlling electronics are
located inside the AC module and are a feed back type
control circuit. The governor output is connected to a throttle
actuator which controls the engine fuel rack. The actuator
opens the rack in direct proportion to the current applied by
the governor though its coil.

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2.2.2 Voltage Regulator

The voltage regulator controls the generator field current
though the exciter, to regulate the generator voltage. The
regulator employs two feedback loops. The voltage control
loop provides overall regulation by matching the generators
voltage to the voltage reference. The exciter current control
loop regulates the exciter field supply.

2.2.3 Protection Circuits

This circuit compares the generator supply parameters
against there respective preset limits. It consists of a
protection switch, controlled by the reverse power
under/over frequency and the under/over voltage detectors.

Also included in this protection circuitry is the “No Pulse”

pickup detector. The protection switch is made up solid state
components which control the trip relay. This in turn de-
energizes the under voltage coil which causes the Generator
circuit breaker to open. In some systems a shunt trip coil
rather than a UV coil is the method used to trip the circuit
breaker. The later method is not considered fail safe.

The power limit circuit can also be considered part of the

protection circuits; however it has no control over the
generators main circuit breaker. Its purpose is preventing the
load from exceeding the capacity of the engines that are
synchronized onto the main bus system. This circuit monitors
the kWs and kVAs of all of the generators on line. If the
preset limits are exceeded a signal is sent to all of the SCRs
to phase down. This action distributes the available power
equally among the SCR Bridges. This setting is normally set
at 95% of the engine horse power rating.

2.2.4 Master/Slave Circuits

This explanation applies to a Ross Hill SCR System and may
differ if your system is from another manufacturer.

The master/slave circuit is to prevent generators fighting

each other for control and it basically allows one module to
control all of the others. A master slave circuit automatically
balances the kW’s. This action results in an equal load for all
engines. The master generator has the lowest number
among the ones on the bus. The remaining generators are
slaves. For example if Gen 1, Gen 2, and Gen 4 are on the
bus, then Gen 1 is the master. The master/slave circuit also
matches the slave unit frequencies to that of the master. The
speed adjust knobs on the slave units become disabled.

The combination of kW and kVAR sharing should cause all

generators to read an equal value.

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2.3 DC Control Module

Included in the SCR system is the DC control module which is

designed to control the output of an SCR bridge rectifier,
which in turn converts the incoming 3 phase 600 VAC into a
variable 0-750 VDC output. This module lives in the
associated SCR cubicle and is designed to generate the firing
pulses for the SCR Bridge after all of its input parameters
have been satisfied. The module processes these feedback
and reference signals and fires the six SCR’s in the bridge to
supply the assigned DC motor with enough power to match
the corresponding throttle setting.

Figure 9 DC Control Module

The DC module contains the electronic circuits for the SCR
unit. These can be grouped into three assemblies.

1. DC Regulator

2. SCR Firing circuits

3. DW Dynamic Brake

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2.3.1 DC Regulator
The regulator is a feedback control circuit which
automatically matches the motor speed and torque to the
throttle command from the control console. The regulator
output is a firing reference to the SCR firing circuits. Inputs
to the circuit consist primarily of the speed reference, speed
feed back and current feed back. The regulator consists of
two control loops, a voltage (speed) and a current (torque)
loop. Speed reference from the control console is summed
with the speed feedback signal to derive a current command
which in turn, is summed with the current feedback signal to
derive the firing reference.

2.3.2 SCR Firing Circuits

There are six identical circuits one for each SCR. The wave
form actually consists of two pulses, a main pulse followed by
a backup pulse. The backup pulse is essential for firing the
SCR at low DC output.

2.3.3 DW Dynamic Brake

This phenomenon is called regeneration. The motor can be
effectively braked by dissipating the regenerated power into
a resistor bank. Another form of regenerative braking
converts this waste energy via an inverter, and injects this
back into the AC power system. The dynamic brake slows
the drawworks motors to the hand throttle speed setting
after the foot throttle is released. The brake is designed to
function during hoisting mode. It is not a substitute for or to
be confused with the Eddy current brake commonly know as
the Elmagco or Baylor brake. The circuitry that triggers this
function resides inside the DC module.

The dynamic brake is automatically applied four seconds

after the foot throttle is released, provided the motor speed
exceeds the hand throttle setting. Typically the motors
require 30 to 40 sec to coast from full speed to cathead
speed. But with dynamic braking, the time is reduced to 10
to 15 seconds.

2.4 DC Module Feedback and Reference Signals

2.4.1 Speed Reference

This signal originates in the control consoles. The consoles
are equipped with hand wheels which the operator rotates
clockwise to control the traction motors. Each hand wheel is
linked to a rheostat which outputs 0 to +8 VDC speed
reference signal for 0 to maximum throttle.

Note. This speed reference signal can come from more than
one location. For example, the drawworks which has a hand
wheel and a foot throttle. Also the Mud pumps can be
controlled from either the drillers console or locally at the
mud pump itself.
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2.4.2 Speed Feedback

This is an analogue signal of the motor speed. It is 0 to
+10VDC for maximum speed.

2.4.3 For Shunt Motors

The speed is directly proportional to the armature voltage.

Field Loss Relay Shunt motors have a safety device

incorporated into the control system which will effectively
shut the motor down if the field supply to the motor is lost.
This prevents a dangerous runaway situation occurring, as
the loss of the field to a shunt motor will cause an unloaded
motor to speed up.

2.4.4 For Series Motor

The speed is a function of the armature voltage divided by
the magnetic flux. The flux, in turn, is a function of the
armature current. Therefore speed for a series motor is
derived by dividing the voltage feed back signal with the
shaped current feedback signal.

Sprocket Slip Relay Series motors will also over speed if

the load suddenly becomes disconnected, for example a
broken chain on mud pump, or the sudden disconnection of a
drive hub on the DC motor. This safety device also shuts
down the DC motor.

2.4.5 Current Feedback

This is analogue signal of the motor torque, since torque is
directly proportional to the armature current. It is derived by
taking the output signal from current transformers (CT’s)
which are placed around the 3 phase AC input to the bridge.

2.4.6 Voltage feedback

The DC (+) and DC (-) buses are tapped to develop a 15:1
analog of the SCR bridge volts. Signals from the bus are
dropped through a set of 3.9 K ohm resistors used to drive
the front panel SCR voltmeter. The other differential signal
Vbr+ and Vbr- which is applied to the DC control module for
use in the DC regulator circuit. When the bridge voltage is at
max 750 VDC the signal voltage is 50 VDC when measured
at Vbr+ and Vbr-.

2.4.7 Current Limit

This signal prevents the speed reference from demanding
excessive current. Each function has its own current limit
setting. The module automatically sets the current limit by
what function it is assigned to.

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2.4.8 Zero Throttle Interlock

This circuit protects the SCR Bridge and the traction motors
from sudden starts, if the selection switch is switched with
the throttle in the advanced position or if power is restored
after it has been lost, as in the case of a blackout. It forces
the module into gate suppression; the throttle signal is only
present when the contactor logic signal arrives at the DC
module. The driller must set the throttle to fully off before
the motor can be selected and run.

Figure 10 Zero Throttle Interlock

2.4.9 Speed Limit

This signal prevents the speed reference from demanding
excess speed. It is particularly useful for series motors.

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3 How Do I Operate It
3.1 Driller’s Console Operation

The Driller's Console is the primary control centre for the rig
DC functions. It is installed on the drill floor near the
Drawworks and contains an Assignment switch to apply
power to various combinations of functions suitable for
tripping or drilling. In addition, the Driller's Console houses a
lockout switch and throttle for each function. Lights on the
Driller's Console indicate the on-line status of the generators,
SCR units, and auxiliary AC devices such as blowers, chain
oilers, etc.

Figure 11 Drillers Console

3.2 Single Assignment Switch

The main drilling assignment switch allows the driller to

assign each of the SCR Bridge’s he has for drilling to any one
of the pre-arranged programs shown on the console
engraving plate. (a typical 4 SCR, 8 program switch is shown
below). For convenience the program positions are identified
as the hours on a clock defining vertically up as the 12
o’clock position, the other positions following respectively.

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ASSIGNMENT Switch positions on the left side (positions 8

through 11) are designed for tripping and those on the right
side (positions 1 through 4) are intended for drilling. The
Driller, however, is free to choose whichever is needed at
anytime. For each of these positions of the ASSIGNMENT
Switch the number in the blocks refer to the SCR units, while
the function it drives is listed below the number in the box.

Figure 12 Single Switch Assignments

In each position (except “off” when no SCR’s are assigned)

the numbers above the squares refer to the SCR Bridge
number 1 through 4, and the motor driven by that SCR
Bridge is shown in the box. For example in the 11 o’clock
position SCR Bridge No. 1 is assigned to drive Mum Pump 1
(MP1), SCR No. 2 is assigned to DWA, SCR 3 to DWB and
SCR 4 to RT. These are all assigned simultaneously when
the main switch is in the 11 o’clock position and all of the
motors listed may be controlled independently at the same
time.

If SCR 1 was faulty and tripped itself off line then the
capability to drive MP1 would be lost in the 11 o’clock
position, but the other 3 SCR’s could still be used for their
respective functions. In that case if it was essential to
operate MP1 then the driller would change his assignment to
say the 10 o’clock position allowing him to control MP 1 from
SCR 2. In that case DWB becomes assigned to SCR 1 and
hence would not be available.

The positions 1-4 intended for drilling operations while 8-11

are intended for tripping, though the driller is free to choose
whichever he needs at any time. Positions 1 & 2 make
maximum use of the available SCR’s by connecting in series
the two drawworks motors (DWS), thus giving full lifting
torque capability but only half hoisting speed. Positions 3 &
4 give half lift capability up to full speed. During drilling the
need to lift full load at full speed is limited.

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Note that typically only DWA will run in reverse and

drawworks dynamic braking (if fitted) normally only applies
to DWA.

3.3 Multiple Assignment Switches

On certain systems, usually where the assignments program

would be too complex for a single switch, several switches
are used. A typical layout of such a system is shown in
Figure 22.

Figure 13 Multiple Switch Assignments

A separate switch is provided for each function, allowing

assignment of each function to one of several SCR’s. For
example MP1 may be assigned to SCR 1, 2 or 5 and MP2 to
SCR 5, 4 or 3. Indicator lamps are provided on the Driller’s
console to show which SCR’s are already assigned, should
the operator attempt to assign a function to an SCR Bridge
that is already in use, the control logic is interlocked such
that the SCR will maintain its original duty until it is de-
assigned.

Figure 14 Drillers Console with Drawworks Controls

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3.4 Drawworks Assignments

In DRILLING positions, DWA and DWB motors are connected

in series (DWS). This provides full lifting capability, but only
half the hoisting speed, with only one SCR bridge utilised.

In TRIPPING positions, the motors are connected to separate

SCR bridges, giving full hoisting speed.

3.5 Drawworks Foot throttle

The Drawworks Foot Throttle pedal is pressed to operate the

Drawworks once the DW Hand Throttle is rotated out of the
OFF position. The RT ammeter will indicate the current
drawn by the Rotary Table motor, and this is an indication of
developed torque, which will be calculated through a formula
that considers the gear ratios in the drive system.

Figure 15 Drillers Console and Foot Throttle Assembly.

In some systems the Drawworks and Rotary Table motors

are fitted with Magnahellic Pressure switches. If the blower is
not switched on the normally-closed air pressure switch stays
closed to trigger the alarm. This alarm can also be triggered
if the normally closed contacts in the blower starter MCC fails
to open. This would indicate that the contactor has not closed
because of a fault in the control circuit.

But in most systems the auxiliaries required for the operation

to run must start before the main motors can be started, and
this is called interlocking. Where all the auxiliaries motor
starters have normally open contacts in them that are
connected in series, and must all be closed before the start
signal can reach the main drive motor start system. These
main DC drive motors cannot be started without the AC
auxiliaries being started first, and this must always be
considered when fault finding as a reason why a particular
DC motor will not run. There is always the possibility of dirty
or damaged auxiliary contacts in a starter, or a wiring fault,
or simply a bad connection in this system. The DC motor
lockout switches on the motors can also be in this system.

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3.6 Mud Pump Assignments

These are generally assigned and controlled by the driller at

the drillers console, however the local mud pump console
located in the mud pump room or area is used to operate the
mud pumps for maintenance such as changing out liners etc.
This console is not designed for normal operation of the
pumps because throttle range is restricted to half the range
available from the Driller’s Console. In addition, rod oilers,
chain oilers and charging pumps are not switched on
automatically.

3.7 Rotary Table And Top Drive Assignments

Like the Drawworks motors these are assigned and controlled

by the driller from the drillers console. A selection switch on
this panel will assign the appropriate assigned SCR to provide
power to either the rotary table or the top drive.

3.8 Driller's Console Indicators And Controls

The blower status lights are associated with auxiliary AC

devices of the corresponding DC functions. For example, the
DW blower light illuminates when all auxiliary devices of both
the drawworks motors such as blowers and chain oilers are
switched on.

Figure 16 Indication Lights

The GEN and SCR Status Lights illuminate when the

corresponding units are connected to the Main AC Bus.

If the positive pressurization within the Driller's Console is

lost a normally-closed air pressure switch will close to trigger
the alarm if the pressure drops below two inches of water,
which should be the difference between the pressure inside
the Driller's Console and outside pressure.

There are lockout switches for each DC motor function. Once

turned on, the corresponding hand throttle wheel (there are
four) is rotated clockwise to turn it from zero to maximum
speed.

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Figure 17 Drillers Control console with Foot Throttle

The Driller's Console is pressurized so as to meet the

requirements of equipment in hazardous areas, to the
equivalent of 2 inches of water from an air regulator. The
customer should provide a dry air bleed at 75 to 150 PSI to
the regulator.

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4 Inspection
The doors should be opened on the SCR equipment and an
inspection made for dust and dirt and if any is found it should
be removed with a vacuum cleaner while the equipment is
switched off. To avoid blowing the dust around the cabinets,
an air line should not be used.

It is necessary to keep the internal equipment clean to avoid

the chance of flash over during operations, and the filters on
the cubicles doors should be clean and dry to stop as much
dust as possible before it gets into the units. Once it has
entered the SCR cubicles the cooling blowers for the SCRs
will blow the dirt up through the heat sinks where it will be
very difficult to remove afterwards.

Figure 18 Front View of an SCR Bay

The SCR blower unit should be inspected on a regular basis

to make sure there is not a build up of dirt on the squirrel
cage blower blades in the SCR blowers, as this will reduce
the efficiency of the blowers and the air flow.

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These units are normally very noisy and bearing noise can be
hard to hear so a check of slack in the bearings should be
made now and then to check their condition when they are
shut down. Loss of any of the SCR blowers can lead very
rapidly to overheating of the SCRs. With this in mind the
blower loss alarm is to be checked. If one is not fitted
consideration should be given to the fitting of such a device
at the earliest opportunity.

If the system is shut down, it is always a good idea to go

over the system to check for loose connections, while one
has a chance. Also make a visual check for hot spots. The
system can also be checked while it is operating with heat
sensing equipment. Repairs can then be made to correct any
problems found, when the system can be shut down.

Figure 19 SCR Puck Exposed with the Heat Sink Split

The Drillers console should be opened on a regular basis to

make sure there is not a build up of water inside if the Drill
Crew has been washing down, or a build up of oil if the air
filter/drier has not stopped the oil getting through from the
Rig Air System which has lubricators.

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The spindles for the throttles should be greased to keep them

free, and to also help stop water migrating down the shafts
when the panel is hosed down. Normally there will be a
grease nipple on the inside of the panel for each throttle
spindle. The brushes on the throttles can also be checked at
the same time to make sure that they are in good contact
with the rheostat coils, and that the wiper spring tension is
correct. It is also a good time to check the micro-switches on
the throttles to make sure they are in good condition.

Figure 20 Drillers Console with Door Open

The mechanical stop fitted to the throttles also has the
function of activating a micro switch at the zero position. This
initiates what is known as “Zero throttle interlock”. It is not
unknown for this mechanical stop device to “fall off” and this
can lead to two potential problems within the system.

1. Zero Throttle Interlock Problem. That the zero throttle

interlock is never activated, which means no
adjustments or assignments for the SCR system can
be achieved. The system needs to know the hand
throttle is at zero before initiating any actions. This is
to stop any equipment suddenly starting when it is
switched on with all the associated safety concerns.

2. Throttle Problem. Or that when the driller rotates the

throttle back to zero the throttle may overrun and go
directly to maximum speed. This action can cause
severe SCR problems, the least of which may be
blowing the fuses.
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The door gasket on the Driller Console should be inspected to

make sure it is in good condition. This gasket will prevent
water from getting into the electrics if the front is washed
down on a regular basis. It is also a good idea to spray
around the switches on the front of the panel with WD40,
and to make sure that all of the seals are in good condition.

The foot throttle should be checked regularly to make sure

the operation of it has not been effected by mud and water,
and that it returns normally to the off position under its own
spring pressure. In very cold climatic conditions the throttle
has been known to freeze if there has been water inside the
enclosure.

In the SCR room it should be part of a normal daily routine to

check that the room is cold and dry, the air conditioning is
working well and that any filters in the air flow system are
clean and dry. This keeps the supply of clean cold air
constant for the cooling of the SCRs as they can produce a
lot of heat when operating and can be damaged by heat due
to the lack of cooling.

On some rigs the blowers for the SCR room air conditioning
units are driven by V belts and these belts need to be
checked regularly to make sure they are in good condition to
prevent failure while the system is operating.

The tips of the main DC contactors in the bottom of the SCR

cubicles should be checked to see if they have been damaged
by constant use, and the tips changed if there is too much
arcing while the system is operating. A stock of spare tips
should be kept in the store. Particular attention should be
paid to the Reversing Contactor, which can receive more
damage than the other contactors. These tips are copper
with a tin coating, and arcing will increase when the tin
coating is lost.

Most contactors have arc shields, which need to be kept in

good condition. Also many contactors have separate contacts
which are connected by a woven strap to the main contacts,
and these are used to quench the arc as the breaker closes
before the main contacts make contact, to prevent arc
damage to the main contacts. These contacts are replaceable
as a sacrificial assembly.

On some rigs there are contactors and resistor banks for the
Dynamic Braking System and these will need to be checked
to make sure the contactors are in good condition, and that
the resistor banks are in good condition and well ventilated.
They can get very hot while tripping and can become a fire
hazard if something has been stored on top of the cover
preventing air flow or if they have not been used for some
time and there is a build up of dust and dirt.

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5 Maintenance
This is an excerpt from the Ross Hill Maintenance Manual.

5.1 Servicing

5.1.1 Console
• Examine the internal assemblies periodically for signs of
corrosion. Corrosion is possible if the front panel door is
not properly sealed or if the air or purge air is bringing in
a large quantity of moisture.

• Rotate the hand wheels and the switches and examine

the switch and rheostat assemblies behind the Driller's
Console door panel. Check the switch contacts and
rheostat wiper arms carefully. Test the rheostat linkage
for tightness.

5.1.2 Drawworks Foot Throttle

Perform the following service on the Foot Throttle every
three months under normal conditions.

• Remove the Foot Throttle and open the rear dust

cover.

• Check and re-tighten the set screws. Ensure that the Foot
Throttle potentiometer returns to zero.

• Check that the rheostat wiper does not rub the wires
entering the Foot Throttle.

• Grease the bearing surfaces.

• Reassemble carefully to ensure that the Foot Throttle box

is watertight.

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6 Spare Parts
The spare parts required will depend on the system in use,
but in most systems it will be a case of keeping a stock of
crucial printed circuit boards and modules such as the Ross
Hill AC and DC control modules. This enables repairs to be
made very quickly in the event of down time by pulling out
one item and replacing it with a known good spare.

The damaged item can then be repaired and put back into
stock as a spare for the next time, as these items can be
very expensive to replace. It must be noted though that
these items must be repaired to the original specification to
perform as the original and not downgraded during the repair
with sub standard components. They should always be tested
after repairs are completed before being put in stock as a
good spare.

A rig should always have in stock the items that will stop it
operating or create down time and items it cannot operate
without while drilling. Depending on the rig in question, in
the SCR system this comes down to some of the major
components of the system. Some of these items are, the
Foot Throttle of which there should be at least one spare, a
hand throttle for the SCR control panel, again at least one
spare, complete with the micro-switch and operating handle
in case the original cannot be salvaged due to corrosion.
Complete spare switches for the switches on the Drillers
Console, spare resistors and diodes for inside the Drillers
Console along with spare terminal blocks.

Spares required for the SCR equipment room should include.

a spare breaker for an SCR cubicle, a spare blower assembly
for an SCR cubicle, spare DC contactors with the parts to
repair them, such as spare contactor tips, spare coils, and a
reversing contactor. Spare SCR Pucks normally in packs of
ten should be available in case one or more gets shorted, or
in the case of other types of systems spare SCR brick type
assemblies which are not repairable.

Fuses for the SCRs bridges, various breakers and contactors

for the ancillaries that run off the main AC system, and
various small control transformers. There is always a
recommended spare parts list provided with each system.
However, review the records to evaluate which parts were
the most frequently consumed and order accordingly.

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7 Troubleshooting
7.1 What If It Breaks Down

It is very rare that you will experience the loss of the whole
SCR system, unless there is a power failure, or the drill
console emergency stop switch is activated. In most cases a
break down will result in the failure of only one SCR bridge.

Generally most SCR systems contain a multiple assignment

selection matrix, which will allow you to change the SCR
which is assigned to a particular DC drive motor. This
function will allow you to immediately see if the SCR is the
cause of your problem.

7.2 Fault Finding

Troubleshooting consists of first looking at the broad

possibilities of failure, and then breaking down the likely
possibility into successively smaller trouble spots. This
consists of examining the whole system as it is situated
between the in-coming feeders and the loads, and then
narrowing the search to a cubicle or console, then to the
internal assembly, and finally to a component.

A step-by-step troubleshooting approach should consist of

the following items: malfunction analysis, analysis of front
panel indicators, system analysis, and signal tracing.

7.3 Malfunction Analysis

Malfunction analysis is easier and faster if the nature of the

malfunction is pinned down. Sometimes, the faulty behaviour
of the system may be caused by operator error. For example,
the driller may forget to turn on the lockout switch, open the
throttle, and assume the SCR unit is defective.

The faulty behaviour of a motor may be blamed on the SCR

system. Make sure the fault is not outside the system before
making extensive repairs such as changing out an SCR cell.

7.4 Testing
Perform a functional test after repairing or replacing any of
the console assemblies. If the unit fails to perform as
required refer to Troubleshooting later in this section to
locate the malfunction. To test the Driller's Console, simply
observe the operating instructions to run the motors in each
Assignment switch position. Make sure the Blower lights turn
on as indicated and the motor performance follows the
throttle command.

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8 Questions
Related to the AC side of an SCR System

1. The electronic controls for the operation and control of

the AC Generators is located in what module or
component:

a) DC Module. b) AC Module. c) Control Module d)

Drilling Module.

2. The engine governor is responsible for controlling

what function of the AC Generator:

a) Speed. b) Voltage. c) Current. d) Shutdown.

3. Where does the control of the voltage regulator

originate from:

a) The exciter. b) Generator output voltage. c)

Speed sensor. d) Switchboard.

4. Name three of the protection circuits that will trip the

generator main circuit breaker off line:

a) Over speed. b) Over voltage. c) Under voltage.

d) Over frequency. e) Under frequency. f) Under
speed. g) Over current. h) Under current. i) Reverse
Current.

5. Describe how the master slave circuit works on a Ross

Hill system:

a) Selects high denomination generator as leader. b)

Selects the lowest denomination generator as the
leader. c) The generators decide amongst them
selves who will be the leader. d) The first generator
put on line will be the leader. e) The last generator
on line will be the leader.

6. What is the purpose of the current transformer

located in the SCR cubicles:

a) Sense the circuit voltage. b) Sense the circuit

current. c) Sense the circuit frequency. d) Monitor
the output of the SCR.

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7. What is the purpose of an under voltage trip coil on a

SCR main circuit breaker:

a) To trip the breaker on over current. b) To trip the

breaker on under frequency. c) To trip the breaker
when the output voltage drops below the required
level.

8. If the driller accidentally hits the emergency off

button on the drillers console what will occur:

a) The lights will go out. b) The generators will shut

down. c) The SCR cubicle breakers will trip off line.
d) The rig will shut down.

9. What does it mean when the power limit light is on at

the drillers console:

a) That you cannot have any more power. b) That

you have to shut something down to conserve power.
c) That you need to start another generator to provide
more power. d) That the rig will shut its self down if
more power is not supplied.

Related to the DC side of an SCR System

10. What does the abbreviation “SCR” mean:

a) Semi controlled rig. b) Slow construction rig c)

Silicon controlled rectifier. d) Special controller rig

11. What is the difference between an SCR and a diode:

a) The ______ will allow current to flow one way only,

and the ______ will not allow current to flow until it is
switched or gated, and then it will allow current to
flow until the flow stops or reverses its direction.

12. Explain the main function of an SCR:

a) To control the flow of current. b) To control the

direction of current flow. c) To control the rate of flow
and prevent reversal of current flow as a rectifier.

13. The electronic controls for the SCR Bridge are located
in what module or component:

a) SCR control module. b) AC control module. c)

DC control module. d) Switchboard. e) MCC
unit.

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9 Reference Material
The best reference material for any SCR system is the
manufacturer’s service manuals that are usually supplied
with the system when it is new.

These manuals cover everything from commissioning the

system when it is newly installed to trouble shooting and
fault finding when the system is in normal operation.

In most cases there are people employed with the

manufacturers who can assist in time of need by email or by
telephone who can talk over a problem with you on the
company technical support line.

The service manuals and drawings will supply the information

required to replace any damaged components and wiring
diagrams showing the circuitry and test points required for
fault finding if you have a problem or breakdown.

5.2 Web Sites

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

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10 Work Place Assignments

Note.

This assignment is to make you aware of all the SCRs and DC

traction motors that are driven by this equipment. It will lead
to the SCR cubicles, which together with the motors and
auxiliaries makes up your system.

1. Locate the SCR FER (field equipment room) this will

generally be close to the main power generating
source. Which in the case of offshore rigs is the
engine room, and for land rigs they will be skid-
mounted modules or enclosures.

2. Note the number of SCR Bays that makes up your

system and the general layout. Look at the
accompanying meters indication lights and location of
the SCR Main circuit breakers.

3. Find the SCR selection identification plate. Somewhere

on your SCR panels will be a selection matrix plate
that will show the drillers assignment switch positions
and the associated DC motor that will be assigned to
which SCR. Take note of the flexibility that this
switching plan allows for your system when drilling or
tripping. When viewed with the one line schematic for
the DC power path it will familiarise you with your
systems capabilities.

4. Look for the location of the AC & DC control modules

or PCB’s (printed circuit boards). Generally the DC
modules are housed inside the SCR control cubicles
and conversely the AC modules live inside the
generating cubicles or are panel mounted.

5. Now approach the driller’s control panel and take note

of where the driller assigns these SCR’s to there
respective DC drive motor. Also look for the SCR
Emergency shutdown button which will open all the
SCR main circuit breakers back at your switch room.

6. Check out the mud pump room or area and locate the
remote mud pump control panel. Note the local
controls and indication setup that apply to your
system.

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11 Glossary
Anode The positive power terminal of an SCR or Diode.

Cathode The negative power terminal of a SCR or Diode.

Current Limiting A means to limit the maximum amount of

current applied to the load.

Command Signal An input variable applied to an SCR

power controller to adjust it's output.

Conductance The ability of a material to conduct electricity.

Conductance is the inverse of resistance.

Current Feedback A means to maintain the applied current

to the load. The applied current is maintained as a linear
function of the command signal regardless of line voltage and
load changes.

CT Current Transformer A device used for sensing

current. It's output is an electrically isolated signal
proportional to the measured current.

DI/DT The rate of rise of applied current to an SCR as the

unit turns on.

DIODE A semiconductor which allows current to pass in

one direction only.

Distributive Control A means of controlling the on/off time

of the SCR's to obtain a desired power output to the load.

DV/DT Refers to the maximum rate of rise of applied

voltage across an SCR that will NOT cause a false turn-on.
Usually stated as volts/second.

Forward Drop The voltage drop across a semiconductor

when that device is conducting current in it's normal forward
direction.

Gate The signal terminal of an SCR. The terminal used to

turn on an SCR.

Heatsink Device used to transfer heat away from either

an SCR or Diode.

SCR (silicon controlled rectifier) Typically used in a

controlled back-to-back configuration in order to rectify both
the positive and negative half cycles of an AC line.

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VFDs

Section 5
Variable Frequency
Drives

1 Equipment Overview ................................................ 2

2 How Does It Work .................................................... 7
3 How Do I Operate it ............................................... 20
4 Inspection............................................................. 21
5 Maintenance.......................................................... 22
6 Spare Parts ........................................................... 23
7 Trouble Shooting ................................................... 24
8 Questions ............................................................. 25
9 Reference Material ................................................. 27
10 Assignments ......................................................... 28
11 Glossary............................................................... 29

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VFDs

1 Equipment Overview
Up until recent times the preferred drive system for drilling
equipment has been DC traction motors, primarily because of
the high torque and speed control ability of this equipment
from zero to full speed, regardless of whether the power source
was DC to DC, or AC to DC systems.

1.1 DC System

A DC generator is used to drive DC motors which in turn drive

the drilling equipment, using the Ward Leonard type system of
speed control. This is achieved by varying the field of the
generator which controls the output voltage feeding the DC
traction motors.

1.2 AC System

Alternatively in the case of the AC system, AC generators

supply AC to an SCR system, which converts AC to DC to drive
the DC traction motors on the drilling equipment. These SCRs
convert 600 volts AC to a 0 to 750 volt DC output for the
control of the DC traction motors.

1.3 DC Traction Motors

Shunt Motors: Can be controlled by the field windings to

refine their control and are good for constant speed.

Series Motors: Are high torque from the initial start, as the
field windings are in series with the armature, but are able to
reach destructive speeds if unloaded without protective devices
installed.

1.4 Variable Frequency Drives System

In recent years there has been a move to VFDs or Variable

Frequency Drives to drive AC induction motors as the power
medium on modern drilling equipment. The voltage and
frequency are controlled to perform the same duty as the
previous DC systems and give the same degree of control
ability with a reduced level of maintenance from that of the DC
motors.

The DC motors require constant attention to keep them trouble

free, especially at the commutator end. But the AC motor used
on Top Drives is basically a three phase squirrel cage induction
motor refined for use with this system, so it does not require
the same level of maintenance as the DC motors.

1.5 Advantages of VFD

There are advantages from the safety point of view, in that

with the DC motors, there will always be commutator sparking
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VFDs

and the risk that poses in hazardous locations, even with air
purging and spark arrestors. Where as no such problems exist
with the AC motors, although they still need cooling to prevent
overheating. Another advantage with the AC motors is the fact
that the insulation is fully sealed against the offshore
environment situation of damp salt air.

The DC motor has always been a high maintenance item with

the need for cleaning to remove carbon residue from the brush
gear and commutator area, to reduce the risk of flash over and
maintain the insulation value of the motor as high as possible
when it becomes cool and damp.

Also there is the need to replace the carbon brushes, due to

wear or broken pig tails. The brushes need to be “bedded in” to
match the contour of the surface of the commutator to reduce
sparking. The brush spring arms can often create problems
where the pivots become tight or partly seize and this reduces
the spring pressure on the top of the brushes resulting in
excessive sparking.

1.6 AC Top Drives

With respect to Top Drives the main advantage of the AC VFD

system is a much better load power factor. This is important as
many rigs are running out of kVA, and would need more
generator power to cure this problem. AC motors have a better
speed range and can be run at 200% of base speed and above.
This allows for more suitable gear ratios and therefore produces
a substantially better torque curve that delivers better
performance over a broader speed range.

1.7 AC/DC Motor Characteristics

The AC motor horsepower characteristics are far better than

the DC motor, where the DC motor can only maintain
maximum horsepower at one speed, the AC motor will maintain
full horsepower from base speed up to approximately 150% of
base speed.

AC top drives can maintain continuous stall torque, whereas the

DC motor in an extended stall situation will have reduced
torque capacity due to brush/commutator current limitations.
The AC induction motor can be stalled at its continuous rating
indefinitely because it has no brushes or commutator, to create
arcing or sparking, and can supply continuous torque in this
situation without doing harm to the motor or installation.

1.8 Parameters

The AC Top Drives have a lifting capacity of up to 750 tons, and

a drive capacity of up to 1150 horse power. They are normally
equipped with instrumentation to monitor various parameters
such as, lube oil pressure, lube oil temperature, blower cooling
air pressure and temperature. Along with an RPM sensor to
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VFDs

monitor the rotating speed of the Top Drive, and gauges to

monitor hydraulic oil pressures on the unit.

1.9 Comparisons

Comparing the AC unit against the DC unit for torque, the AC

unit comes is superior with the AC unit producing a max
continuous torque of 51,000 ft/lbs, and a max intermittent
torque of 72,000 ft/lbs with a gear ratio of 6.808:1.

Where as the DC unit, limited by commutation, produces about

33,000 ft/lbs of maximum continuous torque with a gear ratio
of 4.971:1. So, if the motor is not well maintained and kept in
100% condition, this figure would not be obtainable. To
continue the comparison, the GE 752 High Torque DC motor
develops 1130 horse power, and this unit has a lifting capacity
of 650 tons, with a max speed of 267 RPM, compared to the AC
motors 265 RPM.

1.10 Permanent Magnet Synchronous AC Motors

The move to AC power for Top Drives has been further

advanced by the development of liquid cooled, brushless
permanent magnet synchronous AC motors, which has been
made possible with a reduction in the cost of rare earth
magnets. Effectively replacing the conventional three phase
squirrel cage type induction motors.

1.10.1 Performance Characteristics

Now that the high performance brushless permanent magnet
motors can be constructed to heavy industrial or military
specifications, they are now suitable for rig operations where
conditions are harsh and there are stringent explosion-proof
requirements. New single motor arrangements up to 1000hp
and beyond are planned for the future and this makes these
motors ideally suitable for top drive service in the oil
exploration industry.

1.10.2 No Gearbox Required

One of the main attractions of these motors is high speed
torque where the motor can be used for direct drive without a
gear box, in a situation where the maintenance cost of
gearboxes is considered higher than that of motors. Gearboxes
require constant monitoring and are difficult as well as time
consuming to replace in the event of failure.

1.10.3 Construction
These motors are constructed with the use of rare earth
magnetic materials such as Neodymium-iron-boron (Nd-Fe-B)
or samarium-cobalt. The materials are similar but the later has
better high temperature characteristics although at a higher
price. The cost of Nd-Fe-B has fallen over the last five years

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VFDs

making it more attractive, but the low production numbers

keep the cost of motors high.

As demand grows and unit production rates increase the sale

price of the motors will become more attractive.

1.10.4 Performance Benefits

The development of the magnets and the variable frequency
drives (VFDs) using insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs)
and integrated gate-commutated thyristors (IGCTs) have made
it possible to build this type of motor in the larger sizes for
applications such as drilling, where the VFD cost is outweighed
by the performance benefits.

1.10.5 Motor Cooling

Motor cooling is simplified due to the fact that heat is not
generated in the rotor. Only the stator or outer structure needs
to be cooled, where a water/glycol mix can be readily used to
cool the exterior of the motor. With the compact permanent
magnet motors there is a weight and size reduction of thirty to
fifty percent on an induction or synchronous motor when
compared to the heavier DC traction motors.

1.10.6 Greater Number of Poles

The brushless permanent magnet motors superior power
development results from a greater number of poles. These
motors can have as many as three times the number of poles
of a conventional induction motor of the same diameter. This
concept allows for a lighter, smaller, and more flexible motor
layout.

1.10.7 Accept Higher Frequency

With the higher pole numbers in the motors, the VFD can
operate at higher electrical frequencies. A permanent magnet
motor at a particular speed can require an input of up to 415Hz
in a high speed, high rating application. This can be from a
designed driver for the VFDs power topology and control band
width.

1.10.8 Application
Moving away from the top drive situation to the other main
drives on the rig such as the drawworks, mud pumps, and
rotary table drives. These equipments are now being driven via
VFDs and AC induction motors in place of the traditional DC to
DC and SCR systems. VFD units have increased in size to be
able to cope with large squirrel cage induction motors as used

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VFDs

in AC top drives. These newer VFDs are now able to be used in

modified form to drive new larger liquid cooled brushless
permanent magnet synchronous AC motors.

These brushless PM motors are currently rated up to 450 HP

when liquid cooled, and though more expensive due to the
manufacturing material cost, offer smaller size, higher power
density, higher dynamic performance, and higher efficiency
without rotor losses.

A European company is producing a high performance

permanent magnet motor rated to 1341HP at speeds up to
2600RPM. In most cases a permanent magnet motor is 1-2%
more efficient than an AC induction motor or synchronous
motor at full load, and 10-15% more efficient at partial
loadings. These efficiencies are derived from full rotor
excitation without current and without losses.

1.10.9 Manufacturers
There are several manufacturers of the VFD control systems
such as:

Siemens, DRS Technologies, Square D, Allen Bradley,

General Electric, Cutler Hammer, ABB etc.

Figure 1 Cutler Hammer Variable Frequency Drive

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2 How Does It Work

2.1 VFD Basic Principle

The Variable Frequency Drive system is used for the speed

control of the AC or Alternating Current motors. It does this by
controlling the frequency and voltage of the power supplied to
the motor. This is used in the same way as the SCR system is
used to control the DC motor, so that the AC motor speed can
be controlled over the full range from zero to full speed during
drilling operations.

Variable Frequency Drives operate on the principle that the

synchronous speed of an AC motor is determined by the
frequency of the applied AC supply and the number of poles in
the stator winding. The motors used in this type of system are
normally three phase induction motors which are suitable to
most applications, and are generally the most economical
choice of motor. In some cases enhancements are made to
improve the motors VFD performance and reliability, and the
AC motor is well suited to situations where the environment is
wet, corrosive, and explosive.

The Variable Frequency Drive controller is a solid state

electronic power conversion type device. This converts AC input
power to DC power by the use of a three phase bridge rectifier,
and then the DC power is converted to quasi- sinusoidal AC
power by using an inverter switching circuit. These are called
insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs ) and are used in most
inverter circuits.

Variable frequency AC motor drives, called inverters are

generally more complex than the normal SCR type DC
controllers, as they must perform two distinct functions. They
must convert AC line power to DC and filter/smooth it. Then an
inverter stage is required to convert the DC to a controlled
adjustable frequency and voltage output to the AC motor.

2.2 Advantage of VFD

The advantage of the adjustable frequency drive is in the use of

the AC induction motor, with its simplicity, reliability and low
maintenance requirements. Without the high maintenance
moving parts of a DC motor in the normal DC system, the
complexity of the AC control system is a small disadvantage.
The low cost of the AC motors is another attraction when
considering the initial cost of a system, and ongoing running
costs.

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The AC motors require the supply voltage to be adjusted

proportionally when the frequency is changed. If the motor was
designed to operate at 480 volt 60Hz, then the applied voltage
must be reduced to 240 volt when the frequency is 30Hz, to
keep the ratio of volts per hertz at a constant regulated value
(480/60 = 8 in this case). For the best performance some
voltage adjustment may have to be made, but normally the
constant volts/hertz ratio is the rule.

2.3 Characteristics of VFD

The main function of variable speed drive is the control of

speed, torque, acceleration, deceleration, and direction of
rotation of the AC induction motor to the same level of control
as that of the DC motor drives.

The drive can control two main functions of the induction

motor, speed and torque, and to understand how the AC drive
controls this performance we need to look at the principals of
the AC induction motor, which has two basic parts, the Stator
and the Rotor which create a magnetic interaction while
operating.

2.4 Squirrel Cage Induction AC Motor

A squirrel cage induction motor Stator contains pairs of poles.

These are laminated iron cores located inside the Stator, with
the insulated single core cable wound into it to create
electromagnets in pairs. They provide North and South poles
and in doing so create a revolving North and South field. The
ends of these coils are brought out to the junction box of the
motor for termination in the correct order to determine the
polarity of each coil in the system.

2.5 Base Speed/Slip

Base speed is the nameplate speed, given in RPM, where the

motor develops rated horsepower at rated voltage and
frequency. It is an indication of how fast the output shaft will
turn the connected equipment when fully loaded with proper
voltage and frequency applied. Consideration has also to be
given to slip, where slip is the difference in speed between the
Rotor and the rotating magnetic field in the Stator.

When a magnetic field passes through the rotor, the conductors

in the Rotor take on a field of their own. This Rotor field will try
and catch up to the Main rotating field in the Stator, but it will
never catch up. This difference is called slip, and the motion of
the Rotor field chasing the Stator field is the cause of the
motors rotation.

2.6 Motor Speed

The speed of the motor can be adjusted by altering the

frequency of supply to the motor, but the speed could also be
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adjusted by changing the number of poles in the motor.

However, this change would be permanent and require a
rewind.

Chart 1 Poles / Frequency / Speed

2.7 Motor Torque

To change the torque characteristics of a motor the Volts per

Hertz ratio needs to be changed, so if we take a 460 Volt 60Hz
motor with a source ratio of 7.67 and as long as this stays the
same the motor will develop the rated torque for that ratio, but
the AC inverter drive develops many different frequency
outputs, and at any given output you will get a new torque
curve.

Chart 2 Speed / Torque / Current

2.8 Pulse Width Modulation

The method used normally to adjust the motor voltage is called

pulse width modulation or PWM, in which the inverter switches

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are used to divide the quasi-sinusoidal output waveform into a

series of narrow voltage pulses and modulate the width of
pulses. Changes to the switching frequency will correspond to a
change in motor speed when comparing a,b, & c.

Figure 2 Example of PWM On/Off Cycles

An embedded microprocessor is used to control the overall

operation of the VFD, and the main microprocessor
programming is in firmware that is not accessible to the VFD
user. Some degree of configuration programming and
parameter adjustment is usually provided so that users can
customise the VFD controller to suit specific motor and drive
equipment requirements.

Figure 3 Pulse Width Duty Cycles

2.9 Basic principle

Below are the components of a basic PWM (Pulse Width

Modulation) Drive, showing the three phase supply to the
bridge which will rectify the AC current to DC current and then
the inductor or choke L 1 and capacitors C1 to filter and smooth
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the AC before it reaches the inverter which converts the DC

back to AC for the control of the motor with the aid of the
control logic, and all PWM drives will contain these main
components, with some differences in hardware and software
components.

Figure 1 AC/DC Converter

2.10 Explanation of Power Path

In the drilling exploration industry for our main drives we are

only interested in three phase units of high capacity, but to
make the following schematics better understood we will follow
a single phase through the system. If we take L 1 phase and
follow it through the diode where the current will flow in the
positive half of the cycle but stop flowing when the cycle
reverses, so one gets half cycles only through each diode. Then
on to the DC link which is an inductor or choke (L 1) and the
capacitors ( C 1 ) will work together to filter out any AC wave
form left over from the bridge rectifier. This will leave the
rectifier as a DC flow, formed by a continuous flow of positive
waves that are formed by the positive halves from all three
phases passing through the diodes.

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The inductor or choke by its nature will resist change in voltage

or current which tends to remove the ripple, and the capacitors
by their nature charge and discharge into the system. In doing
so they too remove ripple left over from the half-wave DC
created by the rectifier section, taking the positive half waves
from the three phase alternating current supply and smoothing
them to remove the ripple.

The smoother the DC into the inverter the better the wave form
out of it to the motor, and the rectified DC value is
approximately 1.35 times the line to line value of the supply
voltage, and the rectified DC value will be approximately 650
volts DC for a 480VAC input supply.

Figure 2 AC/DC Converter

2.11 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)

The Inverter will convert the DC back into AC, with a variable
voltage and frequency output to control the motor. This is
achieved by using Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)
technology, to switch the DC supply on and off at specific
intervals, and in doing so creates a variable voltage and
frequency output. However the output does not provide an AC
sine wave the same as the input sine wave from the original
supply, but creates voltage pulses of a constant magnitude.

The output voltage and frequency to the motor are controlled

by the control logic and inverter section. This section consists
of 6 IGBTs and the following schematic, shows the inverter
circuit in which the control logic uses a microprocessor to
switch the IGBTs on and off, providing a variable voltage and
frequency to the motor.

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The drives control system, signals the control circuits to turn

“on“ the wave form positive half or negative half of the
inverter, this alternating of positive and negative switching
recreates the three phase output. The longer the inverter stays
on, the higher the voltage output, and conversely the shorter
the period, the lower the voltage. Consequently the longer the
device is in the off position, the lower the output frequency.

Figure 3 DC/AC Converter

2.12 IGBT Composition

The IGBTs provide the high switching speed required for the
PWM inverter to operate, and are capable of switching on and
off several thousand times per second. An IGBT can turn on
in less than 400 nanoseconds and off in approximately 500
nanoseconds.

Figure 4 Symbol of IBGT

The IGBT consists of a gate, collector and emitter, which when

a + 15VDC is applied will turn on, which is equivalent to turning
on a switch. Current will flow from the collector to the emitter,
but will turn off if the positive voltage is removed. It is normally
held in the off position by applying a – 15VDC to the device to
prevent it turning on until required.

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2.13 Frequency

The speed at which the inverter switches on and off is referred

to as the carrier frequency, or switching frequency, and the
higher the switching frequency the more resolution each PWM
pulse contains. These frequency are normally 3000 to 4000
times per second or 3KHz or 4KHz, compared with SCR type
systems which are normally 250 to 500 times per second. The
higher the switch frequency the smoother the output wave form
and the higher the resolution, but the higher frequencies will
decrease the drive efficiency because of increased heat in the
power devices. An indication of the switching used in the
inverter process is shown in the schematic below. Using
switches instead of IGBTs and following a single phase
example, an alternating voltage is developed by opening and
closing switches in a set sequence.

Looking at the generated sine wave from the VFD to the three
phase motor windings, across Line 1 and Line 2, it can be
shown that;

• Step 1 & 2, by closing A+ & B- a positive voltage will be

seen across L1 & L2.

• Step 3, by opening B- and closing A+ & B+ the voltage

across L1 & L2 is zero.

• Step 4 & 5, by opening A+ and closing A- a negative

voltage will be seen across L1 & L2.

Figure 5 Graphical Representation of Switching

This represents one cycle across L1 and L2 and is repeated in

sequence across all L1, L2 and L3 phases that supply the
motor.

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2.13.1 VFD Voltage

Is dependant on the value of the DC voltage supplied from the
rectifier.

2.13.2 VFD Frequency

The frequency is dependant on the speed of the switching, and
an AC sine wave has been added to the output (A-B) to show
how the AC is simulated.

2.14 SCR Compared To IGBT’s

The SRC or Thyristor differs from the IGBT in that the SCR is
controlled by the use of the “Gate” by which the SCR can be
switched on allowing it to fully conduct, and will continue to
conduct until the polarity reverses. It will then automatically
turn off. The out put of the SCR depends on how soon in the
cycle the gate turns on.

With the IGTB it is much the same as the SCR, in that the
output is controlled by the amount of time the gate is on, but it
can be turned off at any time in the control cycle, and thereby
providing a more precise output waveform. The IGTB requires
control circuitry connected to the gate, but it is less complex
than the SCR and does not require reversal of polarity to switch
it off.

There are several PMW modulation techniques. The following

text and illustrations describe a typical pulse width modulation
method. An IGBT (or other type switching device) can be
switched on connecting the motor to the positive value of DC
voltage (650 VDC from the converter). Current flows in the
motor. The IGBT is switched on for a short period of time,
allowing only a small amount of current to build up in the motor
and then switched off.

The IGBT is switched on and left on for progressively longer

periods of time, allowing the current to build up to higher levels
until the current in the motor reaches a peak. The IGBT is then
switched on for progressively shorter periods of time,
decreasing the current build up in the motor. The negative half
of the sine wave is generated by switching an IGBT connected
to the negative value of the converter DC voltage.

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The more sinusoidal current output produced by the PWM, the

greater the reduction of torque pulsation, or low speed motor
cogging, and motor losses, usually noticeable when using a six
step output.

Figure 6 Pulse Width & Wave Form Comparison

The 650 volt DC output from the rectifier section is modulated

by the IGBT section to provide variable frequency and voltage.
When the IGBTs are turned on for shorter periods of time,
lower frequency and voltage are produced and the motor
voltage and current build up is low resulting in lower motor
speed. If the IGBTs are turned on for longer periods of time,
which results in higher frequency and voltage output. With this
increase in the voltage and current build up, the motor speed
will increase.

Figure 7 Voltage & Current Comparison

2.15 AC/DC Motor Comparison

In the past the dynamic response of the DC motor has always

been considered superior to that of the AC motor. However the
cost of the AC motor is significantly less than the DC motor and
the AC motor requires much less maintenance. By using a
complex motor model and internal computer algorithms, vector
control is able to exert dynamic control over the AC motor so
that its control is equal or better than that expected of a DC
motor.

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2.16 Vector Control

Vector control, flux vector, and field orientation are terms that
describe this specialised control technique of AC drives. Vector
control makes possible the control of the flux and torque in a
squirrel cage induction motor. Sensorless vector control system
calculates the base speed of the motor based on the
specifications of that motor. Calculated counter electromotive
force, inverter output voltage, inverter input current, and the
results are improved dynamic control compared with other
systems of control.

Vector control without a tachometer becomes impractical below

a few hertz due to slight variations in stator resistance, a small
counter electromotive force and other parameters which have
an effect on accurate speed calculations. Sensor less vector
control will operate at low speed, and will produce full torque at
a few hertz, with 150% or more torque available at all speed.
But there are some complicated techniques required to achieve
low speed torque, and this may require expert commissioning
to get the best results for your operation.

2.17 Speed Torque

In the speed-torque charts there are four sectors which are

governed by the direction of rotation and torque. A single
quadrant drive operates in quadrant 1 or 3 where quadrant 1 is
for forward motion, clockwise, and sector 3 is for reverse
motion, counter clockwise. Where reverse motion is achieved
by reversing the direction of the rotating magnetic field in the
stator.

Figure 9 Speed Torque Graphic

The motor torque is developed in a positive direction to drive

the load at the required speed, and this is the same as any load
in that the maximum amount of torque is required to move the
load from standstill. Once it is up to the required speed the
torque can be reduced to the amount required to maintain that
speed at a constant, but if the load increases then more torque
will be required to maintain the speed at the preset level.

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2.18 Controlled Braking

Stopping the motor in a quadrant 1 situation is achieved by

simply removing the power from the motor and allowing it to
coast to a standstill, as would happen with any motor with the
power supply removed.

Controlled deceleration can be achieved by gradually reducing

the voltage and frequency until the motor is at a standstill. The
time taken will depend on the amount of inertia in the rotor and
the connected load, to dissipate its energy, the greater the
inertia the greater the time to stop.

2.19 DC Injection Braking

The motor can also be stopped by DC injection braking, which

will stop the rotating magnetic field, and apply a constant
voltage to the stator windings which will help to stop the motor.
Where in this method up to 250% of the motors rated current
can be applied to the windings, which will rapidly bring the
motor to a standstill.

2.20 Compound Braking

Compound braking can be used with a combination of

controlled deceleration and DC injection braking, and this is
achieved where the drive monitors the bus voltage during
operation. Which triggers braking when the bus exceeds a set
threshold point, as the motor decelerates a DC voltage is
applied to the motor windings periodically, and the excess
energy is dissipated into the motor windings until it comes to a
standstill.

With certain dynamic loads quadrant 4 operation may be

required when an additional resistor is employed for braking,
torque will tend to cause the motor rotor to run towards
synchronous speed, and if synchronous speed is suddenly
reduced, negative torque is developed in the motor. Where at
this point the motor will act like a generator, converting
mechanical energy at the shaft into electrical power which is
returned to the drive and braking occurs in quadrant 2 and 4.

2.21 Pulse Resistor Braking

For a drive to operate in quadrant 2 and 4, a path must be

created to channel the electrical energy returned to the drive
by the motor. This motor energy can cause voltage in the DC
link to become extremely high when added to the existing
supply voltage, at which point various drive components can be
damaged by excessive voltage.

So in the case of companies such as Siemens an optional

braking resistor can be supplied.

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The braking resistor is added and removed from circuit by an

IGBT, and the energy returned by the motor is seen on the DC
link. So that when the DC link reaches a predetermined limit
the IGBT is switched on by the control logic, and the resistor
placed across the DC link.

Figure 10 Braking resistor & IGBT

The excess energy is dissipated by the resistor reducing the bus

bar voltage. When the voltage is reduced to a safe level the
IGBT is switched off, removing the resistor from the DC link.

This mode of braking is referred to as pulse resistor braking,

and this allows the motor to work as a brake slowing the
connected loads quickly.

2.22 Protective Features

The VFD shall include the following protective features:

• Protection against input transient voltage spikes.

• Separate overload protection for each motor controlled.

• Protection against input power under voltage, over

voltage, and phase loss.

• Protection against output current overload and over

current.

• Protection against over temperature within the VFD

enclosure.

• Protection against over voltage on the DC bus.

• DC bus discharge circuit for protection of service

personnel.

• Insensitive to incoming power phase sequence.

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3 How Do I Operate It
3.1 General Guide

Controls are provided for the operator to start and stop the
motor, adjust the motor speed to their requirement and
switching for a reversing function. The operator interface will
have all the usual drill console control and indication. This will
also provide information about the drive operation while
drilling.

When the motor is started with the VFD, it is normally low

frequency and low voltage, with a starting frequency of 2 Hz or
less is common, starting with such a low frequency avoids the
high inrush currents typical of DOL starters, so when the VFD
starts, the applied frequency and voltage are increased at a
controlled rate, or ramped up accelerating the load without
drawing excessive current, the range is from about 2 Hz to 90
Hz for the range from 0 to max speed.

This starting method allows the motor to develop 150% of the

rated torque while drawing only 150% of the rated current.
Instead of the normal 300% plus current of a normal DOL
starter, with less than 150% of the rated torque, and the load
accelerates with 150% torque which can remain constant from
standstill to full speed while still only drawing 150% of the
current.

The VFD stop sequence is the opposite of the starting

sequence, where the frequency and voltage are ramped down
at a controlled rate, and when the frequency approaches zero
the motor is shut off, and a small amount of braking torque is
available to help decelerate the load a little faster than if the
motor was just switched off and allowed to coast to a stand
still, additional braking can be obtained by adding a braking
circuit to dissipate the braking energy or return it to the power
source.

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4 Inspection
4.1 Daily General Rig Inspections

Check inside all the cabinets and make sure they clean and
dust free, and that any filters on the cooling systems are clean,
to maintain a good air flow for cooling and prevent the entry of
dust and dirt into the cabinets, in the VFD power supply system

Check all the normal interlocks to make sure they are operating
and all the auxiliaries are operating as they should, such as
motor cooling blowers, lube oil pumps, and cooling pumps,
when the assignments are made to start the Top Drive to
provide all the ancillaries for the operation of the Top Drive

There should be a daily visual inspection of the Top Drive unit

during the morning walk round inspection of the rig, to make
sure there has been no overnight damage that is obvious on
the Top Drive, or service loops during the operation, and that
there are no obvious lose nuts and bolts on the assembly.

Check the alignment cylinder operation weekly. Also, inspect all

moving parts and check the accumulator pressures on a weekly
basis.

Varco installs exhaust mufflers on the exhaust ports of the

multi-gang solenoid valve manifold for noise abatement. All
such mufflers reduce noise, and collect contaminates that can
eventually restrict the air passage. Air passage restriction can
result in back pressure on all of the solenoid valves, and erratic
valve operation.

Check the operating controls and instrumentation for the unit

on the Drillers Console on the daily walk round inspection and
check with the Driller to see if there are any problems that
have occurred over night that needs to be attended to at the
next drilling break.

Service loops are always a concern and should be observed for

any signs of damage from drilling equipment on the morning
walk around in case they are no longer being restrained to keep
them clear of rotating equipment during their travel up and
down the derrick and being kept out of harms way, as failure
can be expensive and time consuming.

In the case of Drawworks, Mud Pump, and Rotary Table

motors, these need to be kept clean, and cooling systems
inspected to be sure that adequate cool air is circulating to
maintain the motors normal working temperature and prevent
overheating of the motor.

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5 Maintenance
5.1 General Maintenance

The VFD can be considered to be two sections, power and

control, with the power section controlling high current and
variable voltage and frequency to deal with the output to the
traction motor to drive the drilling equipment on the rig. With
the control section the control is left to a Digital Signal
Processor which meets the logic and decision making
requirements.

5.1.1 Cleaning
With the maintenance on these units there are several things to
consider as basics, in that they need to be kept clean to reduce
the risk of tracking or flash over in the components which will
occur if dust and dirt are allowed to accumulate. The units
need to be blown out with clean dry air, paying attention to the
dry part, as some air systems on a rig if the air driers are not
working, will be carrying a lot of moisture and in some cases
oil, which can be dumped in the equipment with unwanted
results.

There is always the risk when blowing equipment out with

compressed air of generating electrostatic charges which can
damage components as well. There are cans of non static
generating sprays, and purpose built vacuum cleaners that will
reduce static build up, and these are available from companies
that specialise in static control equipment to prevent damage to
static sensitive equipment.

For the same reasons the units need to be kept dry, even more
so if there is a build up of dirt or dust which can become mud
with a little moisture. This can provide paths for tracking or
flash over which will leave a lot of damage if it should occur,
and may be difficult to repair quickly, so it is better if it never
occurs.

5.1.2 Termination Tightness

A check should be kept on all terminations to make sure there
are no loose connections that can become hot joints in the
future as these too can cause damage that may be difficult to
repair. Vibration and heat cycling can lead to terminations that
are not as tight as they should be and these should be checked
occasionally to make sure they are tight, but re-torquing is not
recommended as this can lead to stretched bolts if performed
too often, and the deformation of the contact faces and
reduction of current carrying capacity.

5.1.3 Filter System Checks

As with most equipment of this type cooling is critical, so any
air filter systems that are there to keep the dirt and dust out,

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need to be kept clean to maintain the air flow to the equipment

for cooling purposes. The filters should never be left off the
intakes, as once the dust or dirt gets into the heat sinks it can
be very hard to remove, and cause a fall in the performance of
the system and risk loosing components to overheating

5.1.4 Air Conditioning Checks

In most situations if the rooms are air conditioned this will
remove much of the moisture from the air and dump the
condensate outside the switch room. But if the air conditioning
system fails, the cold parts will suffer from condensation when
the warmer air hits them as the room warms up to the outside
temperature.

Because the VFD is controlled by what is basically a computer,

and that computers are temperature sensitive, and should be in
an environment where the temperature is controlled for them
so they do not become subjected to extremes of temperature.
As with any electronic equipment if this is observed one can
expect trouble free operation for a long period of time.

5.1.5 Space Heater Checks

If the system is operating continuously the warmth of the
components will drive out any moisture, and in some early
systems there was condensation protection installed that would
not allow the system to start if the temperature was below 32°
F. But very few have this now, but space heaters can be used if
the equipment stands idle for long periods of time so the
components are kept warm and free of condensation.

5.1.6 Temperature Checks

The heat sink temperatures should be monitored, and most
manufacturers have made this easy by installing a temperature
readout on the key pad or display. It should be part of the
normal routine to check these readings on a weekly or monthly
basis to monitor the VFD operation, and perhaps keep a record
of these readings in a log book.

6 Spare Parts
6.1 General Spares to be Kept

There should always be spares kept available for critical items

to the operation either on the rig or in a warehouse nearby
where they can be obtained quickly in the event of failure. At
the top of this list should be a spare motor which should be
available if required to replace the unit in service. Also any
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control modules that are critical to the operation so they can be

changed as quickly as possible in the event of failure.

6.2 Spare Components

Also there should be a stock of critical items such as throttles,

switches, solenoids, micro-switches, sensors, and printed circuit
boards, and any other items where failure is not an option in
the Top Drive system. If repairs are to be attempted on the rig
then there needs to be a stock of components to affect the
repairs, although if there are spare printed circuit boards, and
the fault has been found on the damaged board removed, then
the components required can be ordered to repair it. Bear in
mind the fact that other items may have been stressed when
that component failed, so there may be more than one fault on
that PCB.

It is not normally necessary to carry the complete

recommended spare parts list the manufacturer would have
you carry in stock, as some of these items will never be used
and take up valuable warehouse space on the rig, and only
time will confirm which parts should be kept on the rig at all
times.

It is the custom with most major manufacturers to do the same

with spare parts, where they try to have major distribution
centres where they can dispatch parts within 24 hours via air or
road freight anywhere in the World, but this may not be quick
enough for your situation so critical parts need to be within
easy reach.

Spare VFDs should be stored in a clean, dry environment with

no condensation allowed, and it should be placed in the PM
system so that it is powered up every 6 months to keep the DC
bus capacitors at their peak performance condition or their
charging ability will be significantly diminished. A capacitor is
much like a battery in that it needs to be used as quickly after
its purchase as possible or it will suffer a loss of usable life.

7 Trouble Shooting
7.1 What If It Breaks Down

Depending on what motor the VFD is controlling and what is

happening with the drilling operation at the time of the failure
will dictate the impact.

Generally if no redundancy exists with the equipment, for

example the Top Drive motor. It is critical to the safe operation
of the rig to diagnose and repair the fault as soon as possible.
It cannot be stressed more highly that any equipment that falls

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into this category should be the first that you should familiarise
and become conversant with.

7.2 Fault Finding

With VFDs the essence of keeping it in good working order is to

“ keep it clean” “ keep it dry” and “ keep the connections tight”,
which will normally give trouble free operation for many years if
the preventative maintenance is maintained. Whenever work
needs to be done on the VFD great care should be taken that
there is no stored voltage present in the form of the DC
capacitors, which will need to be discharged before work is
commenced to make the unit safe, and the DC bus capacitors
should be checked to see if they are swollen or leaking, and in
either case it could be a sign of component stress, or electrical
misuse and they will need to be replaced.

If measurements are taken of the voltage in the DC bus while

the unit is running, any fluctuations can indicate degradation of
the DC Bus capacitors, as one of the functions of the capacitors
is to act as a filter to smooth out the AC ripple in the bus, so
any AC ripple or abnormal AC voltage on the DC bus indicates
the capacitors are starting to fail and will need to be replaced.
Measurements at these points in the DC system of more than
4VAC can indicate a capacitor filtering problem, or a possible
problem with the diode bridge section ahead of the bus, and if
such voltage levels exist, consult the VFD manufacturer before
taking further action.

Most VFDs are equipped with terminal blocks at which these

test measurements can be taken and also for the connection of
the dynamic braking resistors. With the VFD in start at zero
speed, one should read an output voltage of 40VAC phase to
phase or less, and if you read more than this, you may have a
transistor leaking, and at zero speed the power components
should not be operating, but if your readings are 60VAC or
more you can expect power component failure.

8 Questions
1. What is the name of the twisting or turning force that
causes a motor to rotate?

a. Torque b. Inertia c. Friction d. Acceleration

2. The rate of doing work is called?

a. Inertia b. power c. speed d. energy

3. A motor with the rating of 60 kW would have an

equivalent horsepower rating of?

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
VFDs

a. 16.7 b. 47 c. 53 d. 150

4. Magnetic lines of flux in an AC motor are proportional to

a. voltage/frequency b. frequency/voltage
c. rotor speed/synchronous speed
e. synchronous speed/rotor speed.

5. A four pole motor operating at 50 Hz has a synchronous

speed of rpm

a. 1500 b. 3000 c. 1800 d. 3600

6. A motor operated within a speed range that allows a

constant volts per hertz ratio is said to be

a. constant HP. b. variable torque c. constant torque

d. variable flux

7. The section of an AC drive that controls output voltage

and frequency to an AC motor is the

a. converter b. DC link c. inverter d. L1 choke

8. A centrifugal pump is what kind of application.

a. constant torque b. constant flux

c. constant HP d. variable torque

9. IGBT’s are capable of being switched how many times a

second

a. 60 times b. hundred times

c. several thousand times d. million times

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
VFDs

9 Reference Material
The best reference material for any equipment is the
manufacturer’s service manuals that are usually supplied
with the drives when they new.

These manuals cover everything from installation to the

commissioning when it is newly installed to trouble shooting
and fault finding when the system is in normal operation.

In most cases there are people employed with the

manufacturers who can assist in time of need by email or by
telephone who can talk over a problem with you on the
company technical support line.

9.1 References

Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers:

IEEE C62.41 - Recommended Practice on Surge Voltages in

Low-Voltage AC Power Circuits.

9.1.1 Compliance
National Electrical Manufacturers Association:

NEMA ICS 7.1 Safety standards for construction and guide

for selection, installation, and operation of adjustable speed
drive systems.

NEMA ICS 7 Industrial control and systems: adjustable

speed drives.

NEMA FU1 Low voltage cartridge fuses.

NEMA 250 Enclosures for electrical equipment (1000 volts

maximum).

9.2 Web Sites

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

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VFDs

10 Work Place Assignments

Note.

This assignment is to make you aware of all the AC driven

equipment that is supplied and controlled by a VFD that
makes up your work place systems. It will lead you to the
main source of supply being the VFD Panel (variable speed
drive) and then onto the motor and control equipment that is
supplied from this equipment.

1. Find all VFD Control Cubicles (VFD) associated with

the AC motors being supplied and controlled from
this equipment. Write down the description and tag
number that is displayed on the VFD.

2. Go out into the field and locate the associated motor

that this drive controls. It should be clearly
identified with the same description and tag number
that you found on the VFD cubicle.

3. If you look closely there should be a Stop/Start

station with the ability to adjust the speed of the
equipment nearby clearly marked with the same ID.
This device should also have the ability to lock out
the motor from starting for maintenance. Be aware
that this motor may also be controlled from a
remote location.

4. Look for all of the documentation including

schematics and layout diagrams associated with this
equipment. Make yourself conversant with type of
systems you have discovered and the AC motors
that are controlled and feed from this equipment.

5. Particular attention should be given to the trouble

shooting documentation. Read carefully all of the
information given covering this area and familiarise
yourself with the locations of fault indications and
test points.

6. If your rig has an AC top drive ask your drilling

supervisor to show you the driller’s controls and to
explain the functions that are common to this
system.

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VFDs

11 Glossary
Variable Frequency Drive (sometimes abbreviated VFD)
Is electronic equipment that allows an electric motor to be
run at varying rotational speeds. VFDs are frequently used to
start large three-phase AC synchronous motors. These
motors cannot be started simply by applying line frequency
mains power; the rapidly rotating magnetic field would be
unable to overcome the inertia of the rotor (and any
connected load). Using a VFD provides one possible means to
start these motors: the VFD will start using a low frequency
that the rotor can follow, ramping up the frequency as the
rotor accelerates. And unlike other starting methods, the VFD
also allows very efficient speed control once the motor is
running (simply by varying the ultimate frequency of the
supplied power).

Adjustable speed The concept of varying the speed of a

motor either manually or automatically. The desired
operating speed (set speed) is relatively constant regardless
of load.

Base speed Base speed is the manufacturers nameplate

rating where the motor will develop rated HP at rated load
and voltage. With DC drives, it is commonly the point where
full armature voltage is applied with full rated field excitation.
With AC systems it is commonly the point where 60 Hz is
applied to the induction motor.

Bi-Directional Motors have equal performance

characteristics in CW and CCW rotation.

Breakaway Torque The torque required to start a machine

from standstill. It is always greater than the torque needed
to maintain motion.

Breakdown Torque The breakdown torque of an AC motor

is the maximum torque which it will develop with rated
voltage applied at rated frequency

Constant voltage range ( AC Drives ) The range of motor

operation where the drive’s output voltage is held constant
as output frequency is varied. This speed range produces
motor performance similar to DC drive constant horsepower
range.

Constant volts per Hertz This relationship exists in AC

drives where the output voltage is varied directly
proportional to frequency. This type of operation is required
to allow the motor to produce constant rated torque as speed
is varied.

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VFDs

Current Limiting An electronic method of limiting the

maximum current available to the motor. This is adjustable
so that the motors maximum current can be controlled. It
can also be preset as a protective device to protect both
motor and control from extended overloads.

Duty Cycle Is a ration of operating time to total cycle time,

expressed in percent.
.
Efficiency Of a motor is the ratio of output power to input
power, and is expressed in percent.

IGBTs Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor Is a four-layer

(n-p-n-p) device with an MOS-gated channel connecting the
two n-type regions. In the normal mode of operation, a
positive voltage is applied to the anode (A) relative to the
cathode (K).

Inverter A term commonly used for an AC adjustable

frequency drive. An inverter is also a term used to describe a
particular section of Ac drive. This section uses the DC
voltage from a previous circuit stage (intermediate DC
circuit) to produce an AC current or voltage having the
desired frequency.

MOSFETs Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect Transistor

A common type of transistor in which charge carriers, such
as electrons, flow along channels. The width of the channel,
which determines how well the device conducts, is controlled
by an electrode called the gate, separated from channel by a
thin layer of oxide insulation. The insulation keeps current
from flowing between the gate and channel.

No Load Speed Expressed in RPM, represents rotational

speed of the motor when no force is applied to the output
shaft.

Open Loop A system in which there is no feedback. Motor

motion is expected to faithfully follow the input command.
Stepping motor systems are an example of open-loop
control.

PWM (pulse width modulation) Type of AC adjustable

frequency drive that accomplishes frequency and voltage
control at the output section (inverter) of the drive. The
drive’s output voltage is always a constant amplitude and by
chopping (pulse width modulating), the average voltage is
controlled.

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Switchboards

Section 6
Basic Switchboards

2 Equipment Overview .............................................. 2

2 How Does It Work .................................................. 5
3 How Do I Operate It .............................................. 7
4 Inspection .......................................................... 14
5 Maintenance ....................................................... 15
6 Spare Parts ........................................................ 16
7 Trouble Shooting ................................................. 17
8 Questions ........................................................... 20
9 Reference Material............................................... 20
10 Assignments....................................................... 22
11 Glossary ............................................................ 23

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Switchboards

1 Equipment Overview
Main switchboards and smaller light and power distribution
panels are an integral part of any drilling system. They
provide the means of distributing the flexible generator
capacity on rigs with more than one generator, to all of the
electrically driven equipment. These can be located in various
locations depending on the type and size of the operation
that they are designed for.

Figure 1 Main Distribution Switchboard

The main switchboards on the larger oil rigs such as offshore

units are normally found in the engine rooms where the
generators are situated. Quite often they stretch the width of
the engine room and encompass all the major switchgear
required for electrical control of the total operation.

1.1 Generator Control Switchboard

There will be a control panel for each of the generators,

which, in the case of a Jack-Up, will number up to five or
more. The switchboard will have synchronising equipment to
put these generators on and off the switchboard as and when
they are required, depending on the load demands of the
drilling operation at any one time.

This section of the switchboard is devoted to power

generation, in many cases 600 volts, which is the voltage at
which the SCR system operates. Normally there will be a
main breaker at the top of each control panel, which when
closed will put that particular generator on line, which
connects it to the main bus-bar in the switchboard, supplying
it with 600volts.

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Switchboards

This section of switchboard will also contain a circuit breaker,

quite often the same physical size as the generator breaker
that will supply the SCR system with 600 Volts. There will
also be additional breakers to supply the 600/480 volt
transformers that normally supply the other half of the
switchboard, which is devoted to 480 Volts for the 3 phase
motor supplies. There may also be tie-breakers on the 480
volt section of the switchboard so that sections can be
connected together or separated as required, such as in the
case of a transformer failure, so that one section can be
supplied from another while repairs or maintenance are
performed.

Figure 2 Merlin Gerin Circuit Breaker

The 480 Volt section of the switchboard will contain several

large circuit breakers. These supply large individual loads
which would not normally be found on the MCCs because of
their high current requirement, such as large pumps and
compressors. The MCCs will also be supplied from this
section where the power will be distributed to smaller loads
such as 480/208 transformers for lighting and low voltage
service power distribution.

Everything will be supplied from the main switchboard and

through MCCs and distribution panels depending on the size
of the current requirements of the load and the size of the
switchgear required to control and protect it. The larger
items supplied by breakers from the main switchboard
usually have their own starters at MCC panels or near the
location of the motor.

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Switchboards

1.2 Emergency Switchboard

The emergency generator can sometimes supply the main

switchboard via the emergency switchboard. In the event of
a total power failure, the emergency generator will start
automatically and supply power to the emergency
switchboard. This will then provide the power for essential
services, such as; emergency lighting, fire fighting systems,
electric cranes that may be needed for evacuation and life
boats winches.

The emergency generator which supplies the essential items

for survival is normally situated on the upper levels of the
drilling unit so that if the engine room is flooded it can be
started as a last resort to maintain lighting and power on the
upper decks. It will also be required for power to be
maintained for rescue communications while in a distress
situation.

As an interim measure in the event of power failure and

depending on the size of the emergency generator, many
small items on the 480 Volt section of the main switchboard
can be kept operating up to the capacity of the generator.
Loads such as the bilge and transfer pumps would be
supplied in the event of an emergency, and in some
situations the 600/480 volt main service transformer can be
back-fed or supplied from the 480 volt switchboard to supply
600 volts to small loads on the 600 volt switchboard in an
emergency.

But it must be remembered the main function of the

Emergency Generator is to maintain a supply to the
Emergency Equipment and to make evacuation possible
when the time arrives to depart the rig in the event of an
emergency.

There are several manufacturers of switchboards used in the

oil exploration industry on oil rigs such as:

1.3 Manufacturers

General Electric, Allen Bradley, Square D, Siemans,

ABB, Westinghouse and many more.

Figure 3 Switchboard Example

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Switchboards

2 How Does It Work

The switchboards are used to control and distribute electricity
from the generator to everything from a light switch in the
accommodation to the Mud Pumps or Drawworks. All power
on the rig comes from the generators via the switchboards.
Power is generated by diesel powered generators and the
number of generators will depend on the size of the drilling
rig. The larger the rig the more power that is required and
the more generators (or larger generators) installed.

Figure 4 One Line Diagram of Power Path

Power from the generators is distributed via a switchboard.

Each generator has a control panel on the switchboard with a
circuit breaker large enough to take the generators
maximum output. The circuit breaker is used to connect or
disconnect the generator to a common busbar in the switch-
board, so that one can put as many generators on that bus-
bar as is required by the load demands of the drilling
operation.

The switchboard busbar is normally at the voltage required

by the drilling motors drive system such as the SCR system,
normally 600 volts. This is then supplied to a common bus-
bar network in the SCR system from which each SCR takes
its supply. Each SCR has its own main feeder circuit breaker
to protect the system from any SCR fault that may develop.

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Switchboards

There will be one or more breakers on the 600 volt section of

the switchboard to supply 600/480 volt transformers. These
in turn will supply the other half of the switchboard with 480
VAC power to supply all the 3 phase AC motors on the rig.
The large drives, which are directly supplied from this section
of the switchboard by large capacity breakers, have their
own starters near these motors with thermal overloads to
protect the motors from over current faults.

There will also be large breakers on the 480 volt section of

the switchboard to supply the Motor Control Centres (MCCs)
with power for distribution down stream. These MCCs
normally have various size starters from 1 to 4, with
amperage up to about 100 amps, to supply power and
control to a variety of AC motors. On most rigs there will be
small switchboards at various locations around the rig to
cater for light and small power. These are generally supplied
from near by MCC Panels.

Figure 3 Main Switchboard

The distribution panels are supplied from a 480/208 volt

transformer with 208 volts 3 phase power and neutral from a
Star or "Y" wound transformer secondary winding, and a 120
volt single phase and neutral power supply for lighting and
small power. This can also be used for small power in the
accommodation, mess rooms, ablution blocks, galley and
recreation areas to power all the usual equipment.

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Switchboards

3 How Do I Operate It
The following information is covered in more detail in other
sections of the course book. However because of overlapping
information that applies to more than one piece of equipment
a simplified version is applied in this case. Please refer to
Section 10.2 Generators for more detail.

3.1 Charging Main Circuit Breaker

The circuit breaker is made ready by whatever method is

required. This can be either by mechanical charging, by the
use of a lever which will normally needs to be operated
several times until the spring is charged within the breaker,
and will then disengage automatically to prevent
overcharging, or it will be charged by an internal electric
motor to charge the spring in the same way as the lever
method, to make it ready to close the breaker at the push of
a button, or automatically by the system.

3.2 Synchronisation Generator on Line

The actual synchronizing is the adjustment of the generator

frequency or speed to match that of the generators already
connected to the switchboard. The incoming generator’s
speed pot on the switchboard is used to adjust the frequency
or speed of that machine to match the machines already on
line. Before the incoming generator circuit breaker can be
closed the synchronization lamps and the syncroscope must
indicate that the incoming generator and switchboard are
exactly in phase with each other.

Figure 4 Generator Sync Panel

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Switchboards

It is said that they are “In sync”, when the lights will go out
to indicate there will be no volts or potential difference across
the contacts of the breaker about to be closed between the
switchboard and the incoming generator. The breaker can
then be closed to put the incoming machine on line.

To ensure the incoming generator will be generating a small

load when the circuit breaker is closed it should be running
slightly faster than the switchboard. It is normal to have the
syncroscope running in the fast direction at about the speed
of the second hand on a watch. The reason for having the
system running faster is that, if the generator was running
slower than the rest of the generators feeding the
switchboard, it would mean that the generator would be
taking load from the switchboard. It would then be in
Reverse Power mode and the generator’s electrical protection
could trip the machine off the board. This tripping off can
easily cause confusion to the operator and start a faultfinding
process which is not needed.

3.3 Balancing the Load

Once the circuit breaker has been closed and the generator is
on line the synchronised generator needs to be balanced with
the rest of the generators already on the switchboard. To
balance the load, it may just need a switch to be set to
automatic, or to adjust the speed and voltage of the
generator that has just been put on line, to match those on
already on line on the switchboard.

• Balancing kW is accomplished by adjusting the speed.

• Balancing kVAR is accomplished by adjusting the

voltage.

Once balance is achieved the system can be left to control

itself. The last thing to do is switch off the synchroscope and
lights.

Logbook

The logbook or switching records are initially filled out before

the machine is put into operation. If an accident or incident
occurs the logbook can show what operation was being
carried out at the time. After the successful completion the
switching records need to be completed with a time entry
and the operator’s signature.

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Switchboards

3.4 Taking a Generator off Line

When taking a machine off line it is recommended that the

load be reduced to a lower value 50 kW to 100 kW, reducing
the current on the circuit breaker contacts as they open. If
this value is reduced too much it is possible that you could
accidentally go into Reverse Power. This isn’t a bad thing
provided your reverse power relay activates. Obviously not a
recommended practice, unless a test is being carried out on
the reverse power relay under controlled conditions. Once off
line, the machine should be checked to see that it is running
at 60Hz and 600V. This saves time when putting the
generator on line the next time.

3.5 Basic Switchboard Controls

The basic controls and indicators available to the operator

are:

• Voltage control pot Control

• Speed control pot Control

• Circuit breaker close/open Direct

• Generator load switch man/auto Generator

• The synchronization lamps / synchroscope Indicator

• Switchboard voltage Indicator

• Generator voltage Indicator

• Switchboard frequency Indicator

• Incoming generator frequency Indicator

• Generator load Ammeter (A) Indicator

• Generator load Watts (kW) Indicator

• Generator on line lamp. Indicator

There are only two controls, which are used for adjustments;
the others are either indicators or switches.

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Switchboards

3.6 Generator Parallel Operation

For Generator sets to operate in parallel and balance the

system load between them certain conditions must be met.
• All engines must be running at the same speed.

• The voltage of the alternators must be the same.

• The response of the AVR & Governor control must be

the same.

Figure 5 Generator Control Panel

3.7 Speed

The speed of the system is called its frequency and is either

50Hz or 60Hz. This relates directly to the number of coils
built into the generator and the speed of the engine driving
the generator. Engine speed for a Caterpillar 399 is 1200RPM
on a 60Hz system. The exact speed needs to be checked with
your own system. If the speed is exactly the same as the
system the generator would just run on line without
generating power or taking power from the system. To
generate power to meet the required rig load the generator
must be trying to move faster to take load from the
switchboard and the other generators.

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Switchboards

3.8 Voltage

To synchronize a generator, not only the speed but also each

generator must be producing the maximum voltage on the
same phase at the same time. If the voltage on the red
phase, for example, reaches maximum at the same time on
both the system and the incoming generator, the voltages
are running together, and there will be no voltage difference
between the system and the incoming generator. It is
possible however for the incoming generator and the system
to be running at exactly the same speed but the red phase of
the system is reaching its maximum at a different time to the
incoming generator.

Figure 1 the Controls on the Generator Control Panel

This situation produces a voltage between the system red

phase and the incoming machine’s red phase. If the circuit
breaker is closed at this time a very large current will flow
due to this voltage. This very large current will cause damage
to equipment and danger to personnel. When the voltages
are rising and falling at the same time they are said to be
synchronised and the circuit breaker can be closed safely.

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Switchboards

Once on the line the machine will be required to take load

and supply power to the switchboard and drilling unit as
required. For a machine to generate constant power the
engine must be trying to maintain the same speed. For
example if more current is required the machine must
continue to rotate at 1200 RPM even though the work load
has increased. So more fuel must be supplied to the engine
to achieve this and the reverse applies on the decrease of
load. When there is a drop in load the fuel supply will be
reduced to maintain 1200RPM.

Figure 4 Generator Switchboard

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Switchboards

This may sound strange when the speed is not allowed to

increase by the load being applied to the engine, but imagine
the example of a car going over a hill. The relationship
between the accelerator/throttle pedal in a car and the
governor on a generator should make the generator situation
easier to understand. Where while going up the hill the pedal
is pressed more to supply more fuel to keep the same speed
but once the top is reached the pressure on the pedal is
reduced to maintain the same speed and to stop the engine
over speeding.

On the main switchboard there is an Earth/Ground light

system for detecting Earth or Ground faults on the system.
Where a piece of equipment has developed a fault due to low
or zero resistance of the equipment insulation to ground and
has not tripped the circuit breaker for that equipment. A
piece of equipment can be traced with these lights by
systematically switching off supplies by opening breakers
until the lights go out. Breaking the circuit to that piece of
equipment and locating the fault in the process.

On SCR systems these lights can also be found for the DC

system and operate in the same way to indicate a ground
fault where the insulation has failed. The lower the resistance
to ground, the brighter the lights will glow until they are fully
illuminated.

3.9 Safety Considerations

To safely place an alternator on line, the speed and voltage

must be the same. If either are out by any significant degree
the person carrying out the operation can easily be in danger
and the equipment can be seriously damaged. There are
well-documented cases where engines have received twisted
crankshafts due to incorrect synchronization or failure of an
automatic synchronizing system.

These statements may seem to be obvious to experienced

generator operators but at many locations the balancing of
the system is automatic and never clearly understood by the
operators. Synchronization is the act of bringing a generator
on line, connecting it to a live electrical system.

In a previous section it was described how generators run in

parallel. The act of placing a generator on line is called
synchronization. As the generators need to be synchronized
with the live switchboard the voltage and speed needs to be
exactly matched. This is vital for the safety of all personnel.

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Switchboards

4 Inspection
In general inspection will be confined to a visual one if the
switchboard is in operation and alive. It is normal practise to
have a walkway behind the switchboard covered with rubber
matting for personnel protection. From this walkway the bus-
bar can be observed for a build up of dust and dirt and any
mechanical wiring faults that may have developed such as
loose connections or broken cable ties that may need
attention. There is normally a wooden guard rail between the
walk way and the Bus-Bar at the back of the switchboard to
protect personnel. There should be clear access to the
walkway, with unlocked doors at each end to protect the
unwary and notices to warn of the danger within. The entry
at both ends is to provide escape routes for electrical
personnel in both directions in the event of fire or explosion
so they are not trapped at one end or the other of the
switchboard.

Figure 4 Switchboard showing clear Identification

Problems at the front of the switchboard are normally

confined to switchgear breakage such as levers, with the rare
replacement of meters or potentiometers if there should be a
failure. This may require sections of the switchboard to be
shut down for safe repair or replacement of failed items. The
rubber mat should be in good condition in front of the
switchboard to provide good protection for the personnel that
have to operate the switchboard. It is not unusual to have
the mat covering wooden duckboards to improve the
insulation value and keep the mat dry and vented
underneath.

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Switchboards

5 Maintenance
5.1 General Maintenance

Maintenance on the switchboard is normally confined to

replacement of failed parts such as damaged breakers or
meters and potentiometers that no longer operate correctly.
If these are to be replaced it is better if the switchboard is
switched off, or at least that section of it, as it will need to be
done normally by two people, one at the front and one at the
rear, and the person at the rear will normally be very close to
the bus-bar, having to work around it.

If at any time the switchboard is shut down and there are

temporary lights available, it should be cleaned out with a
vacuum cleaner to prevent dust being blown everywhere and
all the connections should be checked for tightness and hot
spots.

The switchboard can be tested for hot spots while in

operation by the use of thermal imaging to find any loose
connections of cables and bus-bar terminations. When the
switchboard is shut down these terminations can be
tightened to remove the problem. But care must be taken
not to over tighten these connections, which will deform the
terminations, and reduce the surface contact area.

Figure 5 Example of Serious Maintenance Required

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Switchboards

6 Spare Parts
6.1 Switchboard Parts

With switchboards the spare parts are normally confined to

spare circuit breakers, of which there should at least be one
of each type in the event of failure. There should also be
spare ammeters, voltmeters, potentiometers, fixed resistors,
diodes, fuses and any other consumables that may need to
be changed that would create problems if they should fail.

6.2 SCR Switchboard Parts

The SCR switchboard is an area which needs a good stock of

consumable spare parts. Refer to the SCR Section for this
requirement.

6.3 OEM Manual

Consult the OEM manuals that should be available with your

rigs systems. These generally have a recommended spare
parts list that can be referred to and then compared to the
stock of parts on hand.

Figure 6 Components that should be on Hand

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Switchboards

7 Trouble Shooting
7.1 What If It Breaks Down

Troubleshooting can be time consuming during drilling, as

some equipment cannot easily be switched off with out
causing a problem. Some equipment will need to be restarted
straight away after testing such as pumps and agitators with
manual start systems. In the case of MCCs it is easier to test
these with assistant using two-way radios, with one person
at the switchboard and one at the MCC to operate breakers
until the Earth/Ground lights go out on the switchboard to
confirm the fault has been found.

7.2 Breaker Failure

With the troubleshooting of switchboards there are normally

very few items that cause intermittent faults and it is
normally a case of breaker failure where a breaker will fail to
latch due to mechanical or electrical problems. With a
mechanical failure it is normally down to a damaged part in
the mechanism which has failed and the breaker will need to
be replaced with a spare unit while the removed unit is
repaired.

Figure 7 Circuit Breakers needing serious maintenance

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7.3 Component Failure

In the case of electrical failure, this can be due to an

interlock or protection circuit not being closed and in doing so
locking out the closing circuit of the breaker so it cannot
close. These faults can be caused by the plug-in connections
where the breaker is racked in or out and the contacts are
dirty or damaged and not making good contact. Or it can be
an electrical failure in the breaker such as the charging motor
has failed or the closing coil has become open circuit so that
the signal cannot be carried out to complete the operation.
Some breakers have control modules installed in them and
component failure in these can cause the breaker to fail to
operate. The replacement of this module will return the
breaker to operational status.

7.4 Closing Problems

In some breakers if the breaker is charged but cannot be

closed electrically, it can be closed locally by pushing the
button on the front of the breaker and mechanically closing
the breaker. In the case of generators this would have to be
done in conjunction with the Synchroscope to make sure it is
closed at the right time in the sync cycle to avoid problems.

7.5 Preferential Tripping

Some of the breakers are installed with shunt trips so that

the breaker can be tripped from another function such as the
preferential trip system so that the emergency generator will
not be overloaded. In this case these breakers cannot be
reset until this trip is removed from the circuit. There is
normally a sequence to put the rig back on line after a black
out or main power loss and it would be a good idea to be
familiar with the circuit drawings in regards to these circuits
to be prepared for such an event.

7.6 Switchboard Generator Problems

Switchboard generator problems are normally related to the

engine control or governors with instability problems. The
most likely of these is caused by the engine speed sensor
mounted at the flywheel which, being magnetic, has a
tendency to pick up steel filings from the engine flywheel
caused by the action of the starter motor starting the engine.

The speed sensor has to count the teeth on the flywheel to

calculate the engine speed and if it is covered with filings it
will lose its sensitivity and its ability to count the RPM. The
engine speed will start to wonder until it is cleaned and
adjusted to the correct gap to the flywheel so that it can give
a clean signal.

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The second problem in the same vein is wear in the "rose

joints” or ball joints between the Fuel Rack and the actuator
on the engine. Which if worn will oscillate as it tries to
compensate for the wear. As this cannot be smoothed out, it
will create more wear if left unattended and is putting an
unnecessary working load on the governor electronics as
they try to compensate for this wear.

7.7 Emergency Switchboard

The emergency generator will then provide 480 volts to the

emergency switchboard. The Emergency switchboard will
supply power to the main switchboard to supply auxiliaries
such as the main compressor and cooling pumps. This in turn
will raise enough air to start a main generator engine and get
it on line to take over from the emergency generator. The
Main Generator will resume normal power generation and
allow the shut down of the emergency generator and
emergency switchboard. Then more generators can be added
to the Main switchboard until the system is back to normal.

7.8 Cold Start Procedure

The cold start procedure should be checked out to see what

will be required in the event of having to start the rig from a
zero power situation. There will be a hand start diesel
generator or compressor, or one with a 12volt starter motor
on it to get enough air up to start the emergency generator.

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Basic Switchboards

8 Questions
1. Describe the function of a Switchboard:

a) A panel to hold switching equipment. b) A panel with

switchgear to direct and protect supplies to selected
equipment. c) A control panel with breakers and
generator control equipment to control the generation
and distribution of electrical energy throughout the rig.

2. What is the function of a circuit breaker?

a) To switch supply power to a selected item of

electrical equipment. b) To protect the supply cable to a
selected item of electrical equipment by restricting the
supply current to the cable capacity. c) To protect an
item of electrical equipment from overload if it should go
into fault condition.

3. How is the load capacity of a switchboard worked out?

a) By the size of the breakers on the switchboard. b)

By the totalling the power drawn by all the equipment
supplied from that switchboard plus a percentage for
overloads that can occur. c) By the total generating
capacity supplied to the switchboard from the
generators if all the generators are connected to the
switchboard.

4. Name three protection devices for tripping a large

capacity circuit breaker:

a) Over current. b) Under voltage. c) Under frequency.

d) Over frequency. e) Over voltage. f) Shunt trip.

5. Explain the purpose of a under voltage coil:

a) To boost the voltage. b) To increase the voltage. c)

To trip the breaker before the switchboard voltage starts
to flow into the generator.

6. Explain the purpose of an over voltage coil:

a) Lower the voltage of the generator. b) To trip the

generator breaker if the generator output voltage rises a
given percentage above the switchboard. c) Lower the
voltage of the switchboard.

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9 Reference Material
The best reference material for any equipment is the
manufacturer’s original as built manuals that are usually
supplied with the switchboards when they new.

These manuals cover everything from installation,

commissioning, trouble shooting and fault finding when the
system is in normal operation.

In most cases there are people employed with the

manufacturers who can assist in time of need by email or by
telephone to discuss a problem on the company technical
support line.

With most switchboards these are made up of components

from several manufacturers, so that the manuals from each of
these companies should be available, to give instructions on
each item of equipment.

These manuals will detail the installation, care, and

maintenance requirements of these individual items, including a
list of replacement parts that can be purchased to repair a
damaged unit.

9.1 Web Sites

[Link]
[Link]/unsecure/cms1/[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

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10 Work Place Assignments

1. Check the rig drawings and one line schematics to see
how the switchboards are interconnected to the main
bus bar system.

2. Check the layout of the main 600 VAC distribution panel

and locate the main generator circuit breakers.

3. Look at all the control switches, instrumentation and

meters associated with this main switchboard.

4. Look at the synchronisation panel and associated

switchgear.

5. If your rig has an SCR system, look for the number of

SCR cubicles and locate the associated SCR circuit
breakers.

6. Check the method of locking out the SCR circuit

breakers in case any work needs to be carried out on
the SCR cubicle.

7. Look to see where the DC assignment contactors are

located and make your self familiar with the
interconnecting nature of this system. Note. Because
one SCR is isolated at the A/C feeder circuit breaker will
not mean that the cubicle is totally isolated. Refer to
SCR section.

8. Check to see if there is a disconnect switch or

mechanism associated with the DC feeder cables to the
drilling DC motors.

9. Locate the main control circuit breaker for your SCR

system and familiarise yourself with the voltage value
(various SCR systems use different voltages).

10. Locate the 600 VAC / 480 VAC transformer primary and
secondary circuit breakers which are supplied from this
panel.

11. If your system has two 600 VAC /480 VAC transformers
look for the tie- breaker which will allow you to take one
of the transformers out of service if required.

12. Look for the 480 VAC switchboard or boards that are
feed from the secondary side of these 600 VAC / 480
VAC step down transformers.

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11 Glossary
Accessible Admitting close approach: not guarded by dogs,
obstacles, locked doors, elevation, or other effective means and
having appropriate working clearances for the equipment
involved.

Access Opening The minimum opening of a pull section or

termination enclosure required for utility work access. This
opening is measured from the edge of flange to the edge of
flange, not from sidewall to sidewall.

Ampacity The current expressed in amperes that an electric

conductor can carry continuously under specified conditions of
use without exceeding its temperature rating.

Bonding (Bonded) The permanent joining of metallic parts

to form an electrically conductive path, which will assure
electrical continuity and the capacity to conduct safely any
current likely to be imposed.

Breaker Customer’s circuit breaker. See CIRCUIT BREAKER.

Bus, Laminated More than one bus bar per phase,

connected in parallel.

Bus, Live Bus bars, which are normally energized.

Bus, Removable Link Used in a CT compartment to link the

line and load bus together. This removable section of bus is
designed to allow the installation of CT’s.

Bus Stubs The part of a bus bar reserved for the termination
of conductors.

Bushings Plastic or nylon rings that attach to the ends of

conduit to protect the electrical cable from sharp edges.

Bypass A device which shunts current around the meter

socket so the meter can be removed without interrupting
service to the customer. Also see TEST-BLOCK/BYPASS.

Circuit Breaker A device designed to open and close a

circuit by non-automatic means and to open the circuit
automatically on a predetermined over-current without damage
to itself when properly applied within its rating.

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Clearance, Barrel Of Proximity The clearance described by

an imaginary barrel around a termination facility measured
from the sides, top, bottom, front, and back of the terminating
surface to a grounded surface or other terminating facility.
Includes the studs or bolts when in place.

CT An acronym for current transformer. The term CT and the

phrase “current transformer” are synonymous terms. See
CURRENT TRANSFORMER.

Current Transformer An instrument transformer designed

for the measurement of current. It is used to reduce primary
urrent by a known ratio to within the range of a transformer
rated kilowatt-hour meter. Current transformers are often
referred to by the acronym CT.

Filler Panel The panel used on a switchboard in conjunction

with a meter panel to affect a cover over the total instrument
transformer enclosure opening.

Ground (Grounded) As used in this book, it means

intentionally connected to earth through a ground connection or
connections of sufficiently low impedance and having sufficient
current-carrying capacity to prevent the build up of voltages
that may result in undue hazards to connected equipment or to
persons.

Grounding Lug A Lug designed for terminating the

customer’s grounding wire.

IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.

Instrument Transformer A transformer that reproduces in

its secondary circuit a definite and known portion of the current
or voltage of its primary circuit, with the phase relationship
substantially preserved.

Insulating Barrier A barrier of non-conductive material

within an enclosure, compartment, switchboard, etc., that
effectively prevents electrical energy within conductors or bus
bars from accidentally contacting ground or neutral or
contacting phase to phase in an uncontrolled manner.

Line Side Conductor A service conductor delivering

electrical power to the customer, which has not been recorded
by the utility’s meter.

Load Side Conductor Any conductor delivering electrical

power to the customer, which has been recorded by the utility’s
meter.

Lockable Accepting a padlock with a shackle diameter of

5/16 inch.

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Lugs Used to terminate cable conductors on termination

facilities.

NEC Most recent State adopted publication of the National

Electrical Code.

NEMA National Electrical Manufacturers Association.

NESC Most recent state adopted publication of the national

electric safety code.

Neutral The grounded conductor in a single-phase 3-wire, or

three-phase, 4-wire system.

Potential Transformer (Pt) See voltage transformer (Vt).

Power Factor The ratio of active power to apparent power
(watts divided by volt-amperes). Power factor has no units; it is
commonly expressed as a percentage. For example, if active
power is 96 kW and apparent power is 100 kVA, the power
factor is 96%.

Primary Service voltage greater than 600 volts.

Raceway An enclosed channel designed expressly for holding

wire, cables or bus bars. If designated for line side conductors,
it shall be sealable. The intermixing of line and load conductors
in the same raceway is not permitted.

Secondary Service voltage less than 600 volts.

Switchboard A large single panel frame or assembly of

panels on or in which are mounted switches, over-current and
other protective devices, busses, instrument transformers and
meters.

Switchboard Service Section That part of a switchboard

provided specifically for termination of the utility’s service
conductors and CTs, when required. The revenue meters,
bypass facilities, and service switch or breaker may also be
located in this area. However, the metered conductors may
pass through this section only from the point of attachment
with the CTs or the load side meter terminals to the service
switch or breaker. The CT compartment of this section shall be
isolated from the customer’s switch or breakers.

Typical Exhibiting the traits or characteristics peculiar to a

class or group, a representative example.

Voltage Transformer (Vt) An instrument transformer

designed for the measurement of voltage. It is used to reduce
primary voltage by a known ratio to within the range of a
transformer rated kilowatt-hour meter.

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Section 7
Basic DC Motors

1 Equipment Overview .............................................220

2 How Does It Work .................................................550
3 How Do I Operate It ..............................................990
4 Inspection........................................................ 11100
5 Maintenance..................................................... 12110
6 Spare Parts .................................................... 171614
7 Trouble Shooting ............................................ 201814
8 Questions ...................................................... 222014
9 Reference Material .......................................... 252114
10 Work Place Assignments ................................. 262214
11 Glossary ....................................................... 272314

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1 Equipment Overview
1.1 General

The electric motors are classified as either AC or DC motors,

according to the type of power supply for which they are
designed. In construction DC motors are similar to DC
generators. One set of electromagnets serves as a field
magnet, and the other serves as the armature.

1.2 Insulation Class

The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) has

established insulation classes to meet motor temperature
requirements found in different operating environments. The
four insulation classes are A, B, F, and H. Class F is
commonly used. Class A is seldom used. Before a motor is
started, its windings are at the temperature of the
surrounding air. This is known as ambient temperature.
NEMA has standardized on an ambient temperature of 40° C,
or 104° F within a defined altitude range for all motor
classes.

1.3 Characteristics

As in DC generators, brushes are located so they are in

contact with the commutator at the right position to apply
voltage and current to the rotating windings in order to
develop torque in the armature. Most large DC motors
(traction motors) have a set of commutating fields to obtain
virtually spark less commutation without shifting the brush
position relative to the field, these are called interpoles. With
the poles bolted inside the frame and located between the
main field coils.

DC motors are classified in three different types:

• The series motor

• The shunt motor

• The compound motor

These names relate to the manner in which the windings are

connected.

Each type has distinct operating characteristics.

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1.4 The Series Motor

In the DC series motor the line current goes through the

armature winding into the field windings and back to the line
with the result that the current value in the field and
armature is always the same. Since the high current in the
field coils develops a strong flux almost instantly as the
voltage is applied a series motor has a very high starting
torque, allowing the motor to develop speed and power
quickly.

If a series motor is started without being connected to a

load, or if it is allowed to run after the load is removed, it will
speed up to an abnormally high rate until the centrifugal
force destroys the armature and the motor.

Figure 1 Motor Connection Diagrams

1.5 The Shunt Motor

In the shunt motor the field coils are connected in parallel to

the armature. Therefore both are connected across the
supply line. One characteristic of this type of motor is that
the speed of the motor under load variations does not
change as greatly as the series motor. Shunt-wound motors
are often referred to as constant-speed motors. By
controlling the current to the field windings (separately
excited), they can be used in applications where variable
speed control is required.

1.6 Compound Motors

The DC compound motor combines in one unit the

advantages of both the series and the shunt motors.

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1.7 Limitations of the DC Motors

The DC motors require more maintenance than AC motors as

they have more moving parts such as brushes, brush holders
and commutators, all of which require servicing at frequent
intervals.

The carbon dust that erodes from the brushes pollutes the
motor and can attract moisture. This contamination can
reduce the insulation resistance value of the DC motors,
especially in marine environments.

To prevent moisture from accumulating inside the DC motors

most units have heaters installed inside the motor housing.
These heaters switch on automatically when the motors are
switched off, and switch off as soon as the DC motors are
started.

1.8 DC Motors in Hazardous Areas

The DC motors in hazardous areas such as the drawworks,

rotary table and, occasionally, the mud pump DC motors
should receive their cooling air supply from an area outside
the hazardous area.

The air outlet from the DC motors in the hazardous area

should pass through spark arrestors, which are readily
available from the major manufacturers, or the air should be
vented to an area outside the hazardous area. Another
method of cooling a DC Motor is the closed loop system.
Whereby, the cooling air is circulated via ducting through a
liquid cooled radiator and then back to the motor.

Up until recent times the DC motor has also been used to

power the top drive drilling assembly in electric top drives.
But now, these high torque DC motors are being superseded
by variable frequency AC motor drives along with the motors
for the Drawworks, Mud pumps and Rotary table drives.

1.9 Manufacturers

The DC motors are mostly produced by:

General Electric, EMD, and Gulf Electroquip etc:.

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2 How Does It Work

2.1 DC Electric Drives

2.1.1 Running Engines at Constant Speed

On most DC/DC electric rigs, the engines run at constant
speed. This constant engine speed runs the exciters at a
constant speed. The driller varies the current from the exciter
by using a rheostat and this rheostat is referred to in drilling
terms as a throttle. A rheostat is a variable resistor that
controls the amount of current flowing in a circuit. The driller
adjusts the rheostat to control the flow of electricity that
produces the generator's electromagnetic field. A lower
resistance allows more current to flow. The more current the
exciter delivers, the stronger the field in the generator, and
the more current the generator puts out to drive the load.

2.1.2 Running Engines at Varying Speed

On another type of DC/DC electric rig, the driller varies the
speed of the engines. Varying the speed of the engine varies
the speed of the exciter, which in turn, varies the strength of
the generator field. In this set-up the same engine that
drives the generator also drives the exciter.

2.1.3 DC/DC Schematic

The schematic diagram of a typical DC/DC control hook-up
shown in Figure 2 shows two ways to generate electricity. At
the top of the drawing engine No.1 drives generators 1 and
2, while engine No.2 drives generators 3 and 4. In this case
the driller holds the engine speeds constant. The scalloped
lines just below each generator represent the windings of the
exciter. The "half-clock" symbols next to them represent the
rheostats that vary the flow of current from the air actuators
or electric actuators that operate the rheostats. The larger
rectangles represent the engines in an alternative system
that has an engine for each generator.

In this system the driller, who varies the speed of the engine
throttle, also controls the rheostat of the exciter. The
drawworks motor shown in Figure 2 also drives the rotary
table, which is a typical land rig set-up. The generators
shown in Figure 2 deliver up to 600 hp (420kW). The five
motors can supply 635 hp (438kW) continuously, as when
running the mud pumps, or they can put out 1,000 hp
(1,400kW) for short periods, for example when raising the
drill stem at the hoist. In such cases the driller would tie two
generators to each drawworks motor at 1D, 2D, 3D and 4D
in Figure 2.

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Figure 1 2 DC/DC Power Layout

The driller uses a switch called an assignment switch on the

driller’s console to activate each generator. To make an
assignment, the driller switches on the generator. The
assignment switch sets up the speed control and power
circuits and puts a full field on all motors to which the driller
assigns power.

Figure 2 3 Assignment Switch for Electric Drives

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2.1.4 Assigning Power

In the schematic Figure 2 the electrical contactors are
indicated by the small black rectangles.

Having contactor 1D closed, the driller assigns power from

generator No.1 to drive the rotary table.

With contactors 2P1 and 3P1 closed, generators # 2 and 3

drive mud pump No.1.

When contactor 4P2 is closed, generator No.4 drives mud

pump No.2.

2.1.5 Using the Throttle

In Figure 2, three air throttles are situated on the left.

To start the rotary table the driller advances the air throttle
controlling the drawworks and rotary table.

The initial air pressure in the throttle line causes the

drawworks pressure switch to:

• close the contactor on the line from generator No.1

• open the solenoid-operated air valve in the airline

• close the other air valves

Further advancement of the air throttle increases the

magnetic field in the generator in direct relation to the
movement of the throttle handle and the rotary begins to
turn at the speed set on the air throttle. Similarly the driller
uses an air throttle to start the generators # 2 and 3 and
adjust the speed of pumps # 1 & 2.

2.2 SCR Drives

To move forward to an SCR system the throttles are

rheostats or variable resistors that send a variable voltage
signal to the DC module in the SCR cubicle, which in turn
controls the Thyristors or SCRs to control the amount of
power that is sent from the system to the motor. The
Thyristor or SCR converts AC power into DC power at a
controlled rate by controlling the amount of rectified power
that flows through to the motor it controls. In this way the
DC motor can be controlled from zero RPM to full speed and
thereby the equipment it drives can be controlled to a very
fine level of control.

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In the case of SCR drives, AC generators produce AC current

which is converted to DC current through the SCR system
where the quantity of current that passes through is
controlled from zero output to maximum output. This control
is achieved by gating or controlling the output of the SCRs
(Silicon Controlled Rectifiers or Thyristors) giving excellent
control over the output to the DC motor. The rectifier also
coverts the AC to DC in this process, allowing only the sign
wave above the base line of the three phases through, which
is an AC ripple and this is smoothed to a DC output for the
motor.

Figure 4 SCR Power Layout

Figure 5 IPS SCR Modules

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3 How Do I Operate It?

3.1 DC Motor Control

The DC motors on the drilling equipment are controlled by

the Driller on the rig floor with the hand throttles to control
each piece of equipment. Thereby each individual motor or
pair of motors on that equipment such as Drawworks, Mud
Pump, Top Drive or Propulsion motors. They can be
controlled from zero RPM to full speed as required by the
Drilling operation.

The Driller receives indication via the Drillers console of the

status of the each piece of equipment to indicate if it is
running or at what speed it is running. He can start or
change the speed of any piece of equipment under his
control by the use of hand throttles which are variable
resistors, variacs, or rheostats.

These will vary the voltage at a DC control module input

terminals, which in turn will vary the module control signal
outputs to the SCRs and the SCR power output to the DC
motors on the drilling equipment with a fine degree of
control.

In the case of equipment with two motors such as the

Drawworks or the Mud Pumps, the throttle signal can be sent
to two DC modules in two SCR cubicles. These modules will
communicate with each other to ensure the both motors
receive the same power output so these motor do not fight
each other and share the load. This control is achieved with
two variacs on the one hand throttle that receives and
processes the signals from each of the DC modules, and will
return those signals to the module input terminals to control
the SCRs. This in turn will control the DC output to the
motor, over the full range.

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Figure 6 5 Example of SCR Control Circuit

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4 Inspection
4.1 Internal

Inspection on the DC motor consists of checking the interior

of the motor visually to see if there is anything obviously
wrong. The inspection doors should be removed to inspect
the commutator for any form of damage. The surface of the
commutator should be polished and coffee brown, and there
should be no discolouration across the surface. There should
be no grooving to the surface, which should be flat, and
there should be no burn marks at the edge of the segments.
There should be no flashover burns from the edges of the
segments to the brush boxes, or the flash ring at the end of
the motor, and all motors should be inspected monthly.

Figure 3 7 Standard Commutator and Brush Gear

This is a DC motor of the standard type, viewed from the

armature end of the motor, with the brush gear shown. Note
paint that the creepage band has been painted with
insulation when these are normally kept plain white Teflon
for cleaning purposes. This must be kept clean at all times to
prevent the risk of flash over under electrical stress.

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5 Maintenance
5.1 Motor Cleaning

Cleaning the motors to remove the carbon dust from the

brushes, brush holders, brush holders insulators,
commutators, between the segments, the risers, and the
creepage band at the end of the commutator, and as
much of the field windings as can be seen from the
inspection covers, a solvent can be used, such as CRC
Electroclean to wash out the dirt and carbon dust at the
commutator end, as long as it does not soften the varnish
or lacquer used to seal the insulation.

5.2 Brushes

Check brushes to ensure they exceed minimum brush

length dimension and are free of any damage. If they are
long enough and are not damaged, they can be re-used.
If not, replace with new brushes. Caution when replacing
brushes, use the OEM recommended grade. Mixing of
brush grades in the same motor or changing brushes to
another grade will seriously effect commutation, surface
film. Commutator and brush life.

5.3 Brush Holders

Insert a fibre gauge (equal in thickness to the specified

clearance dimension) between the commutator and brush
holder. (Loosen brush holder first if below minimum
clearance) Torque hold down bolt to 225-250 ft-lb and
recheck clearance. Also check the spring tension on all
the brush holders by lifting the pressure fingers to the
toggled up position and check for free movement of the
spring assembly. The brushes should then be able to be
easily lifted from their slots. It is a good practice to now
clean the brushes with a dry cloth to remove any excess
carbon.

Figure 82 Brush Holder assembly for a DC Motor

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5.4 Space Heaters

Check the operation of the space heaters, and make sure

they are the correct wattage, because if they are too
large and too close to the windings they may burn the
windings.

Figure 9 5 Explosion Proof type of Space Heater

The explosion proof type space heater shown, figure 5, with

enclosed terminations to prevent the risk of creating an arc
or explosion in the motor interior in the event of heater
failure in a gas filled atmosphere. This is a problem which
has occurred with the bar type units with open terminations
failing in rotary Table motors in gas under the Drill floor with
severe damage to the motor and drill floor.

5.5 Bearings

Check the condition of the bearings by checking for too much

heat, and listen to them for any usual noise or vibration at
the bearings.

Grease the bearings with the recommended amount, and

correct type of grease to the motor manufacturer’s
recommendations at the recommended intervals. Over
greasing may lead to the bearing running hot, or even
bearing failure if too much grease is retained in the bearing.
. Also spillage into the motor interior will occur if the seals
fail to contain the grease in the bearing housing, and may
shorten the life of the bearing.

Some of the motor bearings are greased for life, and cannot
be greased, so the bearings are packed on assembly with the
correct amount of grease to the manufacturers instructions,

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but in other cases if bearings are to be greased there are

pipe plugs at each end, and if there are four, usually two will
be to relieve the pressure as the grease is pumped in the
other two.

5.6 Spark Arrestors

Check the spark arrestors at the cooling air exhausts for

corrosion to make sure they are still intact, in as new
condition to contain any sparks or flame in the event of
motor failure.

Figure 4 10 DC Motor with Spark Arrestors

Figure 5 11 Different type of Spark Arrestors

Above are various types of spark arrestors installed on DC

traction motors to prevent sparks escaping from the motor if
the motor should suffer internal electrical failure.

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Below is a DC motor, high torque type motor. Notice the

different-design commutator, and note the dirty brush holder
insulators above the brush arms in the motor which should
be white the same as the Creepage band at the end of the
commutator.

Figure 126 DC Motor with a High Torque Commutator

5.6.1 Cable Connections

Check the electrical connections in the junction boxes, to
make sure there are no loose connections, or hot joints
caused by loose connections, and that the glands are
tight in their holes, also if there is a pressure alarm
system installed on the junction box, test it occasionally
to make sure it is still operating.

5.6.2 Armature Care

Check the armature for signs of overheating, looking for
burn marks or discolouration on the commutator due to
poor commutation or flash over damage to the flash ring
or brush gear.

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5.6.3 Blower Bearings

Check the blower supplying air to the DC motor, and
listen to the motor running down after it has been
switched off for bearing noise or any other abnormal
noises from the impeller or the cooling impeller on the
motor.

5.6.4 Insulation Testing

Measure the insulation reading of the field and the
armature (> 5 Meg Ohms) and if the readings are low, lift
all the brushes off the commutator so that the armature
and field can be measured separately to find out which is
at fault, in many cases the insulation resistance will be
very low to ground, and there is a formula that can be
used in this situation, which is as follows, when the test
voltage with a megger insulation tester is 500 volts DC,
and the value obtained should not be less than; the rated
voltage of the motor divided by 1000+ the Rated HP =
Megohms.

5.6.5 Grounding
Check the condition of the ground wiring for the DC
motor and the blower motor to be sure there is earth
continuity to ground, this more important in a land rig
situation where the individual items of equipment may
not be earth bonded together to ensure an earth return
path to the source of power.

5.6.6 Vibration Check

Feel the vibration of the DC motor when running to make
sure it is not out of balance or has bearing problems and
this vibration can also be caused by loose drive chains in
some cases, where the chains are snatching as they pick
up and drop the load.

5.6.7 Cable Condition

Look at the condition of the cable and cable glands to
make sure there is no obvious damage to the sheath or
insulation and that the glands are carrying the weight of

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the cable and not the terminations in the case of the DC

motor and the blower motor.

5.6.8 Cooling Air Supply

Attention should also be paid to where the motor blower
is drawing its cooling air from, such as the Rotary Table
motor which is near the Bell Nipple where the air needs to
be drawn from clean/dry air away from that area. This
should come from an area such as the edge of the rig
floor, where it is normal to mount the blower and duct
the air to the motor at the rotary table.

This is done so that no gas is drawn into the system, and

as that area is always wet, attention should be paid to
the ducting between the blower and the motor to make
sure there are no leaks in the ducting that will introduce
water into the motor with the cooling air.

6 Spare Parts
6.1 DC Motor

There should always be at least one DC motor spare for the

system. Confirm that there is an energised space heater in
that spare motor to keep it in good condition, while it is
standing in the storage area until it is required on the rig.
This can be used on the Draw-works or Mud pumps as an
exchange unit if required.

6.2 DC Top drive Motor

Be sure there is a spare motor when an electric-driven Top

Drive is used as this motor has a special designed hub and
it’s modern version is a high-torque motor which differs from
the design of the standard DC motor. These motors have a
ball bearing and a reinforced frame head at the commutator
end to support the armature shaft vertically. They also have
a shaft extension at the commutator end for installation of
the a brake. Mounting feet are precision machined to align
with rotational ovals of the motor.

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6.3 Brushes & Brush Holders

Spare carbon brushes should be kept in stock, normally T900

grade carbon or the appropriate grade that is recommended
by the OEM. Also spare complete brush holder assemblies to
replace any units that becomes unserviceable due to flash
over damage, wear and tear, or poor insulation value of the
insulators.

It is not unusual for the sprung fingers to seize on their

pivots reducing the spring pressure on the brushes, and if
this cannot be cured, the only answer is to change the brush
holder.

6.4 Space Heaters

A spare space heater should be kept in stock to replace any

failures, as these are required to maintain the insulation
value of the motor when it is not in use.

6.5 Accessories

If there is a pressure alarm system installed on the DC motor

junction or connection box to monitor the purge air in the
junction box, a spare Magnahellic pressure switch should be
kept in stock.

There should always be spare lock out switches kept in the

spare parts, complete with the chains and pins for locking out
these switches to isolate each motor for servicing.

It is normal to have at least one spare blower assembly for

each application on the drive system as these motors cannot
be run without the blower assembly to cool them. If only
spare blower motors are kept, it would also be a good idea to
have spare impellers in case these are damaged during
removal or replacement of the motors.

If these assemblies are mounted directly on to the DC motor,

it is always wise to keep spare gaskets and bolts of the
correct size and thread for the blower to motor connection,
or any ducting or trunking between the blower and the motor
to seal the joints to prevent air loss or water ingress.

The bolts into the motor may be UNC thread and may be
hard to find on a metric rig, so it is always wise to bear this
in mind when ordering parts for the rig.

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Figure 13 Spare Parts Store

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7 Trouble Shooting
7.1 What If It Breaks Down

Tracking down DC Motors problems generally involves tracing

the DC power path. If one of the power contactors has not
picked up due to a control logic problem obviously the motor
will not respond to any throttle control. The other areas to
look at are the SCR assignment and the motor lock out
switches, these interlocks will prevent the control power from
energising the control logics designated contactor coils.
Motor specific problems could be related to the loss of field
supply power in the case of a Shunt wound DC motor in
which case the field loss relay will open the control circuit.

7.2 Low Insulation Resistance

Trouble shooting on DC Motors is usually prompted by low

readings when taking Megger readings from the windings to
ground, which is often brought on by moisture in the
atmosphere, particularly in conditions where there are
marine conditions of salt in the atmosphere leaving a salt
residue on every thing. The most important piece of
equipment to prevent this is the Space Heater in the motor,
in the bottom of the commutator compartment of the motor,
which must be on all the time the motor is not running to
keep the motor warm, and should this heater fail, the
insulation values will start to drop.

It is very important to remove as much carbon dust as

possible from the commutator and brush gear, and this can
be done by blowing out the motor with an air gun to remove
the majority of the dust, but the air pressure should not be
too high or this can drive the dust further into the motor, and
then washing the motor out with a solvent such as CRC
Electroclean that will not damage the insulation, and blow
out with air to dry the interior of the motor, before
Meggering again.

If the readings are still low, particular attention should be

paid to the insulated support post of the Brush Holders,
which have Teflon insulators which can degrade over a long
period of time to a very low insulation value where they are
clamped onto the yoke of the motor. These Teflon insulators
can be replaced to renew this insulation. If the motor is
showing a very low Megger reading, the testing can be split
in half, by lifting the brushes to isolate the commutator from
the field windings ( applicable to series motors) and thereby
being able to determine if it is a field or armature problem,
making it easier to isolate the fault to one or the other.

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In cases of flooding where the insulation readings are very

low such as where a motor has been flooded with salt water
and washed out with fresh water to get rid of the salt
contamination and dried or left to dry, and where the
readings are not coming up even with the space heater, it
has been known in some cases for these motors to be
connected to a DC welding machine and the current slowly
increased to warm the motor from the inside out to get rid of
the moisture.

Figure 14 7 Example of DC Motor Test Chart

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8Questions

8
1. Name three of the main components that make up a DC
motor:

The three main components of the DC motor are

the_______, the________, and the__________ that are
essential for the DC motor to run.

2. Name the four classes of insulation associated with

electric motors:

a)___. b)___. c)___. d)___. What is the most common

used__. And which is the least common used___.

3. The type of DC motor best suited for use with DC drives

is the ( ______ ) wound motor.

a) Series b) Shunt c) Compound d) Series or Shunt

4. One way to increase motor speed is to ( ______ )

armature voltage. a) increase b) decrease

5. The base speed of a motor is an indication of how fast

the motor will turn with rated ( _______ ) and rated load
(amps) at rated flux (Φ).
a) armature voltage b) CEMF c) field current (If)
d) armature resistance (Ra)

6. No additional ( _________ ) can be developed once the

field becomes saturated. a) Horsepower b) Speed c)
Torque

7. A decrease in field flux strength (Φ) causes a/an (

_______ )
a) decrease in armature voltage b) increase in armature
voltage c) increase in motor torque d) decrease in motor
torque

8. ( _________ ) is the voltage induced into an armature

conductor of a DC motor in opposition to applied voltage.
a) Armature voltage b) Field voltage c) CEMF d) EMF

9. An increase of torque causes a corresponding

( __________ ) in horsepower. a) increase b) decrease

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Name three of the main components that make up a DC

motor.

Explain the difference between work and power.

Describe the operation of a DC motor.

Name the four classes of insulation associated with electric

motors.

The type of DC motor best suited for use with DC

drives is the ( _ ) wound motor.
a. series b. shunt c. compound d. series or shunt

One way to increase motor speed is to ( _ ) armature

voltage. a. increase b. decrease

The base speed of a motor is an indication of how fast

the motor will turn with rated ( _ ) and rated load (amps) at
rated flux (Φ).
a. armature voltage b. CEMF c. field current (If)
d. armature resistance (Ra)

No additional ( _ ) can be developed once the field becomes

saturated. a. Horsepower b. Speed c. Torque

A decrease in field flux strength (Φ) causes a/an ( _ )

a. decrease in armature voltage b. increase in armature
voltage c. increase in motor torque d. decrease in motor
torque

( _ ) is the voltage induced into an armature conductor of a

DC motor in opposition to applied voltage.
a. Armature voltage b. Field voltage c. CEMF d. EMF

An increase of torque causes a corresponding

( _ ) in horsepower. a. increase b. decrease

( _ ) current refers to the minimum amount

of current flowing from anode to cathode to keep a thyristor
turned on.
a. Armature current d. Gating current c. Holding current
d. Field current.

A thyristor is one type of device commonly used to

convert ( _ ). a. DC to AC b. AC to DC

The value of rectified DC voltage obtained from a

460 VAC 3Ø source when the thyristors are gated at
60° is ( _ ) VDC.

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a. 0 b. 310.5 c. 538 d. 621

( _ ) is a method used to stop a

motor quickly by applying a resistor to the armature.
a. Regenitive Braking b. Dynamic braking

Which of the following is not an advantage of regen. over

dynamic braking.
a. Regen. brakes faster from max speed to base speed
b. Regen. brakes faster from base speed to stop
c. Regen. is not limited to duty cycle and cool down periods
d. Regen. can develop torque at zero speed

Hoisting gear is an example of a ( _ ) load.

a. constant torque b. variable torque
c. constant horsepower d. constant speed

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9 Reference Material
The best reference material for any equipment is the
manufacturer’s service manuals that are usually supplied
with the motors.

These manuals cover everything from installation to the

commissioning when it is newly installed, to trouble shooting
and fault finding when the motors are in normal operation.

In most cases there are people employed with the

manufacturers who can assist in time of need by email or by
telephone who can talk over a problem with you on the
company technical support line.

In the case of the General Electric GE752 motors which have

been in use for many years in the oil exploration industry,
the service and repair manuals cover most aspects of
everyday operation and repair. Major repairs would normally
be carried out on these motor in a fully equipped workshop
with the necessary equipment to cater for major rewinds, for
this size and type of motor.

There are companies based in many major oil centres around

the World which cater for the oil exploration industry, on
shore and offshore, which are licensed by General Electric to
repair these motors to the manufacturers original
specifications.

There are now copies of the GE752 which are identical to

look at, but may differ in the specification, so it would be
worth checking the manufacturer’s specifications to make
sure there are no differences, and not assume it to be the
same motor with a different name plate on it.

8.1.1 Web Sites

[Link]

[Link]
[Link]/hbase/magnetic/[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

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9 Work Place Assignments

Note.

This assignment is to familiarise you with all of the DC

Traction Motors that drive the drilling system. It will lead you
to the main source of supply being the SCR Cubicles and
then take you to the motor and control equipment which is
being feed from this system. Because of the relationship with
SCR’s and DC motors a lot of these exercises are covered in
the SCR sections of this course book.

1. Look for the Rigs one line schematics showing all of

the SCR cubicles and associated DC motors. This is
the best guide in helping you understand the
existence and interconnection of the Drilling motors
and multi assignable SCR bridge rectifiers.

2. Go out into the field and locate all of the Drilling DC

Motors. These will be driving the Drawworks, Rotary
Table, Top Drive, Mud Pumps and possibly Cement
pumps.

3. If you look closely there should be a lockout switch

attached to or near-by, with the ability to lock out the
motor from starting for maintenance.

4. Observe the AC blower motors that are mounted on or

remote from the Drilling DC motors. Check the source
of intake air and the location of the exhaust air. Check
to see that spark arresters are present.

5. If your rig has a spare DC Traction motor, open the

commutator inspection plates and familiarize yourself
with the bush gear and brushes. Look for the location
of the space heater that should be left on all the time
while this motor is in storage.

6. During these inspections take note of the name plate

data on the DC drilling motors. This will give you the
specifications and manufactures details which may be
needed at sometime in the future.

7. Look for the location and condition of spare parts that

are associated with these DC traction motors, in
particular spare motors, brushes, brush gear,
pressure switches, lock out switch mechanisms and
bearings.

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11 Glossary
Armature The portion of the magnetic structure of a DC or
universal motor which rotates.

Armature Current, Amps Rated full load armature circuit

current.

Armature Resistance, Ohms Armature resistance is

measured in ohms at 25 degrees C (cold).

Axial Thrust The force or loads that are applied to the

motor shaft in a direction parallel to the axis of the shaft
(Such as from a fan or pump.)

Brush A piece of current conducting material (usually

carbon or graphite) which rides directly on the commutator
of a commutated motor and conducts current from the power
supply to the armature windings.

Commutator A cylindrical device mounted on the armature

shaft and consisting of a number of wedge-shaped copper
segments arranged around the shaft (insulated from it and
each other). The motor brushes ride on the periphery of the
commutator and electrically connect and switch the armature
coils to the power source.

Core The iron portion of the stator and rotor made up of

cylindrical laminated electric steel. The stator and rotor cores
are concentric and separated by an air gap, with the rotor
core being the smaller of the two and inside to the stator
core.

Counter Electromotive Force (Cemf) The induced

voltage in a motor armature caused by conductors moving
through or "cutting" field magnetic flux. This induced voltage
opposes the armature current and tends to reduce it.

Coupling The mechanical connector joining the motor shaft

to the equipment to be driven.

Current This time rate of flow of electrical charge and is

measured in amps (amperes).

DC (Direct Current) A current that flows only in one

direction in an electric circuit. It may be continuous or
discontinuous and it may be constant or varying.

Dc Motor A motor using either generated or rectified DC

power. A DC motor is often used when variable-speed
operation is required.

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Duty Cycle The relationship between the operating and

rest times or repeatable operation at different loads. A motor
which can continue to operate within the temperature limits
of its insulation system after it has reached normal operating
(equilibrium) temperature is considered to have a continuous
duty (CONT.) rating. A motor which never reaches
equilibrium temperature but is permitted to cool down
between operations, is operating under intermittent (INT)
duty. Conditions such as a crane and hoist motor are often
rated 15 or 30 minute intermittent duty.

Externally Ventilated A motor using an external cooling

system. This is required in applications where the motor's
own fan will not provide sufficient cooling. These cooling
systems are used in certain duty cycle applications, with slow
speed motors, or in environments with extreme dirt. Often a
duct with an external blower is used to bring clean air into
the motor's air-intake.

Field A term commonly used to describe the stationary

(stator) member of a DC motor. The field provides the
magnetic field with which the mechanically rotating
(armature or rotor) member interacts.

Full-Load Current The current flowing through the line

when the motor is operating at full-load torque and full-load
speed with rated frequency and voltage applied to the motor
terminals.

Full-Load Torque That torque of a motor necessary to

produce its rated horsepower at full-load speed, sometimes
referred to as running torque.

Horsepower (Hp) The measure of rate of work. One

horsepower is equivalent to lifting 33,000 pounds to a height
of one foot in one minute. The horsepower of a motor is
expressed as a function of torque and speed. For motors the
following approximate formula may be used:

HP = (T x RPM)/5250

where HP = horsepower, T = torque (in. lb. ft.), and RPM =

revolutions per minute.

Insulator A material which tends to resist the flow of

electric current (paper, glass, etc.). In a motor the insulation
serves two basic functions:

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1. Separates the various electrical components from one

another
2. It protects itself and the electrical components from
attack of contaminants and other destructive forces.

Interpoles An auxiliary set of field poles carrying

armature current to reduce the field flux caused by armature
reaction in a DC motor.

Megger Test A measure of an insulation system's

resistance. This is usually measured in megohms and tested
by passing a high voltage at low current through the motor
windings and measuring the resistance of the various
insulation systems.

Nameplate The plate on the outside of the motor

describing the motor horsepower, voltage, speed efficiency,
design, enclosure, etc.

Paralleling When two or more DC motors are required to

operate in parallel - that is, to drive a common load while
sharing the load equally among all motors - they should have
speed-torque characteristics which are identical. The greater
the speed droop with load, the easier it becomes to parallel
motors successfully. It follows that series motors will operate
in parallel easier than any other type. Compound motors,
which also have drooping speed characteristics (high
regulation), will generally parallel without special circuits or
equalization. It may be difficult to operate shunt or
stabilized-shunt motors in parallel because of their nearly
constant speed characteristics. Modifications to the motor
control must sometimes be made before these motors will
parallel within satisfactory limits.

Poles In an AC motor, refers to the number of magnetic

poles in the stator winding. The number of poles determines
the motor's speed. In a DC motor, refers to the number of
magnetic poles in the motor. They create the magnetic field
in which the armature operates (speed is not determined by
the number of poles).

Rpm (Revolutions Per Minute) The number of times per

minute the shaft of the motor (machine) rotates. This is a
function of design and the power supply.

Resistance The degree of obstacle presented by a material

to the flow of electric current is known as resistance and is
measure to Ohms.

Reversing Unless otherwise specified, a general-purpose DC

motor is reversible. A DC motor can be reversed by changing
the polarity of the field or the armature, but not both. When
rapid reversing is necessary, the armature circuit is reversed.

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In some cases, it is advantageous to reverse the field

connections of shunt motors, since the controls have to
handle much less current, especially on large motors, than
do armature-circuit contactors.

Series DC Motors Where high starting torques are

required for a DC motor, the series motor is used. The load
must be solidly connected to the motor and never decrease
to zero to prevent excessive motor speeds. The load must
tolerate wide speed variations from full load to light load.
Typical areas of application are industrial trucks, hoists,
cranes and traction duty.

Shunt Wound DC Motors Integral-horsepower shunt

motors are used where the primary load requirements are for
minimum speed variation from full- load to no-load and/or
constant horsepower over an adjustable speed range at
constant potential. Shunt motors are suitable for average
starting torque loads.

Space Heater Small resistance heater units mounted in a

motor that are energized during motor shutdown to prevent
condensation of moisture in the motor windings.

Temperature Rise Some of the electrical energy losses

inherent in motors are converted to heat causing some of the
motor parts to heat up when the motor is running. The
heated parts are at a higher temperature than the air
surrounding them which causes a rise above room (ambient)
temperature. It is important to match the proper motor and
insulation system (NEMA temp. codes) to the expected
ambient temperature. If a motor has been built with greater
than 1.0 service factor, then it can operate at a temperature
somewhat higher than the motor's rated operating
temperature. In all cases, the actual insulation thermal
capability usually is higher than the motor's operating
temperature to allow for any excessive heat areas. This is
called hot spot allowance. (See "Insulation Systems for NEMA
standard temperature codes") Each temperature code has an
associated temperature rise which when added to the
ambient and hot spot should not exceed the temperature
handling of the insulation system.

Temperature Has a direct effect on motor life when

considering life expectancy. The following application
considerations that affect a motor's operating temperature
should be taken into account:

1. Bearings
2. Lubricants
3. Duty Cycle
4. Radial Loading
5. Axial Loading
6. Mounting
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7. Enclosure
8. Ambient Temperature
9. Ventilation

As a general rule, each 10 degrees C increase in total

temperature over the maximum permissible to the motor's
insulation system, reduces its life by half. Bearing or gear
lubricant life is reduced by half for every 25 degrees F
(approximately 14 degrees C) increase in temperature. Heat
eventually causes deterioration of most lubricants and seals
leading to leakage and increased friction.

Torque Turning force delivered by a motor or gear motor

shaft, usually expressed in
lbs. Ft = HP x 5252 = full load torque RPM

Vertical Motor A motor being mounted vertically (shaft up

or down) as in many pump applications. This applies to Top
Drive DC motor.

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Basic AC Motors

Section 8
Basic AC Motors

1 Equipment Overview ................................................ 2

2 How Does It Work .................................................. 19
3 How Do I Operate It ............................................... 25
4 Inspection............................................................. 28
5 Maintenance.......................................................... 29
6 Spare Parts ........................................................... 32
7 Trouble Shooting ................................................... 33
8 Questions ............................................................. 34
9 Reference Material ................................................. 35
10 Work Place Assignments ......................................... 35
11 Glossary............................................................... 37

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Basic AC Motors

1 Equipment Overview
1.1 History

Nikola Tesla
In 1882, Nikola Tesla discovered the rotating magnetic field
principle of the AC motor, and pioneered the use of the
rotating field to drive rotating machinery. He used this
principle to design a unique two phase induction motor in
1883.

The introduction of Tesla’s motor from 1888 started what

became known as the “Second Industrial Revolution”. He is
also credited for making possible an efficient generation and
long distance distribution system for the transmission of
alternating current. This being another one of Tesla’s many
inventions.

It was Tesla’s genesis that proved that commutators could be

removed from a motor, and the motor would operate in a
rotating field of force. Tesla attained a US patent for the
design in 1889 which was the first induction motor, or
alternating current electro-magnetic motor.

Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky
A Russian engineer, electrician and inventor, he developed
the world’s first three-phase generator and three-phase
motor in 1888. At the Frankfurt Electrical Show of 1891, the
triumph of his three-phase system was realized when
Dolivo-Dobrovolsky used this system to transmit electric
power over a distance of 175 km. In 1891 he also created
the first three-phase transformer and short-circuited
induction motor. He was also the author of many other
inventions and discoveries.

Almerian Decker
This was followed by a commercial poly-phase system of
generation and long distance transmission, which had been
designed by Almerian Decker in Redlands, California.

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Basic AC Motors

1.2 Characteristics

Squirrel cage motors get their name from the appearance of

early rotors. They are the most common type of industrial AC
electric motor, being rugged and requiring neither a separate
DC power source nor slip-rings. They are essentially constant
speed devices when energized by a constant frequency AC
supply, however electronic speed control is available.

The majority of industrial squirrel cage motors are foot

mounted Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled (TEFC) as shown here,
in which the motor internals are isolated from the
surrounding environment by shaft seals etc, thus minimizing
the ingress of dust and moisture.

The inevitable heat generated by I2R losses in the internal

windings is transferred to the surrounding housing by air
circulation within the casing and dissipated via cooling air
blown by an integral fan along fins on the casing's exterior.

Figure 1 AC Squirrel Cage Motor

A variety of motor forms other than TEFC meet specialized

needs - motors may be dust protected, ignition proof and so
on. A flange rather than foot-mounted motor with shaft
extension is illustrated. Integral brakes or gearboxes also are
available - suppliers' brochures should be consulted for full
details.

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Basic AC Motors

1.3 Squirrel Cage Motors

Squirrel cage motors are not without their drawbacks,

notably during starting where immediate current drain is
high. Mechanical aspects will be stressed here; we are
interested mainly in how to select a motor to drive a given
mechanical load. But, it is essential to appreciate in broad
terms the thermal-electrical behavior when selecting a
motor, since the winding temperature dictates the life that
results, as suggested by the sketch.

It is the motor's heat dissipation capability dictated by heat

transfer and the integral fan which to a large extent
determines the motor's maximum continuous mechanical
power rating for winding temperatures commensurate with
an acceptable life.

The vast majority of electric motors used throughout the

world are 3-phase squirrel cage induction types, these are
normally just called squirrel cage motors, or induction
motors. Within the drilling industry there are two defined
groups, hazardous area motors and industrial motors.

1.4 Insulation Class

The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) has

established insulation classes to meet motor temperature
requirements found in different operating environments. The
four insulation classes are A, B, F, and H. Class F is
commonly used. Class A is seldom used. Before a motor is
started, its windings are at the temperature of the
surrounding air. This is known as ambient temperature.
NEMA has standardized their ratings on an ambient
temperature of 40° C, or 104° F within a defined altitude
range for all motor classes.

1.5 Industrial Motors

The normal industrial AC induction motor does not have to

conform to such strict standards, but may need to be
waterproof or weather proof. These squirrel cage motors are
robust, rugged and require little in the way of maintenance
between overhauls. Overhauls are normally scheduled to be
under taken at 4 to 5 year intervals, and the only
maintainable parts are the bearings.

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1.6 Hazardous Area Motors

The hazardous area motors or explosion proof motors, need

to be totally enclosed fan cooled and constructed with flame
path technology. These are certified and labelled to indicate
they are special motors. If the flame paths are damaged
across the face of the termination box or junction box, or
name plates with the certification have been lost so they
cannot be identified as explosion proof, then these motors
can no longer be classed as explosion proof. Types of
hazardous motors include.

1.7 Explosion Proof Motor Types

EXd, EXe, EXn, and EXp.

Figure 2 Explosion Proof Motor EXd on Mud Pump

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1.8 Name Plate Specification

Both Hazardous and Industrial motors are classified by

Horse Power or kW, speed, supply voltage and frequency.
Other specifications include frame size, type of enclosure and
mounting. The following table gives details of the basic
requirements for the specification of electric motors.

1.8.1 Basic 1.8.2 Description or value

details

Power HP or kW

Speed RPM

Voltage V

Frequency Hz

Frame Each number and letter group defines a

physical size of motor and mounting
arrangement, shaft size etc to which all
electric motor manufacturers adhere..

Mounting The method of mounting Foot, Flange as

defined by standards.

Enclosure The style of motor, drip proof or totally

mountings & IP enclosed fan cooled (TEFC) mounting type
rating and the IEC specifications for protection.

Chart 1

These motors are built in great numbers by many

manufacturers, the international frame sizes were developed
to allow any make of motor to fit into any similar space. By
consulting a manufacturer’s catalogue you can find out the
frame size of a motor, which is required when no data plate
can be found.

Data plates and information on equipment is vital to

determine if the equipment is operating within or above the
motors operating range. With this data you can check as part
of the fault finding process, what the normal voltage and
current ratings are for that motor. A fault on a motor cannot
be taken in isolation, it is part of a system and all sections of
that system need to be investigated. If you do not know
what the maximum current a motor is designed to operate
at, then how can you tell if the current it is drawing from the
system is acceptable or not. This is one of the first things to
check when investigating a fault on a system.

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Motors do need care and attention during their life. The

environment in which the motor is located determines how
much attention they need. A motor in a dry and warm
compressor room, will need little in the way of maintenance,
where as a motor located below a mixing hopper which, at
times, gets wet and covered in mud will need much more
attention.

Figure 3 TEFC Industrial Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

1.9 Basic Requirements

For AC Motor Maintenance

• Check the fan and cowl are clear and the motor fins
are not filled with debris.

• The motor has not allowed water to enter the terminal

box or stator

• Examine the terminal box and carry out Insulation

Resistance test on the windings to ensure they are
electrically sound (Megger test).

• On Exd motors check the flame path & cable gland.

• Check the condition of the coupling and look for any

misalignment.

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1.10 Observations

• When running, check for vibrations and bearing noise.

• Check for over heating of the motor or supply cable.

• Listen for any unusual noise generated by the

coupling.

1.11 Earthing

Ensure the motor is satisfactorily earthed to reduce the

possibility of electric shock, and any electrical faults are
cleared quickly. Also to ensure that there is earth continuity
from the motor to ground to eliminate the possibility of
arcing or sparking in areas where there may be gas.

1.12 Guarding

Revolving shafts and cooling fans or impellers should be

covered to protect against contact by personnel.

Figure 4 Motor with an Unprotected Cooling Fan

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1.13 Components and types

A typical AC motor consists of two parts:

• An outside stationary stator having coils supplied with

AC current to produce a rotating magnetic field, and;

• An inside rotor attached to the output shaft that is

given a torque by the rotating field.

There are two fundamental types of AC motor, depending on

the type of rotor used:

• The synchronous motor, which rotates exactly at

the supply frequency or a submultiple of the supply
frequency and;

• The induction motor, which turns slightly slower,

and typically (though not necessarily always) takes
the form of the squirrel cage motor.

Figure 5 Assortment of AC Motors

An example of three phase AC induction motors rated 1 Hp

(746 W) and 25 W with small motors from a CD player, toy
and the reader head traversing motor from a CD/DVD drive.

Where a polyphase electrical supply is available, the three-

phase (or polyphase) AC induction motor is commonly used,
especially for higher-powered motors. The phase differences
between the three phases of the polyphase electrical supply
create a rotating electromagnetic field in the motor.

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The rotating magnetic field in the stator will induce a current

in the conductors of the rotor, which in turn will generate
counter electromotive force in the rotor, which will cause the
rotor to rotate in the direction of the rotating field, and the
speed difference between the rotating field and the rotor is
referred to as “slip”.

1.14 Induction Motors

Induction motors are the mainstay of industry in sizes up to

500 kW (670HP) and manufactured in standardised frame
sizes which makes them interchangeable between
manufacturers, although European and American
manufactures may differ. Synchronous motors are
manufactured in very large frame sizes capable of thousands
of kW output in service on items such as pipeline
compressors and wind-tunnel drives.

1.15 Rotors Types Used In Induction Motors.

1.15.1 The Squirrel Cage Motor

The most common AC motor in use, the squirrel cage motor,

can be found in virtually all domestic and light industrial
alternating current motor applications. The squirrel cage
takes its name from its shape - a ring at either end of the
rotor, with bars connecting the rings running the length of
the rotor.

Figure 6 Squirrel Cage Rotor

It is typically cast aluminum or copper poured between the

iron laminates of the rotor, and usually only the end rings will
be visible. The vast majority of the rotor currents will flow
through the bars rather than the higher-resistance and
usually varnished laminates. Very low voltages at very high
currents are typical in the bars and end rings; high efficiency
motors will often use cast copper in order to reduce the
resistance in the rotor.

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In operation, the squirrel cage motor may be viewed as a

transformer with a rotating secondary - when the rotor is not
rotating in sync with the magnetic field, large rotor currents
are induced; the large rotor currents magnetize the rotor and
interact with the stator's magnetic fields to bring the rotor
into synchronization with the stator's field.

An unloaded squirrel cage motor at synchronous speed will

consume electrical power only to maintain rotor speed
against friction and resistance losses; as the mechanical load
increases, so will the electrical load - the electrical load is
inherently related to the mechanical load. This is similar to a
transformer, where the primary's electrical load is related to
the secondary's electrical load.

Figure 7 Squirrel Cage Blower Motor

This is why, as an example, a squirrel cage blower motor

may cause the lights in a home to dim as it starts, but
doesn't dim the lights when its fanbelt (and therefore
mechanical load) is removed. Furthermore, a stalled squirrel
cage motor (overloaded or with a jammed shaft) will
consume current limited only by circuit resistance as it
attempts to start. Unless something else limits the current
(or cuts it off completely) overheating and destruction of the
winding insulation is the likely outcome.

Virtually every washing machine, dishwasher, standalone

fan, record player, etc. uses some variant of a squirrel cage
motor.

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1.15.2 Wound Rotor

An alternate design, called the wound rotor, is used when

variable speed is required. In this case, the rotor has the
same number of poles as the stator and the windings are
made of wire, connected to slip rings on the shaft. Carbon
brushes connect the slip rings to an external controller such
as a variable resistor that allows changing the motor's slip
rate. In certain high-power variable speed wound-rotor
drives, the slip-frequency energy is captured, rectified and
returned to the power supply through an inverter.

Figure 8 Wound Rotor

Compared to squirrel cage rotors, wound rotor motors are

expensive and require maintenance of the slip rings and
brushes, but they were the standard form for variable speed
control before the advent of compact power electronic
devices. Transistorized inverters with variable frequency
drive can now be used for speed control, and wound rotor
motors are becoming less common.

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1.15.3 Motor Starting Techniques

Several methods of starting a polyphase motor are used;

1.15.4 Direct on Line (DOL)

Where the large inrush current and high starting torque can
be permitted in situations such as the oil exploration
industry, which generates its own power supply, the motor
can be started across the line, by applying full line voltage to
the terminals, which is termed (Direct-on-line, or DOL).

Where it is necessary to limit the starting inrush current

where the supply is taken from a public utility (where the
motor is large compared with the short-circuit capacity of the
supply), and may create considerable disturbance on that
public system, so reduced voltage starting using either series
inductors, star/delta, autotransformer, thyristors, or other
devices is used.

1.15.5 Star Delta Starter

A technique sometimes used is star-delta starting, where the

motor coils are initially connected in wye for acceleration of
the load, then switched to delta when the load is up to
speed. This technique is more common in Europe than in
North America. Transistorized drives can directly vary the
applied voltage as required by the starting characteristics of
the motor and load. This type of motor is becoming more
common in traction applications such as locomotives, where
it is known as the asynchronous traction motor.

Figure 9 Star Delta Starter

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1.15.6 Inverter Drives

Transistorized inverter drives also allow the more-efficient

three-phase motors to be used when only single-phase mains
current is available, but this is never used in household
appliances, because it can cause electrical interference and
because of high power requirements.

Figure 10 Single Phase to Three Phase Inverters

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1.16 Speed of AC Motors

The speed of the AC motor is determined primarily by the

frequency of the AC supply and the number of poles in the
stator winding, according to the relation:

Ns = 120F / p

Where

Ns = Synchronous speed, in revolutions per minute

F = AC power frequency

p = Number of poles per phase winding

Actual RPM for an induction motor will be less than this

calculated synchronous speed by an amount known as slip,
that increases with the torque produced. With no load, the
speed will be very close to synchronous. When loaded,
standard motors have between 2-3% slip, special motors
may have up to 7% slip, and a class of motors known as
torque motors are rated to operate at 100% slip (0 RPM/full
stall).

The slip of the AC motor is calculated by:

S = (Ns − Nr) / Ns

Where:

Nr = Rotational speed, in revolutions per minute.

S = Normalized Slip, 0 to 1.

As an example, a typical four-pole motor running on 60 Hz

might have a nameplate rating of 1725 RPM at full load,
while its calculated speed is 1800.

The speed in this type of motor has traditionally been altered

by having additional sets of coils or poles in the motor that
can be switched on and off to change the speed of magnetic
field rotation. However, developments in power electronics
mean that the frequency of the power supply can also now
be varied to provide a smoother control of the motor speed.

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1.17 Synchronous Motors

1.17.1 Three-phase AC synchronous motors

If connections to the rotor coils of a three-phase motor are

taken out on slip-rings and fed a separate field current to
create a continuous magnetic field (or if the rotor consists of
a permanent magnet), the result is called a synchronous
motor because the rotor will rotate in synchronism with the
rotating magnetic field produced by the polyphase electrical
supply.

1.17.2Synchronous motor used as a generator

The synchronous motor can also be used as an

alternator.

Nowadays, synchronous motors are frequently driven by

transistorized variable frequency drives. This greatly eases
the problem of starting the massive rotor of a large
synchronous motor. They may also be started as induction
motors using a squirrel-cage winding that shares the
common rotor: once the motor reaches synchronous speed,
no current is induced in the squirrel-cage winding so it has
little effect on the synchronous operation of the motor, aside
from stabilizing the motor speed on load changes.

Synchronous motors are occasionally used as traction

motors; the TGV (High speed French railway train) may be
the best-known example of such use.

1.18 Single phase induction motors

1.18.1 Single-phase AC induction motors

Three-phase motors inherently produce a rotating magnetic

field. However, when only single-phase power is available,
the rotating magnetic field must be produced using other
means. Several methods are commonly used.

1.18.2 Shaded Pole Motor

A common single-phase motor is the shaded-pole motor,

which is used in devices requiring low torque, such as electric
fans or other small household appliances. In this motor,
small single-turn copper "shading coils" create the moving
magnetic field. Part of each pole is encircled by a copper coil
or strap; the induced current in the strap opposes the change
of flux through the coil (Lenz's Law), so that the maximum
field intensity moves across the pole face on each cycle, thus
producing the required rotating magnetic field.

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1.18.3 Split Phase Motor

Another common single-phase AC motor is the split-phase

induction motor, commonly used in major appliances such as
washing machines and clothes dryers. Compared to the
shaded pole motor, these motors can generally provide much
greater starting torque by using a special startup winding in
conjunction with a centrifugal switch.

In the split-phase motor, the startup winding is designed

with a higher resistance than the running winding. This
creates an LR circuit which slightly shifts the phase of the
current in the startup winding. When the motor is starting,
the startup winding is connected to the power source via a
set of spring-loaded contacts pressed upon by the not-yet-
rotating centrifugal switch. The starting winding is wound
with fewer turns of smaller wire than the main winding, so it
has a lower inductance (L) and higher resistance (R). The
lower L/R ratio creates a small phase shift, not more than
about 30 degrees, between the flux due to the main winding
and the flux of the starting winding.

The starting direction of rotation may be reversed simply by

exchanging the connections of the startup winding relative to
the running winding.

The phase of the magnetic field in this startup winding is

shifted from the phase of the mains power, allowing the
creation of a moving magnetic field which starts the motor.
Once the motor reaches near design operating speed, the
centrifugal switch activates, opening the contacts and
disconnecting the startup winding from the power source.
The motor then operates solely on the running winding. The
starting winding must be disconnected since it would increase
the losses in the motor.

1.18.4 Capacitor Start Motor

In a capacitor start motor, a starting capacitor is inserted
in series with the startup winding, creating an LC circuit
which is capable of a much greater phase shift (and so, a
much greater starting torque). The capacitor naturally adds
expense to such motors.

Another variation is the Permanent Split-Capacitor (PSC)

motor (also known as a capacitor start and run motor). This
motor operates similarly to the capacitor-start motor
described above, but there is no centrifugal starting switch
and the second winding is permanently connected to the
power source. PSC motors are frequently used in air
handlers, fans, and blowers and other cases where a variable
speed is desired. By changing taps on the running winding
but keeping the load constant, the motor can be made to run
at different speeds.

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Also provided all 6 winding connections are available

separately, a 3 phase motor can be converted to a capacitor
start and run motor by commoning two of the windings and
connecting the third via a capacitor to act as a start winding.

1.18.5 Wound Rotor

Repulsion motors are wound-rotor single-phase AC motors
that are similar to universal motors. In a repulsion motor,
the armature brushes are shorted together rather than
connected in series with the field. Several types of repulsion
motors have been manufactured, but the Repulsion-start
induction-run (RS-IR) motor has been used most
frequently. The RS-IR motor has a centrifugal switch that
shorts all segments of the commutator so that the motor
operates as an induction motor once it has been accelerated
to full speed. RS-IR motors have been used to provide high
starting torque per ampere under conditions of cold operating
temperatures and poor source voltage regulation. Few
repulsion motors of any type are sold as of 2006.

1.19 Single-phase AC synchronous motors

Small single-phase AC motors can also be designed with

magnetized rotors (or several variations on that idea). The
rotors in these motors do not require any induced current so
they do not slip backward against the mains frequency.
Instead, they rotate synchronously with the mains frequency.
Because of their highly accurate speed, such motors are
usually used to power mechanical clocks, audio turntables,
and tape drives; formerly they were also much used in
accurate timing instruments such as strip-chart recorders or
telescope drive mechanisms. The shaded-pole
synchronous motor is one version.

Because inertia makes it difficult to instantly accelerate the

rotor from stopped to synchronous speed, these motors
normally require some sort of special feature to get started.
Various designs use a small induction motor (which may
share the same field coils and rotor as the synchronous
motor) or a very light rotor with a one-way mechanism (to
ensure that the rotor starts in the "forward" direction).

1.20 Motor Manufacturers;

There are many motor manufacturers used in the original

construction supply, below are just a few.

Marathone Electrics, [Link], [Link], Weg, Baldor,

Westinghouse, and many more.

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2 How Does It Work

2.1 AC Starters

To run an AC motor requires some form of control

equipment, which allows the operator to start, stop, and
isolate the motor supply as well as automatically protect the
circuit against faults in the event of motor failure.

This equipment is known as a starter, which will normally

have local start and stop buttons and a lockable breaker
operating lever. The breaker can be locked in the off position
preventing it from being accidentally switched on when the
equipment is isolated for maintenance. There will normally be
indicator lights to indicate when the power is on and when
the motor is running. There will normally be a reset button so
that the overloads can be reset if they trip, after a cooling off
period.

The starter can be a single dedicated unit, which controls

only one motor. However, it is more likely that it is
integrated into a switchboard of several starters. This
collection is known as the motor control centre or the MCC.
An MCC will be used to provide power distribution to one
particular section of the rig equipment, perhaps the mud
system. There will be several MCCs at various locations
around the rig at various levels to supply power to many
different motors.

Figure 11 Small DOL Starter in MCC

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The figure 2 starter unit contains the following:

• A circuit breaker, which doubles as an isolator

• A contactor, which closes and starts the motor

• An overload unit which will limit the amount of current

supplies to the circuit.

• A control circuit transformer to supply external control

push button stations with a supply, which in turn is
returned to the starter to energise the contactor coil
on the push of the start button, and disconnected at
the push of the stop button.

Figure 12 Typical Motor Control Centre (MCC)

Note, the isolation tags on equipment locked out for

maintenance, where the control handle for the breaker can
be locked in the off position to prevent the equipment being
switched on while it is being worked on. Each of the
individual starters is fitted with local push button operators
so that the motors can be started or stopped from the MCC.
This is of use in the event of a black out when equipment
that was running can be restarted locally at the MCC.

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A starter can, as on the above MCC, has a local control,

which is located on the MCC. (Remember, "local" means by
the starter, not by the motor.) For an easy operation there
will be a control unit, a start/stop station, located near the
motor or operator’s location.

All electrical equipment must be tested and protected against

faults. An AC electric motor needs to be protected against
several external effects. These faults can be separated into
external influences and internal

2.2 External faults are:

• Mechanical load applied to the motor above the

designed output of the motor.

• The cooling fan becomes damaged or broken, or the

fan cowl has been redesigned allowing the cooling
effect of the motor to be reduced. The reduction in
cooling can lead to a temperature climbing above the
design maximum. Further increase in temperature can
lead to the motor coils / windings losing their
insulation and burning out, which will require a
rewind.

• The motor bearings fail causing excessively high

mechanical load and rise in current leading to the
failure of the motor.

• If a motor has it’s Ingress Protection (IP) rating

exceeded by being flooded with water or mud it could
cause the insulation of the motor to fail and an earth
fault can occur, or if taken to extremes, a short-circuit
and failure.

2.3 Internal faults are:

• The electrical coils burnt out due to excessive

electrical current or just overheating.

• The coils or terminals are short-circuited to ground.

• From the above lists it is easy to see that external

effects give a higher probability of causing a motor
failure than internal ones.

• Internal faults are predominantly of an electrical nature.

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2.4 Protection of the motor

The protection, which the electrical system provides, is

overload, which is an electrical load just above the full rated
current load of the motor. Electrical over load trips are
normally set at 115 to 120% of the motor data plate current
rating. You need to check that the overload devices are set to
the correct value.

The value that is set must conform to the OEM name plate
specifications. Some manufacturers specify the trip point is
the value indicated on the scale and others indicate Motor full
load with a built in compensation for the 115%. If the wrong
setting is used the motor will trip before it has reached it’s
acceptable over load rating (115%) this is just an
operational problem. On the other hand if the motor overload
unit is a "full-load" type, and this is set at 115% the trip
point is now 132% of the motor rated load. This situation
can easily lead to a burnt out motor, with all that this can
involve.

Figure 13 Two Mixing pumps with AC TEFC motors

2.5 Explosion Proof Motors

Exe and Exn motors must have an overload unit, which is

closely linked to the motors heating characteristics. This is to
ensure the equipment remains below the designed
temperature to conform to the Ex equipment rules and
regulations. The other protection for the motor is the supply
fuses or circuit breaker in the starter.

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These circuit breakers and fuses perform the same function

in limiting the energy that can pass into a system. The
setting of overloads is adjustable; but the use of fuses is
fixed. Circuit breakers can be adjusted, but only for the
largest starting current encountered when starting. The
electrical type of fuses determine these characteristics These
being slow or quick blow, motor rated or electronic protection
fuses. The fuse, which concerns us in this section, is the
motor rated fuse. Motor rated fuses are housed in the same
physical containers as normal fuses, but are rated for a
higher loading- before rupture and protecting the system.

Figure 14 Diagram for Multi wound AC Motor

A motor can on starting produce up to 8 times the full

loading of the data plate current. The motor Full Load
Current ( FLC), so starting can be written as 8 x FLC.

If you fit a motor type fuse in a normal feeder circuit the

protection for that feeder will be much higher than designed
or expected. This can become dangerous if not correctly
monitored and fuses selected correctly.

These two forms of protection are used in nearly all AC

motors with a rating of more than a few hundred watts. In
more advanced situations and ones which are critical to
safety and operations further devices are fitted.

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These can be any combination of the following:

• Earth fault monitoring and tripping. A device, which

monitors the insulation value of the motor and feeder
cable. If the insulation falls below a preset value
either an alarm is operated or the motor is tripped. It
is said to have been “Tripped" on earth fault or
"Earth leakage”

• Stator temperature can be monitored if thermostats

or thermocouples are imbedded in the stator windings
when it is being manufactured. This gives warning and
or a trip if the stator temperature rises above a set
value. This requires additional cabling from the motor
back to the starter and is therefore only used in large
or motors requiring additional protection.

• Speed monitoring, where a pickup on the motor shaft

is used to determine, when the motor has reached its
normal full load speed. This device is used when large
fans take a long time to run up to full speed. If they
don’t reach the required speed in the expected time
the speed / time device uses the motor control circuit
to stop the motor and indicate why it has stopped.

Figure 15 Motor Protection Devices

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3 How Do I Operate It
3.1 Normal Operation

The normal operation of the AC squirrel cage three phase

induction motor as used on most rig operations is by means
of (DOL) Direct on Line starters. These operate via a coil
closing a three phase contactor at the push of a start button,
and as the term implies puts the AC motor directly on line to
a power supply. This is a very simple and reliable system,
and to stop the motor it is simply a case of pushing the stop
button which in turn interrupts the flow of current to the
contactor coil and allows the contactor to drop out and
remove the supply to the motor.

3.2 Motor Starter

Each starter panel in an MCC arrangement is equipped with

an isolating switch which can be locked out, so that repair
work can be carried out on that particular motor, or piece of
equipment. There will also be local Start / Stop buttons fitted
so that the motor in question can be controlled from the MCC
if required. The MCC is supplied by a 600/480 volt
transformer connected to the busbars in the MCC, via an
isolating breaker, which in turn supplies each of the starters
in the form of plug-in enclosures where the rear plug-in
connections are permanently live The starters can be
plugged or racked in or out of these connections for repair
whilst safely isolated from the 480 volt supply.

To control these starters there is normally a control voltage

of a voltage to suit the contactor coils, this voltage can be
common to the whole system in the form of a supply from a
480/208/120 transformer where this can be found
throughout the power system and used for many applications
including the starters. Or, each starter can be installed with
its own small control transformer which will in turn take its
supply from the 480 volts to the starter and reduce it to 120
volts for the control circuits. In some cases such as SCR
systems there will be 600/120 volt transformers to supply
the control voltage for the system.

Each of these starters needs to be able to protect the motors

they supply to prevent damage to these motors and cabling
in the system from over current.

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3.3 Overload Relays

This is done with an overload relay which can be set by

various means, usually thermal, to a current level just above
the motor full load current so that if this current is exceeded
the relay will open a set of contacts to drop the main
contactor out. This will remove the supply from the motor in
the same way that the stop button breaks the circuit to the
contactor coil and stops the motor.

Many of these overload relays need to cool down before they

can be reset to start the motor again. Inside the overload
relay is normally a set of heaters which are also bi-metallic
strips, which upon heating, the strips will expand by different
amounts according to the metal used in construction. As they
are bonded together this means they bend. This opens the
circuit and shuts down the power. Heaters are sized such
that the bending moment caused by the heating only opens
the overload at the appropriate current levels.

Figure 16 Selection of Siemens Overload Relays

If these relays trip on an overload, the equipment should be

checked for mechanical overload to see if it is a problem with
what the motor is driving before the motor is considered the
problem. The load can be checked with a clip on tong tester
on each phase to see if all the phases are taking the same
current, as an imbalance between phases would indicate a
motor problem. Also a check the bearings for noise or over
temperature to indicate bearing failure that might cause a
drag on the motor increasing the current to the point of
tripping. The indicated current to the motor when tested
should not exceed the motor current indicated on the data
plate on the motor

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If the motor has been running for a long period of time at the
same current settings these should not be increased or this
could lead to the motor burning out. A check should be made
for other things that can cause an increase of load. In the
case of a new installation the overload heaters should be
checked to ensure they are of the correct value for the
current being drawn by the motor under normal running
conditions. The full load current of the motor will be listed on
the data plate on the motor and the overload heaters will be
required to trip at 115% of full load current or 15% above
the full load current of the motor.

If no reason can be found for the motor overloading in

normal running conditions, a larger motor should be
considered for that operation.

Figure 17 AC EXD Mission Pump Motors

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Basic AC Motors

4 Inspection
4.1 Motor inspections

With AC Squirrel Cage Induction Motors there is very little

inspection to be carried out, the motors should be kept clean
and free from mud or anything that might cover them and
stop the cooling from working so they cannot dissipate the
heat. The cooling fan/impeller should be checked to make
sure it has not been broken by people trying to turn the
motor with it, or that it is not spinning on the shaft where the
key has been broken. The fan/impeller cover should be
secure and undamaged to protect the fan/impeller from
damage and to direct the air flow through the cooling fins of
the motor, and protect personnel from personnel injury.

The motor should not be over greased, normally a couple of

shots once a year should be enough, and non rubber type
couplings of metal construction should be greased regularly.
The TEFC motors should be checked for damage to cable and
glands, and the termination box opened and inspected on a
regular basis for water ingress and general condition. The
flame path on the box should be checked for condition, and
the faces of the box smeared with a thin film of non drying
grease to prevent corrosion, and the bolts greased when
reassembled to assist the next time it is opened.

The mounting bolts should be greased when installed to ease

their removal in the event of a motor change, and the
nuts/bolts/screws for the coupling cover should be greased
occasionally to ensure they can be removed when the
coupling or motor needs to be replaced.

It is important to note that EX motors carry their own unique

set of requirements. The flame paths at each end of the
stator housing must not be covered, particularly not painted.
They should be free from dust and dirt and when assembling
them a minimal amount of grease is to be used (if any). The
idea behind a flame path in any hazardous area equipment is
that should an explosion or sparks be generated inside the
motor the action of passing through the flame path to the
open air cools the sparks or gases to such an extent that
they do not ignite any gases in the surrounding areas. For
this reason painting over flame path areas is strictly
forbidden as this invalidates the equipment certification.

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5 Maintenance

Figure 1 Part of a Drawing Showing internal AC Motor

Connections.
The testing of AC motors is confined to the coils and
terminations, which are available to the electrician in the
motor junction/ terminal box or starter connections in the
MCC.

To make the insulation resistance tests on motors depend

upon the way the motor coil connections are brought out to
the terminal box.

All winding terminations in the lower part of the above

illustration are brought out to the terminal box and can be
connected in various ways as per the listing beside the
drawing.

This also makes testing the winding much easier, where the
winding terminations can be separated in the junction box,
and each winding tested to ground, or winding to winding for
short circuits. With motors with internal connections, many of
these tests cannot be carried out to the same extent.

On a 3-wire motor only 4 tests are needed. Where on a 6

wire motor 9 separate tests are needed to confirm there are
no faults on the motor.

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5.1 Insulation Test

Coil insulation should be as high as possible. A test over 50

Mohm on a nominal 480V system is more than satisfactory.
If the entire test comes down to 1 Mohm you need to
investigate. If only one test comes down to this value it is
advisable to make sure the terminal block is not causing the
problem. Testing the terminal block is each terminal post to
earth and between each post. These tests should be equal
and high. With salt water around, some tracking can occur on
terminal blocks, which will lead to carbonising of Bakelite
between the terminal post and low resistance readings.

Question; is a test of 1 Mohm a good test?

Answer; it depends on the last test measurements.

If a motor over the last year has been tested as 50 Mohm,

50 Mohm, 50 Mohm, then a test of 1 Mohm is poor and
needs to be investigated. So the trend is important as well. If
a motor over the last year has been tested as 1 Mohm, 0.7
Mohm, 0.5 Mohm, 0.8 Mohm, a test of 1 Mohm is better than
the last and no intervention is needed. Investigations should
have been done previously and indicated the under-laying
cause of the low resistance (for instance circumstances
adding to the low resistance in a ballast pump in an area with
constant high humidity).

5.2 Coil resistance

The coil resistance is dependent upon the electrical size of

the motor.

As a Rule of Thumb the larger the motor in kW or hp the

lower the coil resistance will be. The test is for balance rather
than exact value.

A motor with balanced coils is unlikely to have fault on the

coils, as long as the insulation value is high and uniform.

5.3 Basic items to check

Overall uniformity and balance are things to look at. A

known history is important so that you can understand and
interpret the results accurately.

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Basic AC Motors

5.4 Motor failures

Three phase motor failures and possible causes:

• Owing to the widespread usage of asynchronous

three-phase motors in industry, which are more often
repaired in the plant workshops, there follows a
summary of possible failures and their probable
causes, detection and remedies.

• Motors are generally designed to Class B or F

insulation and for ambient temperatures up to 40°C.

• Most winding defects arise when temperature limits,

due to current overload, are surpassed throughout the
winding or even in only portions thereof.

These defects are identified by the darkening or carbonising

of wire insulation.

Figure 18 Motor in need of Maintenance

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Basic AC Motors

6 Spare Parts
6.1 General

Spare parts for the AC motors is usually confined to a stock

of spare bearings for the motors on the rig which can be
changed quite easily if the end cover bolts are kept in good
condition, spare cooling fan/impellers should be kept as
these are normally broken while trying to remove the old one
to get the rear end cover off the motor, and spare key stock
should also be kept to replace lost or corroded keys for the
couplings and fans/impellers during reassembly. With
explosion proof motors, care should be taken when
dismantling them and reassembling them, not to damage the
faces between the stator and the end covers. As this is a
flame path the same as the junction box faces, and need to
be kept in good condition.

In the case of new operations it would be good practice to

order one or two new fan/impeller covers for each size of
motor to keep in stock to replace these when they become
damaged or corroded with time as it will be found that as
time goes by these items will no longer be available for
purchase as the design of motors will change.

It has been common practise in most companies to set a

level at which it is uneconomical to rewind electric motors,
where the cost of rewinding is close to the cost of a new
motor, and this is normally around the 10 horse power or
7.46Kw in size, and it is normal to have a selection of the
critical TEFC motors in stock on the rig for quick replacement
if a motor should fail during operation.

Any piece of equipment that is essential for the running of

the operation that is driven by a TEFC three phase induction
motor, which is an inexpensive item to purchase, but may
not be readily available when required, should have a spare
motor kept in stock as a spare on the rig, and these spare
motors should be kept in warm dry conditions, to maintain
them in as new condition.

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7 Trouble Shooting
7.1 What If It Breaks Down

With the AC Squirrel Cage Induction Motors trouble shooting

is normally confined to ground testing the motor to see if the
windings have short circuited to ground due to them
becoming overloaded and burning out or continuity testing to
see if the circuit is open or short circuited, again due to
overloaded or burnt out windings. In either case the motor
will need to be rewound or replaced with a new motor
depending on the size of the motor. In the case of a small
motor it is normally cheaper to replace the motor than to
rewind it.

With some large AC motors it can sometimes be difficult to

determine if there is a fault, where the motor appears to be
tripping on inrush current during starting. This can be a sign
of a shorted winding in the stator, particularly if nothing else
has changed in that system and the motor has just started to
do this. The problem can be hard to diagnose as the motor
does not run long enough to allow normal “in-field” fault
finding procedures to be conducted.

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Basic AC Motors

8 Questions
8.1 AC Motor Failures Questions

1. What information can be found on the data plates of

electric motors:
a) Speed. b) Voltage. c) Current. d) Frame size.
e) Zone classing. f) Kw/HP. g) Shaft size. h) Cooling
fan size. i) Holding down bolt size.

2. Mention the five basic PM tasks for an AC motor:

a) Check the motor______and________are clear of
mud to maintain the motor cooling. b) Ensure the
motor______is free of water. c) Open the starter and
test the________of the winding to ensure the motor
is not down to_________. d) Check the______path
of the terminal box and cable_____ to make sure the
unit is explosion proof. e) Check the________of of
the drive to ensure the coupling will not be damaged.

3. Where are the AC motor starters located on drilling

rigs:
a) Switchboard. b) MCC. c) SCR room. d) Pump
room.

4. Mention the main components in a motor starter:

a) Isolation________ with remote operation. b)
Three Phase________. c) ________ relay. d)
Start/stop____________ station. e) Control
___________. f) Control______. g) ________
lights.

5. Explain the operation of the electrical lock-out

system:
a) Locks the door of the starter. b) Locks the
operating handle of the breaker down. c) Locks the
breaker in the “off” position.

6. Can you start a motor "locally" if the starter has been

isolated:
a) Yes. b) No.

7. The information on the start stations should be

presented in what kind of manner and why:
a) Word of mouth. b) Painted on the unit. c)
Stamped or engraved on non removable labels. d) To
inform of the function of that start/stop station. e) To
inform of which motor it will start and where.

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9 Reference Material
The best reference material for any equipment is the
manufacturer’s service manuals that are usually supplied
with the motors.

These manuals cover everything from installation,

commissioning, trouble shooting and fault finding when the
system is in normal operation.

In most cases there are people employed with the

manufacturers who can assist in time of need by email or by
telephone to discuss a problem on the company technical
support line.

9.1 Web Sites

[Link]
ge/

[Link]
ric_Motors.pdf

[Link]

[Link]
atters/[Link]/article_id=203

[Link]

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10 Work Place Assignments

Note.

This assignment is to make you aware of all the AC driven

equipment that is installed in your work place. It will lead
you to the main source of supply being the MCC Panel (Motor
Control Centre) and then take you to the motor and control
equipment which is being supplied from this equipment.

1. Look for the Rigs one-line schematics showing all of

the MCCs and associated AC motors. This is the best
guide in helping you understand the existence and
size of the facilities rotating AC equipment.

2. Find all AC Motor Control Cubicles ( MCCs) associated

with all the AC motors on the rigs drilling equipment.
Write down the description and tag numbers that is
displayed on the MCCs.

3. Go out into the field and locate the associated motor

that these drives control. It should be clearly
identified with the same description and tag number
that you found on the MCC.

4. If you look closely there should be a Stop Start station

or RCU (Remote control Unit) nearby, clearly marked
with the same ID. This device should also have the
ability to lock out the motor from starting, for
maintenance. Be aware that there could also be a
remote stop start RCU positioned well away from the
motor concerned. Depending on the motors function it
could also be automatically started when the
associated drilling function is activated.

5. Find all AC Motor Control Cubicles associated with the

engine room or power plant then follow steps 2 and 3.

6. Find all AC Motor Control Cubicles associated with

ventilation, air conditioning and refrigeration systems
then follow steps 2 and 3.

7. Particular attention should be given to essential

equipment. The location of fire pumps, bilge pumps,
BOP triplex pump, purge pressurisation fans, Air
conditioning and refrigeration systems should be
noted. The MCCs that supplies this equipment and any
associated control equipment should be sighted to
make yourself fully conversant with their function and
location.

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11 Glossary
Code Letter A letter which appears on the nameplates of
ac motors to show their locked-rotor kilovolt amperes per
horsepower at rated voltage and frequency.

Design Nema design letters A, B, C. D, and E define

certain starting and running characteristics of polyphase
squirrel care induction motors. These characteristics include
locked-rotor torque, locked-rotor current, pull-up torque,
breakdown torque, slip at rated load, and the ability to
withstand full-voltage starting.

Duty A continuous or short-time rating of a machine.

Continuous-duty machines reach an equilibrium temperature
within the temperature limits of the insulation system.
Machines which do not, or can not, reach an equilibrium
temperature have a short-time or intermittent-duty rating.
Short-time ratings are usually one hour or less for motors.

Efficiency The ratio between useful work performed and

the energy expended in producing it. It is the ratio of output
power divided by the input power.

Frame The NEMA standardized motor mountings and shaft

dimensions.

Frequency The number of cycles in a time period (usually

one second). Alternating current frequency is expressed in
cycles per second, termed Hertz (H z).

Full Load Amperes Line current (amperage) drawn by a

motor when opening at rated load and voltage on motor
nameplate.

Full-Load Current The current required for any electrical

machine to produce its rated output or perform its rated
function.

Full-Load Speed The speed at which any rotating

machine produces its rated output.

Full Load Torque The torque required to produce rated

power at full-load speed.

Insulation Class A letter or number that designates the

temperature rating of an insulation material or system with
respect to thermal endurance.

Kilowatt A unit of electrical power (1.341 horsepower).

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Locked Rotor Current Steady-state current taken from

the line with the rotor of a motor at standstill and at rated
voltage and frequency.

Locked-Rotor Torque The minimum torque that a motor

will develop at standstill for all angular positions of the rotor,
with rated voltage applied at rated frequency.

NEC National Electrical Code. A code developed for the

proper use of electricity used for regulating building codes
and safety.

NEMA National Electrical Manufacturers Association. An

organization that establishes voluntary industry standards
relating to motors.

Poles The magnetic poles set up inside an electric machine

by the placement and connection of the windings.

Power Factor The ratio of watts to volt-amperes of an AC

electric circuit.

Rated Temperature Rise The permissible rise in

temperature above ambient for an electric machine operating
under load.

Starting Torque The torque produced by a motor at rest

when power is applied. For an AC machine, this is the locked-
rotor torque.

Stator The stationary part of a rotating electric machine.

Commonly used to describe the stationary part of an AC
machine that contains the power windings.

Temperature Rise The amount by which a motor,

operating under rated conditions is hotter than its
surrounding ambient temperature.

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Lighting

Section 9
Basic Lighting

1 Equipment Overview ................................................ 2

2 How Does It Work.................................................. 17
3 How Do I Operate It ............................................... 20
4 Inspection............................................................. 21
5 Maintenance.......................................................... 24
6 Spare Parts ........................................................... 25
7 Trouble Shooting ................................................... 27
8 Questions ............................................................. 28
9 Reference Materials ................................................ 29
10 Work Place Assignments ......................................... 30
11 Glossary............................................................... 31

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic lighting

1 Equipment Overview
1.1 General

The lighting system on any oil rig is of the utmost importance

as they are usually operating continuously twenty-four hours
a day. The rigs lighting is necessary for the safe and efficient
running of the operation, both day and night.

1.2 Rig Floor & Derrick

There is a variety of lighting types to be found around the

rig, starting with the most important area on the rig, The Rig
Floor. The Driller and Drill Crew need to be able to see clearly
to conduct the drilling operation safely at all times, and in all
conditions.

Figure 2 Derrick Lighting

With the Derrick Lighting, great emphasis is placed on safety

with the view that the Driller must be able to see the
Travelling Blocks at all times, and also to clearly see the
Derrick Man at the Monkey Board. The Driller must be able to
see when the Derrick Man is latching or unlatching drill pipe
with the Elevators for the Derrick Mans safety when he is
standing on the fingers at the Monkey Board. It is also
necessary for the Driller to be able to see the Travelling
Blocks when they are on the way to the Crown to judge the
distance he has to work with.

The Driller has to make sure that the Travelling Blocks do not
strike the Crown on the way up, so he has to judge the
distance he has to work with, therefore he has to be able to
see the Crown clearly. There are limiting devices which
should protect the Crown in the event of an accident, such as
the Crown-o-mastic which should trip the Drawworks clutch if
the Travelling Blocks travel too high, and stop all upward
movement of the blocks.

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Lighting

The Derrick Lighting is normally fluorescent fixtures of the

vapour proof type, split into two circuits so that if one circuit
is lost, only 50% of the Derrick lighting will be lost at any
one time. This will allow repairs to be made while the rig is
still working. These types of fixtures are suitable for zone 2
areas as they are normally above the Zone 1 area, the
fixtures are normally installed with short leads to plug into
explosion proof receptacles spaced at even intervals up the
Derrick to the Crown.

Figure 3 Lighting over Drawworks

This is primarily for maintenance purposes as having

hardwired fixtures means opening explosion proof junction
boxes under operating conditions and will lead to the lighting
circuit being disabled for longer periods of time. There may
also be 400 Watt explosion proof sodium vapour, or halide
flood lights shining down on various areas to give extra light,
but these must not shine light in the Drillers eyes or the
Derrick Mans eyes for safety reasons. Fluorescent light
fixtures are the normal choice for most of these areas as
they give good light and if there is a black out or power
failure, when the power is restored, they come back on
immediately without a time delay.

Whereas the Flood Lights, which are normally Mercury

Vapour or High Pressure Sodium, need to cool before they
can restart, this can take up to twenty minutes. Normally
there will be 400 Watt Explosion Proof Flood Lights under the
floor and around the BOP to give plenty of light during work
when installing or removing the BOP from the well head.
Here again it is a matter of safety to have as much light as
possible to prevent accidents where there are several people
working at any one time with very heavy equipment in a
confined spaces.

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Basic lighting

Figure 4 Flood lights over Mud Tanks

There should always be Flood Lights shining down from the

Derrick onto the "V" Door to give plenty of light where Drill
Pipe or Casing is being moved from the Pipe Racks or Pipe
Deck to the Rig Floor. This area can be very hazardous
without sufficient light over the "V" Door and Pipe Deck
where drill pipe or casing is being moved around. The
personnel operating the cranes and air tuggers must be able
to clearly see the dogman giving signals at all times.

Figure 5 Lighting over Moon Pool

1.2.1 Mud Pump, Mud Pit, and Shale Shakers Areas

When one moves away from the Rig Floor most of the
lighting becomes fluorescent, in areas which are Zone 1 or
Zone 2 such as Mud Pumps and Mud Pits. These fixtures
need to be Explosion Proof or Vapour Proof depending on
their location. In the case of Mud Pits, Shale shakers and
Mud Pump rooms or areas these fixtures should be Explosion
Proof. The returning mud from the well head can carry gas to
these areas therefore any Flood Lights in these areas should
also be Explosion Proof for the same reason.

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Lighting

1.3 General Types of Lights in other Areas

Sub Base Mixture of Floodlights and fluorescent fittings

Shale Shakers Mixture of Floodlights and fluorescent

fittings

Mud Tanks Mixture of Floodlights and fluorescent fittings

Mud Pumps Mixture of Floodlights and fluorescent fittings

Engine Room Mixture of Floodlights and fluorescent fittings

SCR Room Fluorescent fittings

FER’s & MCC’s Fluorescent fittings

BOP Koomey Unit Fluorescent fittings

1.4 Fluorescent Lights

A fluorescent lamp is a gas-discharge lamp that uses

electricity to excite mercury vapor in argon or neon gas,
resulting in a plasma that produces short-wave ultraviolet
light. This light then causes a phosphor to fluoresce,
producing visible light.

Figure 6 Explosion Proof Fluorescent Light

Unlike incandescent lamps, fluorescent lamps always require

a ballast to regulate the flow of power through the lamp. In
common tube fixtures (typically 4 ft (120 cm) or 8 ft (240
cm) in length), the ballast is enclosed in the fixture. Compact
fluorescent light bulbs may have conventional ballast located
in the fixture or they may have ballasts integrated in the
bulbs, allowing them to be used in lamp holders normally
used for incandescent lamps.

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Basic lighting

1.5 Fluorescent fixtures

Normally the fluorescent fixtures throughout the rest of the

operational areas on the drilling operation, even inside some
of the buildings or compartments will be Zone 2 Vapour Proof
fixtures which cover the fact that there may be some gas at
some time around the operation. They are normally weather
proof, robust types of fixtures, up to the rough treatment of
rig operations.

1.5.1 Main Principle of Operation

The main principle of fluorescent tube operation is based

around inelastic scattering of electrons. An incident electron
(emitted from the coils of wire forming the cathode
electrode) collides with an atom in the gas (such as mercury,
argon or krypton) used as the ultraviolet emitter. This causes
an electron in the atom to temporarily jump up to a higher
energy level to absorb some, or all, of the kinetic energy
delivered by the colliding electron. This is why the collision is
called 'inelastic' as some of the energy is absorbed. This
higher energy state is unstable, and the atom will emit an
ultraviolet photon as the atom's electron reverts to a lower,
more stable, energy level. The photons that are released
from the chosen gas mixtures tend to have a wavelength in
the ultraviolet part of the spectrum. This is not visible to the
human eye, so must be converted into visible light. This is
done by making use of fluorescence. This fluorescent
conversion occurs in the phosphor coating on the inner
surface of the fluorescent tube, where the ultraviolet photons
are absorbed by electrons in the phosphor's atoms, causing a
similar energy jump, then drop, with emission of a further
photon. The photon that is emitted from this second
interaction has a lower energy than the one that caused it.
The chemicals that make up the phosphor are specially
chosen so that these emitted photons are at wavelengths
visible to the human eye. The difference in energy between
the absorbed ultra-violet photon and the emitted visible light
photon goes to heat up the phosphor coating.

1.5.2 Failure of the Phosphor Coating

The phosphor drops off in efficiency during use. By around

25,000 operating hours, it will typically be half the brightness
of a new lamp (although some manufacturers claim much
longer half-lives for their lamps). Lamps which do not suffer
failures of the emission mix or integral ballast electronics will
eventually develop this failure mode. They still work, but
have become dim and inefficient. The process is slow, and
often only becomes obvious when a new lamp is operating
next to an old lamp.

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Basic Lighting

1.5.3 Flood Lights Installation

A normal practice for installing floodlight fixtures is to not
hard wired but connected via Flame Proof plugs and
receptacles, such as Appleton, Crouse-Hinds, Clipsal, CEAG
or Le Grand where the plug cannot be removed without first
removing the supply from the plug. Normally this is by
turning the plug before removal, the turning action
effectively switching off the supply, this is so the plug is
removed while not under load and removing any sparking
risk. The benefits of installing flood lights in this way are
obvious especially for maintenance or for simple changing
out the lamp.

Figure 7 Engine Room Lighting

There are many manufacturers of this hazardous area

lighting such as:

Rig-a-Lite, Crouse-Hinds, Appleton, Clipsal, Pauluhn,

CEAG, DTS, Pierlite and Chalmit

1.5.4 Mercury Vapour

A Mercury-vapor lamp is a gas discharge lamp which uses

mercury in an excited state to produce light. The arc
discharge is generally confined to a small fused quartz arc
tube mounted within a larger borosilicate glass bulb. The
outer bulb may be clear or coated with a phosphor; in either
case, the outer bulb provides thermal insulation, protection
from ultraviolet radiation, and a convenient mounting for the
fused quartz arc tube. Mercury vapor lamps (and their
relatives) are often used because they are relatively efficient.
Phosphor coated bulbs offer better color rendition than either
high or low pressure sodium vapor lamps. They also offer a
very long lifetime, as well as intense lighting for several
applications.

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic lighting

1.5.5 Main Principle of Operation

When the lamp is first turned on, mercury-vapor lamps will

produce a dark blue glow because only a small amount of the
mercury is ionized and the gas pressure in the arc tube is
very low (so much of the light is produced in the ultraviolet
mercury bands). As the main arc strikes and the gas heats
up and increases in pressure, the light shifts into the visible
range and the high gas pressure causes the mercury
emission bands to broaden somewhat, producing a light that
appears more white to the human eye (although it is still not
a continuous spectrum). Even at full intensity, the light from
a mercury vapor lamp with no phosphors is distinctly bluish
in color.

Figure 8 Explosion Proof Mercury Vapour Floodlight

To correct the bluish tinge, many mercury vapor lamps are

coated on the inside of the outer bulb with a phosphor that
converts some portion of the ultraviolet emissions into red
light. This helps to fill in the otherwise very deficient red end
of the electromagnetic spectrum. These lamps are generally
called "color corrected" lamps. Most modern mercury vapor
lamps have this coating. One of the original complaints
against mercury lights was they tended to make people look
like "bloodless corpses" because of the lack of light from the
red end of the spectrum. There is also an increase in red
color (e.g., due to the continuous radiation) in ultra-high
pressure mercury vapor lamps (usually greater than 200
atm.) which has found application in modern compact
projection devices.

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Lighting

1.5.6 End of life

At the end of life, mercury-vapor lamps commonly exhibit a

phenomenon known as cycling. These lamps can be started
at a relatively low voltage but as they heat up during
operation, the internal gas pressure within the arc tube rises
and more and more voltage is required to maintain the arc
discharge. As a lamp gets older, the maintaining voltage for
the arc eventually rises to exceed the voltage provided by
the electrical ballast. As the lamp heats to this point, the arc
fails and the lamp goes out. Eventually, with the arc
extinguished, the lamp cools down again, the gas pressure in
the arc tube is reduced, and the ballast can once again cause
the arc to strike. The effect of this is that the lamp glows for
a while and then goes out, repeatedly.

More-sophisticated ballast designs detect cycling and give up

attempting to start the lamp after a few cycles. If power is
removed and reapplied, the ballast will make a new series of
startup attempts.

1.5.7 Sodium Vapour

A sodium vapor lamp is a gas discharge lamp which uses

sodium in an excited state to produce light. There are two
varieties of such lamps: low pressure and high pressure.

1.5.8 Low Pressure Sodium

LPS Lamps (Low Pressure Sodium), also known as SOX

Lamps (Sodium Oxide), consist of an outer vacuum envelope
of glass coated with an infrared reflecting layer of indium tin
oxide, a semiconductor material that allows the visible light
wavelengths out and keeps the infrared (heat) back.

It has an inner borosilicate 2 ply glass U shaped tube

containing sodium metal and a small amount of neon and
argon gas Penning mixture to start the gas discharge, so
when the lamp is turned on it emits a dim red/pink light to
warm the sodium metal and within a few minutes it turns
into the common bright orange/yellow color as the sodium
metal vaporizes. These lamps produce a virtually
monochromatic light in the 590 nm wavelength. As a result,
objects have no color rendering under a LPS light and are
seen only by their reflection of the 590 nm light (orange).

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic lighting

1.5.9 Main Principle of Operation

LPS lamps are the most efficient electrically powered light

source when measured for photopic lighting conditions. — up
to 200 lm/W. As a result they are widely used for outdoor
lighting such as street lights and security lighting where color
rendition is viewed by many to be less important. LPS lamps
are available with power ratings from 10 W up to 180 W,
however length increases greatly with wattage creating
problems for designers.

Figure 9 Sodium Vapour Light

LPS lamps are more closely related to fluorescent than High

Intensity Discharge lamps, since they have a low–pressure,
low–intensity discharge source and a linear lamp shape. Also
like fluorescents they do not exhibit a bright arc as do other
HID lamps, rather they emit a softer luminous glow, resulting
in less glare.

Another unique property of LPS lamps is that, unlike other

lamp types, they do not decline in lumen output with age. As
an example, Mercury Vapor HID lamps become very dull
towards the end of their lives, to the point of being
ineffective, whilst still drawing their full rated load of
electricity. LPS lamps, however, do increase energy usage
towards their end of life, which is usually rated around
18,000 hours for modern lamps.

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1.5.10 High Pressure Sodium

High pressure sodium vapour lamps produce a pinkish golden
colour, which is used for street lighting giving a softer light
which cast less shadows, gives better driver vision and all
round vision with less glare. The down side can be the cost of
the original installation, but the up side is a good re-strike
time of 3 – 5 minutes and up to 30 minutes to come up to
full brilliance, and a lamp life of 20,000 to 28,000 hours.

Figure 10 Selection of HP Sodium Vapour Lamps

1.5.11 Main Principle of Operation

The operation of a high-pressure sodium lamp is illustrated in

the diagram on the right. An amalgam of metallic sodium and
mercury lies at the coolest part of the lamp and provides the
sodium and mercury vapor in which the arc is drawn. The
temperature of the amalgam is determined to a great extent
by lamp power. The higher the lamp power, the higher will
be the amalgam temperature. The higher the temperature of
the amalgam, the higher will be the mercury and sodium
vapor pressures in the lamp.

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An increase in these metal pressures will cause a decrease in

the electrical resistance of the lamp. For a given voltage,
there are generally three modes of operation:

• Lamp is extinguished and no current flows.

• Lamp is operating, with liquid amalgam in the tube.

• Lamp is operating with all amalgam evaporated.

The first and last states are stable, because the lamp
resistance is weakly related to the voltage, but the second
state is unstable. Any anomalous increase in current will
cause an increase in power, causing an increase in amalgam
temperature, which will cause a decrease in resistance, which
will cause a further increase in current. This will create a
runaway effect, and the lamp will jump to the high-current
state (#3). Since actual lamps are not designed to handle
this much power, this would result in catastrophic failure.
Similarly, an anomalous drop in current will drive the lamp to
extinction. It is the second state which is the desired
operating state of the lamp, because a slow loss of the
amalgam over time from a reservoir will have less effect on
the characteristics of the lamp than a fully evaporated
amalgam. The result is an average lamp life in excess of
20,000 hours.

Figure 11 Electrical Diagram of HP Sodium Lamp

In practical use, the lamp is powered by an AC voltage

source in series with an inductive "ballast" in order to supply
a nearly constant current to the lamp, rather than a constant
voltage, thus assuring stable operation. The ballast is usually
inductive rather than simply being resistive which minimizes
resistive losses. Also, since the lamp effectively extinguishes
at each zero-current point in the AC cycle, the inductive
ballast assists in the re-ignition by providing a voltage spike
at the zero-current point.

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The light from the lamp consists of atomic emission lines of

mercury and sodium, but is dominated by the sodium D-line
emission. This line is extremely pressure (resonance)
broadened and is also self-reversed due to absorption in the
cooler outer layers of the arc, giving the lamp its improved
color rendering characteristics. In addition, the red wing of
the D-line emission is further pressure broadened by the Van
der Waals forces from the mercury atoms in the arc.

1.5.12 End of life

At the end of life, high-pressure sodium lamps exhibit a

phenomenon known as cycling. These lamps can be started
at a relatively low voltage but as they heat up during
operation, the internal gas pressure within the arc tube rises
and more and more voltage is required to maintain the arc
discharge. As a lamp gets older, the maintaining voltage for
the arc eventually rises to exceed the voltage provided by
the electrical ballast. As the lamp heats to this point, the arc
fails and the lamp goes out. Eventually, with the arc
extinguished, the lamp cools down again, the gas pressure in
the arc tube is reduced, and the ballast can once again cause
the arc to strike.

The effect of this is that the lamp glows for a while and then
goes out, repeatedly. More-sophisticated ballast designs
detect cycling and give up attempting to start the lamp after
a few cycles. If power is removed and reapplied, the ballast
will make a new series of startup attempts. LPS lamp failure
does not result in cycling; rather, the lamp will simply not
strike, and will maintain its dull red glow exhibited during the
start up phase.

1.5.13 Metal halide

Metal halide lamps, a member of the high-intensity discharge

(HID) family of lamps, produce high light output for their
size, making them a compact, powerful, and efficient light
source. Originally created in the late 1960's for industrial
use, metal halide lamps are now available in numerous sizes
and configurations for commercial and residential
applications.

Like most HID lamps, metal halide lamps operate under high
pressure and temperature, and require special fixtures to
operate safely. They are also considered a "point" light
source, so reflective luminaires are often required to
concentrate the light for purposes of the lighting application.
Metal halide lamps produce crystal white light giving very
clear vision. These are used a lot in car sales yards and
parking areas and sporting venues.

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They are also very good for illuminating areas for video
taping or CCTV coverage because of the clear light. The lamp
life is shorter with these at 15,000 to 20,000 hours.

1.5.14 Main Principle of Operation

Like other gas-discharge lamps such as the very-similar

mercury-vapor lamps, metal halide lamps produce light by
passing an electric arc through a mixture of gases. In a metal
halide lamp, the compact arc tube contains a high-pressure
mixture of argon, mercury, and a variety of metal halides.
The mixture of halides will affect the nature of light
produced, influencing the correlated color temperature and
intensity (making the light bluer, or redder, for example).

Figure 11 Selection of Metal Halide

The argon gas in the lamp is easily ionized, and facilitates

striking the arc across the two electrodes when voltage is
first applied to the lamp. The heat generated by the arc then
vaporizes the mercury and metal halides, which produce light
as the temperature and pressure increases. Like all other gas
discharge lamps, metal halide lamps require auxiliary
equipment to provide proper starting and operating voltages
and regulate the current flow in the lamp. About 24% of the
energy used by metal halide lamps produces light (65-115
lm/W), making them generally more efficient than
fluorescent lamps, and substantially more efficient than
incandescent bulbs.

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1.5.15 End of life

At the end of life, metal halide lamps exhibit a phenomenon

known as cycling. These lamps can be started at a relatively
low voltage but as they heat up during operation, the internal
gas pressure within the arc tube rises and more and more
voltage is required to maintain the arc discharge. As a lamp
gets older, the maintaining voltage for the arc eventually
rises to exceed the voltage provided by the electrical ballast.

As the lamp heats to this point, the arc fails and the lamp
goes out. Eventually, with the arc extinguished, the lamp
cools down again, the gas pressure in the arc tube is
reduced, and the ballast can once again cause the arc to
strike. The effect of this is that the lamp glows for a while
and then goes out, repeatedly.

More-sophisticated ballast designs detect cycling and give up

attempting to start the lamp after a few cycles. If power is
removed and reapplied, the ballast will make a new series of
startup attempts.

1.5.16 Ultraviolet hazards

All mercury vapor lamps (including metal halide lamps) must

contain a feature (or be installed in a fixture that contains a
feature) that prevents ultraviolet radiation from escaping.
Usually, the borosilicate glass outer bulb of the lamp
performs this function but special care must be taken if the
lamp is installed in a situation where this outer envelope can
become damaged. There have been documented cases of
lamps being damaged in gymnasiums and sun burns and eye
inflammation have resulted.

When used in locations like gyms, the fixture should contain

a strong outer guard or an outer lens to protect the lamp's
outer bulb. Also, special "safety" lamps are made which will
deliberately burn out if the outer glass is broken. This is
usually achieved by a thin carbon strip used to connect one
of the electrodes, which will burn up in the presence of air.
Even with these methods, some UV radiation can still pass
through the outer bulb of the lamp.

This causes the aging process of some plastics used in the

construction of luminaires to be sped up, leaving them
horribly discolored after only a few years' service.
Polycarbonate suffers particularly from this problem; and it is
not uncommon to see fairly new polycarbonate surfaces
positioned near the lamp to have turned a dull, 'ear-wax'-like
color after only a short time. Certain polishes, such as
Brasso, can be used to remove some of the yellowing, but
usually only with a limited success.

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1.6 Emergency Light Fixtures

There should also be Battery Powered Emergency Light

Fixtures around the Drill Floor and at all the Exits from the
Floor including the stairways. These should stay illuminated
on their battery supplies for about three hours.

Figure 12 Ceag Emergency Light Fitting

This will allow the Rig Floor to be secured in the event of a

black out or power failure. In some cases the twin tube
fluorescent fixtures have an Emergency Light facility where
the normal fixtures become Emergency lights during power
failure and will remain on for a period of time.

1.7 Common Emergency Exit & Passage Lights

The rest of the facility will also have emergency lights

positioned at strategic positions which must comply with the
HSE policy of the company and legislative requirements of
the country where the rig is working.

Figure 13 Ex Emergency Lights

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2 How Does It Work

2.1 Lighting Categories

See main principle of operation for each category in

overview section

2.2 Lighting Power Distribution

Lighting distribution normally starts at the Lighting

Distribution Panel, which will be situated in a non hazardous
area such as an SCR room, MCC, or accommodation
depending on the size of the rig. The Distribution Panel is
normally supplied from a 480/208 transformer which is delta
connected on the primary side to a 480 VAC supply from the
switchboard or the MCC by a breaker or switchgear which will
protect the supply to the distribution panel. On the secondary
side the transformer it will be star or “Y” connected to
produce 120 volts phase to neutral for lighting and small
power, and 208 volts phase to phase will be available so that
three phase 208 VAC can be obtained from the distribution
panel.

Beware…Rig power installations vary considerably, depending

on the country standards used by the design and building
teams. Acceptable American standards, which are commonly
used, do not always ground the neutral of the secondary of
the transformer used in lighting circuits, indeed the neutral is
often at 120vac with respect to ground.

A single pole breaker is used on the live side only. This

means that a 208/230vac fixture can be used. In this case
although the light will go out when switched off all power is
not removed from the fixture and 120vac still remains. Great
care must be taken when maintaining these fixtures as
electric shock is possible from the ungrounded neutral side.
Do not assume the fixture is totally “dead” without
thoroughly checking first.

All of the lighting circuits are brought back to a distribution

panel for termination and the circuits can be isolated at this
panel for repair or fault finding by opening the breaker for
that particular circuit and locking it out for safety. This
method can also be used when looking for a ground fault on
the main switchboard by turning off the breakers one by one
until the ground/earth detection lights go out when the
breaker is opened to the faulty circuit.

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Note: Please see above paragraph and thoroughly check the

fixture before assuming it is “dead” as the neutral may still
be alive, and can only be de-energised by disconnecting the
neutral it at the distribution panel from the “neutral” terminal
strip, this will need to be done with care as the terminal strip
will be alive as well.

On larger rigs there will be many Distribution Panels around

the rig for lighting and small power where normal domestic
light fixtures and receptacles or outlets are used in the
accommodation, mess, and recreation areas. Sometimes the
Distribution Panels will be found in the area being catered for
such as the Galley, Mess Room, or Accommodation, where
there may be many outlets, and the main breaker to supply
that Distribution Panel will be back at the switchboard or
MCC.

Figure 14 Small Light & Power Switchboard

In these cases it is always wise to have all the outlets

labelled with the number and location of their supply breaker
back at the Distribution Panel. Also the number and location
on the Distribution Panel of the supply breaker at the
switchboard or MCC that supplies that Distribution Panel,
which will make fault finding much quicker.

2.3 Lighting Control

Usually in the machinery areas, there will be no local

switching; the only isolation for the circuit will be back at the
Distribution Panel, which will be in a non hazardous area
such as the switchboard, MCC, or accommodation. There
should be dual lighting circuits in these areas so that there is
always light if one circuit is out.

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2.4 Human Eye Characteristics

This characteristic can be described as;

• Photopic Vision

• Scotopic Vision

• Mesopic Vision

2.5 Photopic Vision

Photopic vision is the vision of the eye under well-lit

conditions. In humans and many animals, photopic vision
allows color perception, mediated by cone cells. This is the
scientific term for human color vision under normal lighting
conditions during the day.

The human eye uses three types of cones to sense light in

three respective bands of color. The pigments of the cones
have maximum absorption values at wavelengths of about
445 nm (blue), 535 nm (green), resp. 575 nm (red). Their
sensitivity ranges overlap to provide continuous (but not
linear) vision throughout the visual spectrum. The maximum
efficacy is 683 lumens/W at a wavelength of 555 nm
(yellow).

Under low-light conditions, the human eye uses scotopic

vision. Mesopic vision combines the photopic and scotopic
vision types.

2.5.1 Scotopic Vision

Scotopic vision is the monochromatic vision of the eye in dim
light. Since cone cells are nonfunctional in low light, scotopic
vision is produced exclusively through rod cells so therefore
there is no colour perception. Scotopic vision occurs at
luminance levels of 10-2 to 10-6 cd/m².

2.5.2 Mesopic Vision

Mesopic vision occurs in intermediate lighting conditions

(luminance level 10-2 to 1 cd/m²) and is effectively a
combination of scotopic and photopic vision. This however
gives inaccurate visual acuity and colour discrimination.

In normal light (luminance level 1 to 106 cd/m²), the vision

of cone cells dominates and is photopic vision. There is good
visual acuity (VA) and colour discrimination.

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3 How Do I Operate It
In the case of Rig Floor Lighting, most of these items can be
switched off locally at the Plug and Receptacle connection to
facilitate local repair, so that the fixture can be removed to
repair it or replace it with a new unit without disabling the
system.

All other units can be isolated at the Distribution Panel at the

switchboard, MCC, or accommodation which will turn off the
whole circuit to replace a damaged item in that circuit.

In the domestic type situation in the accommodation, mess

rooms, and recreation areas there will be more localised
isolation within those areas, with a local distribution panel,
and local switches on receptacles in those rooms, and local
light switches for those rooms. However in most external
lighting circuits and all hazardous area circuits no local on/off
switches will be provided, except the rotating action before
removal of the appropriate plug.

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4 Inspection
Thermal Testing

Usually inspection in these cases is minimal, with checks on

the transformer connections to make sure they are tight if
the opportunity should arise if the transformer is shut down
for any reason. A check on the tightness of connections in
the Distribution Panel to make sure there are no hot spots,
this is a good point for non invasive thermal testing to see if
there are any hot spots without disconnecting the
terminations in the panel or the transformer.

Cable inspection

The Derrick lighting system is normally wired in (TRS) Tough

Rubber Sheath cable, or a synthetic rubber like Butyl which
needs to be checked regularly for sheath damage, and to
make sure the cable glands are in good condition and are
sealing the cable against gas or water ingress.

Figure 15 Dangerous Wiring

Receptacles & Plugs

The receptacles should be checked to make sure the gaskets

are good and there has been no ingress of water, or signs of
water damage on the plug pins or receptacle sockets and
insulators in both units, and the cover flaps for the
receptacles should be free to cover the receptacle if the plug
is removed, to seal out the water and dirt.

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Fluorescent Fixtures

The fluorescent fixtures should be inspected to make sure

the tube holder are not damaged and the tubes are still in
place, normally these types of fixtures do not have starters,
and are of the Rapid Start type. The tubes should be
replaced if the ends of the tubes are darkened with age if the
inspection is being carried out in a drilling break as these will
fail in the near future and it can be difficult to do these jobs
sometimes when the rig is in operation.

Figure 16 Damaged Light Fitting

Safety Restraints

Stainless Steel Safety wires need to be checked regularly and

spares kept to replace damaged ones with Stainless Steel
snap safety clips one end and a loop the other so they are
easy to install from a riding belt if required.

Beam Clamps

All the beam clamps holding the lights to the Derrick should
be inspected to make sure they are tight and have not been
shaken lose by the vibration in the Derrick, this in particular
applies to flood lights which are quite heavy, and when these
are replaced with new ones, the threads should be lubricated
with never seize to ensure that they can be removed as
required.

Lamp Replacement

Both fluorescents and Mercury Vapour lamps degrade over

time and the lighting value falls so slowly that it hard to see
the difference unless a new lamp is installed and then a great
difference will be seen in their output. So during a drilling
break it is a good idea to change out some of the old lamps
for new ones to upgrade the lighting output. The
manufacturer’s literature will indicate the expected useful life
of these lamps so a log can be kept to record the age of
these lamps from installation.

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Indeed it is becoming more and more common to change all

tubes in a circuit on a regular basis as part of the rig PMS
system.

Figure 17 Missing Protective Lens

Tubes have an operating lifetime of around 1 year or so,

after this time, although they continue to function their
output can fall by as much as 50% of the original, as stated
this is often unnoticeable as the degradation is slow and
people “get used to it” The complete circuit change of all
tubes gives a dramatic difference to overall lux values in all
spaces.

Figure 18 Broken Glass Outer Tube

Associated API Specifications

• Are all work areas sufficiently illuminated API RP

14FZ9.2.1

• Check for overloaded circuits in Distribution boards

API RP 14 FZ [Link].2

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5 Maintenance
5.1 Light Fittings General Maintenance

Regardless of the type of fitting that is to be maintained, the

main requirement of any maintenance on lighting systems is
to ensure that the ability of the lamp and fitting to distribute
its light as efficiently as possible. This may only require the
diffuser or glass bowl to be cleaned regularly or to the more
involved replacement of lamps or diffusers nearing there life
expectancy.

In general if the lighting in the Derrick can be kept out of

harms way maintenance can be kept to a minimum. When
the lighting is set back away from the Travelling Blocks and
Drill Pipe it will survive a lot better, and if the receptacle are
maintained to keep them watertight, 90% of the problems
will be solved.

When they are opened for maintenance or repair they should

be properly sealed to keep the water out and all of the bolts
greased for the next time you need to get open it. Always
make sure the flap or cap is in good working order to keep
the water and moisture out of the receptacle if the plug is
removed.

Check to make sure that the glands are tight on the cables to
stop gas or water getting in to the termination box, or plug
body. Always remember that these fittings are normally Ex or
explosion proof in nature and therefore all precautions and
manufacturers recommendations must be adhered to for
them to retain their certification. If the labels or ID plates are
missing on this equipment it can no longer be considered Ex
or explosion proof and must be replaced.

5.2 Battery Back up Emergency Lights

At regular intervals depending on your companies PM

schedule all the Emergency battery back up lights should be
tested for their ability to stay illuminated for the period
specified in the Manufacturers specification. These tests
should be carried out at regular intervals to comply with your
HSE requirements and ensure that they can be relied upon in
an emergency.

5.3 Safety Restraints.

The safety chains or wires that are fitted to stop a loose

fitting from falling from height should be carefully checked.
The condition of the steel wire, chains, D shackles, swages,
thimbles, and bull dog clips should all be inspected for
deterioration and replaced if found to be unserviceable.

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6 Spare Parts
6.1 Plugs and Receptacles

A stock of spare explosion proof plugs and receptacles should

be kept for Derrick Lighting, normally Appleton, Crouse-
Hinds, or Clipsal units where the receptacle has to be
switched off before the plug can be removed.

6.2 Cable Glands

Also a stock of suitable glands should be kept in stock as

these may be needed if new receptacles need to be installed.
After some years in the Derrick the old boxes may not be
reusable, and may need to be replaced, also there may be a
difference in threads from imperial to metric over that period
of time in some situations. The glands will need to be rated
for explosion proof installations, and classified for the zone
they will be employed in to meet the hazardous area
requirements.

6.3 Beam Clamps

A stock of new beam clamps should be kept at all times, as

those used in the Derrick will normally have seized up over
time unless it is a land rig where the lights are removed at
every rig move, and a stock of new stainless steel safety
wires with stainless steel snaps should be kept in stock.

6.4 Stand-by Light Fittings

Several spare fluorescent light fixtures should be kept in

stock complete with the short tail of cable and the plug, and
with the brackets and beam clamps in the case of Derrick
lights, ready for installation if required, and the same would
apply to spare flood lights which should be ready to be
installed if needed complete with cable plug and clamps.

6.5 Circuit Breakers

There should always be spare circuit breakers for the MCC,

and distribution boards for the lighting and small power
circuits to be that should a breaker fail with the loss of lights
and power on the rig or in the accommodation, be it the
Derrick lights or the Toaster in the galley, as it cannot work
without that breaker.

6.6 Assorted Spares for every Occasion

It is good to have a stock of domestic receptacles, plugs, and

switches, and in some cases fuses available for the
accommodation and mess areas, and for those occasions
when a service company turns up on the rig with nothing and
need to connect their equipment as soon as possible.
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6.7 Tubes, Ballasts, Starters ,Lamp holders & Lenses

There needs to be the normal selection of fluorescent tubes,

ballasts, and starters for fluorescent fixtures that require
them and spare acrylic lenses for the vapour proof fixtures or
glass tubes for the explosion proof fixtures and bulbs for all
applications on the rig including flood lights, and there should
be spare lamp holders for the flood lights as the centre
contacts can become carbonised after continuous use.

Figure 19 Selection of Light Fitting Parts

It is always a good idea to keep a stock of diffusers

(polycarbonate covers) for the fluorescent fixtures used
onboard. Diffusers often become discoloured and damaged
over time and any certification associated with them
becomes invalid if the diffuser becomes damaged. The
stocking of these items and indeed all spares is greatly
helped if the fixtures used on board are kept as standard as
possible, a great profusion of different types of fixtures
means the spares stock just grows and grows over time. So
it is much easier to manage the system if types of equipment
are kept to a minimum.

6.8 Cabling

Enough spare TRS or Butyl lighting cable should be on hand

to repair any cable damage around the rig that is likely to
happen during normal drilling operations, as these cables
should not be repaired with taped joints or such, but the
damaged section should be replaced if damage occurs.

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7 Trouble Shooting
Normally trouble shooting will generally consist of repairing
damaged wiring, receptacles, and fixtures. With the wiring it
is usually a case of cut or crushed cables, the cut cables are
normally easily found, and that section of cable should be
replaced with new cable to maintain the zone integrity, as
there should be no taped or spliced joints.

With the crushed cable it can be much harder to find as the

sheath may not be damaged to the naked eye, but the
internal core insulation may have been broken where the live
or the active cable core may be in contact with the neutral
cable core or the earth/ground which will trip the breaker,
and only a Megger or Multi-meter will indicate which in fact is
the case.

Beware when using a Megger for fault finding purposes as

most modern fixtures utilise electronic ballast units and
indiscriminately using a megger can often destroy these.

In the case of a receptacle, the fault it is normally a case of

water ingress if the unit is not physically damaged, which is
usually where the gasket between the receptacle and box has
failed allowing water in, or the flap or cap on the front has
been left open once the plug has been removed, resulting in
shorting internally, in which case normally, only replacement
will cure the problem.

With the fixtures if they are not damaged, allowing water in,
then it is not unusual for the ballast unit or the capacitor to
be burnt out due to over heating due to the high
temperatures in these fixtures in tropical conditions, in which
case only a replacement ballast or capacitor or both will fix
the problem, and in some cases because of the rough
treatment in the Derrick the lamp holders will fail where the
plastic will break up.

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8 Questions
1. What type of lighting is used in most areas on an oil
exploration rig:

a) Incandescent lighting. b) Mercury Vapour. c)

Fluorescent lighting. d) Sodium vapour.

2. What type of lighting is used in areas that require

higher levels of lighting?

a) Incandescent lighting. b) Mercury Vapour. c)

Fluorescent lighting. d) Sodium vapour.

3. Why is the lighting on the rig floor, shale shakers,

mud pits, and mud pumps different:

a) It has to be_________because of the gas that is

liable to be found in these locations.

4. Why is it important to have more than one lighting

circuit in the rig floor and derrick areas?

a) To be able to see more. b) To feed more light

fixtures. c) So that if one circuit trips out due to a
fault and is lost there will still be plenty of light.

5. What is the difference between the rig floor, shale

shaker, mud pits, and mud pump lighting and the rest
of the lighting on the rig?

a) It is water proof. b) It is fluorescent. c) It is

mercury vapour. d) It is explosion proof.

6. Why are fluorescent lights preferred over flood lights

for general lighting on an oil exploration rig?

a) Because they are smaller. b) Because they take

less current. c) Because they are less expensive. d)
Because the fluorescents give very good light, and
come straight back on after a power failure.

7. What are the types of flood lights used on an oil

exploration rig, and why:

a) Incandescent. b) Mercury vapour. c) Sodium

vapour. d) Metal Halide. For the lamps clear very
bright light.

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9 Reference Materials
Most of the major manufacturers of lighting equipment for oil
rigs will supply catalogues for the full range of light fixtures
and fittings, also they will supply items such as safety wires,
beam clamps, and spare parts such as ballast and lamp
holder and other items of equipment to maintain the
fluorescents and flood lights.

Many of these companies also produce many of the other

explosion proof conduit fitting used in the lighting and power
circuitry found on oil rigs such as shale shakers, mud
cleaners, mud agitator and degassers, all of which are found
in zone 1 or 2 areas.

The lighting equipment is now being produced in many parts

of the World, and the certification has to be considered when
purchasing this equipment, that it has been produced and
tested to international standards and not just stamped Ex to
allow it to be used in zone 1 or 2 areas on a rig.

Cable glands need also to be certified as Ex for use in these

areas and have the necessary certification to prove they are
suitable for the location they are being used in. They need to
have been tested by a laboratory or test facility under
certified test conditions to international test standards.

9.1 Web Sites

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

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10 Work Place Assignments

1. Familiarise you’re self with the drawings of all the
lighting circuits, starting with the drilling equipment
areas.

2. Locate all the lighting and small power distribution

boards so that in the event of a problem you will know
where the isolation point is.

3. Check the stores for spare lamps and tubes to be sure

that all fixtures have spare lamps if they should be
needed.

4. Check to see which fixtures have replaceable lamp

holders and if there are spares in the store.

5. Check to see if there are spare ballast in the store for

the fluorescent, mercury vapour, or high pressure
sodium fixtures.

6. Check all fixtures for damaged lenses or protecting

glass globes that are cracked or damaged, where the
fixture is no longer water proof or gas proof.

7. Check the glanded entry into the light fixtures to

ensure they are water proof and gas proof, and the
condition of the cable near the fixtures.

8. Check that all fixtures have the appropriate safety

lines or wires attached to prevent them falling if they
are shaken loose by vibration.

9. Check that all the clamps holding fixture are tight,

free of corrosion, and the threads lubricated to
prevent seizure.

10. Check to see if there are spare breakers in stock for

the distribution panels if they should be needed,
including the main breaker for the panel in case there
is a failure.

11. Check the supplies to the distribution panel to

ascertain if the neutral side is grounded, because in
some American systems even though the breaker has
been open on a circuit, the neutral side can still be
alive, so if there is not a double pole breaker system
installed to open both sides of the circuit, the only
way to isolate the circuit is to remove the neutral
connection for that circuit from the neutral terminals.

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Basic Lighting

11 Glossary
Distribution panel The panel for the distribution of power
to the lighting and small power output circuits, used for the
conversion of three phase to single phase output.

Main breaker The supply breaker for that distribution

panel or switchboard.

Circuit breaker The individual circuit breakers for each

lighting or power circuit.

Explosion proof receptacle Normally a switched outlet

where the plug cannot be removed until the supply is
switched off first, so that an arc cannot be drawn when the
plug is removed.

Explosion proof plug A plug designed so that it will be

locked in the receptacle until the power has been removed to
ensure an arc cannot be drawn on it’s removal from the
receptacle.

Explosion proof glands Cable glands that are certified

with a stamp on the body to be suitable for use in Zone one
or Zone 2 areas that will prevent the ingress of flammable
gasses into the enclosure that they protect in a hazardous
environment.

Explosion proof lights In the case of fluorescent fixtures,

these have heavy duty glass/quarts tubes that encase the
fluorescent tube which are cemented into the metal parts of
the fixture to prevent the ingress of hazardous gas, and the
flame path can be catered for in several ways, with the use
of screwed end covers, or the use of flanged end plates
secured with cap screws, and terminated with the use of
explosion proof cable glands to protect the cable entry.

Explosion proof lights (cont) In the case of flood lights,

these have normally heavy duty cast aluminium casings, with
a flanged front frame into which thick glass/quarts plate is
set in cement to prevent gas entry, and this frame is secured
to the body with a ring of stainless steel cap screws to
maintain the flame path and prevent distortion when heated
by the lamp.

Junction boxes and fittings These are normally designed

to be used in all these applications, so normally have
screwed or threaded covers which provide a flame path and
some will have “O” rings to make them water proof as well.

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Basic lighting

Fluorescent tubes Many of the fluorescent fixtures found

on rigs will be rapid start fixtures, and will not require the
normal starters, so the fluorescent tubes used are of a
particular type, and when reordering spares note must be
made of this as normal domestic type tubes may not work.

Mercury vapour lamps On many rig the standard

floodlighting is by mercury vapour, which is a white light
which gives good general area lighting in such places as the
rig floor, and these can be mounted out of the Zone one
areas and still give plenty of light, but care should be taken
not to shine the light in the eyes of the driller or derrick man
to impede their vision, these can be mounted in the derrick
to shine over the pipe deck and give good light for operation
there.

High pressure sodium vapour Some rigs and platforms

have this type of lighting, which gives a pinkie/orange light
which is not bright as mercury vapour, but gives good area
lighting without the stark contrast between light and dark
areas, in many places this type of lighting is used for street
lighting.

Metal halide This lighting is crystal white as apposed to

the bluish white of mercury vapour and is the type of lighting
used in car sales yards which does not distort colours, but
can have the same effect as mercury vapour when moving in
or out of very light areas into the dark areas safety wise, but
where the area outside the floodlit area is illuminated with
other type of lighting such as fluorescent lighting the problem
does not exist.

Incandescent lighting This type of lighting is not usually

found on most rigs these days, as even bunk lights are
fluorescent in most situations, so the fluorescent has taken
over in most applications.

Vapour proof fixtures These are designed for Zone two

areas where gas will not usually be found, so in the case of
fluorescent fixtures, these are normally a robust aluminium
casing to house the equipment, with a polycarbonate lens
surrounded with an aluminium frame, which will be sealed
with a gasket to the body to prevent the entry of gas or
water, and secured with sprung clips for ease of removal to
change the fluorescent tubes.

In the case of flood lights, these again are normally a cast

aluminium case to contain the equipment, and the front has
a frame to hold the glass, which is thinner than the explosion
proof units, and will be cemented or clipped in to the frame,
there will also be a gasket to stop the entry of gas or water,
which can be opened again with sprung securing clips or
screws normally in each corner of the frame.

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Basic Electrical Outlets and Portable Equipment

Section 10
Electrical Outlets and
Portable Equipment

1 Equipment Overview ................................................ 2

2 How Does It Work .................................................... 6
3 How Do I Operate It ................................................. 9
4 Inspection............................................................. 10
5 Maintenance.......................................................... 11
6 Spare Parts ........................................................... 17
7 Trouble Shooting ................................................... 18
8 Questions ............................................................. 19
9 Reference Material ................................................. 20
10 Work Place Assignments....................................... 21
11 Glossary ............................................................ 22

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1 Equipment Overview
1.1 History

There are two basic standards for voltage and frequency

throughout the world. The first is the North American
standard of 110-120 Volts @ 60 Hz which uses plugs ‘A’ and
‘B’. The second is that of the European standard of 220-240
Volts @ 50 Hz which uses plugs ‘C’ through to ‘M’.

1.2 A History Lesson – The United States of America

Thomas Edison insisted on using 110 Volts direct current

(DC) in the United States of America, rather than alternating
current (AC) for his electric system in New York City.
However, George Westinghouse who built the first large
hydro-electric plants at Niagara Falls decided to use AC due
to the fact that it could be stepped up or down in Voltage for
use in transformers. It was at this point the Nicola Tesla, ‘the
electrical genius’ advised George Westinghouse that 240
Volts @ 60 Hz was optimal. According to some sources, 60
Hz was chosen as it was more convenient for gearing ratios
in AC electric clocks. However, authorites would not let
George use more than 110 Volts for distribution and
eventually Edison switched his 110 Volt DC system to the AC
system and so the 110 V @ 60 Hz soon became the American
electrical standard, despite requiring conductors twice as
large to carry the equivilant amount of power as 240 Volts.

American regulators would have preffered the alternative

option of 240 Volts, but far more household electrical
appliances were available for use in the United States to that
throughout Europe. Society compromised by adopting a split
phase 240 Volts system that supplied 120 Volts on two live
conductors that ran into each household with a single
neutral. Small appliances effectively ran on 120 Volts and
larger appliences ran on 240 Volts. This process was deemed
very complicated but did save the use of extensive amounts
of copper and was also backward-compatible with existing
appliances. The original plugs could also be used with the
new system.

1.3 A History Lesson - Europe

The German based company by the name of AEG was first to

build generating facilities. The company chose 50 Hz due to
the fact that it complied better with the metric system of
powers of ten (i.e 1, 10, 100). AEG effectively produced a
virtual monopoly in Europe and their standard spread to the
rest of the continent and eventually Great Britain. Originally,
parts of Europe were wired to 110 Volt -120 Volt, similar to
North America, but after the end of World War II, regulators
increase the Voltage to 220 Volt -240 Volt in an attempt to
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Basic Electrical Outlets and Portable Equipment

reduce the amount of copper required for wiring purposes. It

should also be noted that some European countries had
adopted the 220 Volt -240 Volt system long before WW2.
Britain officialy adopted the 240 volts @ 50 Hz system as a
national standard in the early 20th century. However, there
were local systems within some towns that supplied power at
non-standard voltages and frequencies until the 1950s.

1.4 Other Countries

Other countries throughout the vast continents of the world

have also adopted either of the two Voltage standards, each
adapting its own variation of standards to suit their particular
requirements.

1.5 Electrical outlets and portable equipment

Electrical outlets are required for many applications around

the rig for the connection of various types of portable
equipment required of the drilling facility. Equipment such as
the derrick lighting is considered permanent and is plugged
into the lighting system to ensure easy removal for repair or
maintenance purposes.

Figure 1 EXe Plug & Receptacle

Other equipment is considered mobile and requires a power

supply at various locations around the rig. This equipment is
often moved around one area of the rig to another to meet
various power requirements of the rig. This equipment may
require installation in hazardous areas and therefore requires
explosion proof/flame proof plugs and receptacles to suit the
area in which they are located.

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Basic Electrical Outlets and Portable Equipment

For this reason, one particular type of fitting will be used

throughout the rig which has the appropriate explosion proof
rating. This fitting is considered universal for the rig,
regardless of whether or not the equipment is used in hazard
zone areas. This process effectively allows for the use of one
particular piece of equipment throughout the rig, and reduces
the number of plug types that must be kept on stock as
spare parts in the electrical warehouse/store of the rig.

Figure 2 Multiple EXd Power Outlets

The need for a large number of specific amperage plugs and

sockets is also reduced as many of the plugs have are
compatible with various cable sheath diameters and
adaptable to various cable types found on a rig. Land rigs
traditionally use a greater number of plugs and receptacles
as much of the equipment is portable and is moved on a
regular basis. Each unit possesses cables which may be
unplugged and coiled for ease of transportation and set-up.
In general, land rigs that have a combined SCR and MCC
facility built into containers will have externally mounted
segregated plug-in panels to allow the safe separation of AC
supplies from the generator sets and DC outputs from the
SCRs.

Platforms rigs receive power which is generated on a nearby

tender. Plug-in panels will be installed on the bow of the
tender and on the rig floor for easy connection/
disconnection. There are usually separate plug in panels for
the AC and DC supplies from the tender to the rig floor that
are used for quick disconnection in the event of an
emergency or severe weather events. Air and fuel lines may
also be fitted in the umbilical cables that run to the rig floor.
These lines also possess quick disconnection fittings.

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1.6 Manufacturers

There are a large number of manufacturers of explosion-

proof and flameproof plugs & receptacles/sockets. The
following are some of the more common manufacturers
found throughout the global oil and gas industry.

Crouse-Hind, Appleton, Clipsal, Marechal, Pyle etc.

Figure 3 Connection of Drilling Module

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Basic Electrical Outlets and Portable Equipment

2 How Does It Work

Plugs and sockets/receptacles are found in many forms for
usr on oil rigs, but all variations share similar features. All
variations must disconnect supply before being exposed to
the atmosphere, i.e they must switch off before the pin and
socket component to minimise the risk of sparking and
ultimately an explosion. Some production platforms have 60
Amp outlets used for arc welding machines, and machines
can be moved around for the operation as required once that
area has been tested and declared gas free.

Figure 4 General Purposes EX Outlet

2.1 NEMA plugs and receptacles

NEMA plugs and receptacles are designed so that there is no

interchange ability between other plugs and receptacles of
different NEMA numbers/sequences.

2.2 Isolated Ground Receptacle

Isolated ground receptacles are manufactured in a way that

the ground terminal and ground contacts are isolated from
device mounting yoke and metal cover. This effectively
establishes a separate dedicated grounding path for
connecting noise sensitive equipment.

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2.3 Protection from electric shock

Earthing / Insulation: AS/NZS 3760 - 4.3.1

Class I equipment includes the insulation of live

components and an earth connection, via the flexible cord
and power outlet to accessible conductive parts. The
accessible parts do not become live if the basic insulation
fails. The disadvantage of Class I insulation is that electric
shock may still occur if a connection is formed between live
and earthed components.

Class II (Double Insulated) equipment does not have an

earth connection as found in Class I insulated equipment,
rather relies on double/reinforced insulation for protection.
The introduction of an earth on this equipment is considered
very dangerous.

Residual Current Devices (RCDs): AS/NZS 3760 - 4.3.2

Figure 5 Residual Current Device

Residual Current Devices (RCDs) switch off electricity supply

when an imbalance is detected between the current flowing
between the active and neutral leads. An imbalance will occur
when part or all of the current returns via earth, rather than
the neutral lead. The detectable imbalance (~30 mA) and
switching times are set below the levels to reduce the risk of
injury. The RCDs are an effective means of protecting
personnel in many workplaces on an oil rig.

Low Voltages: AS/NZS 3760 - 4.3.3

Susceptibility to electric shock depends largely on the

particular actions of an individual and unforeseen
circumstances regarding work in certain areas. For this
reason, it is not possible to set a safe voltage limit. However,
note that voltage less than 50 Volts is unlikely to cause injury
or electric shock.

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Isolation and Tagging: AS/NZS 3760 - 4.4.2

Isolation and tagging procedures cover basic safety principles

and isolation requirements to protect personnel and
equipment. It is a requirement of operation that before any
repairs or alterations are commenced, the electrical circuits
or equipment to have work carried out upon must be
disconnected from the electricity supply. If this is not
possible, then all other precautions must be taken to ensure
the prevention of electric shock. Tagging/isolation must be
carried out to comply with industry standards.

Figure 6 Locking and Tagging

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3 How Do I Operate It
3.1 Plugs& Sockets/Receptacles

Plugs and sockets/receptacles are found in many forms for

use on oil rigs, but all variations share similar features. All
variations must disconnect supply before being exposed to
the atmosphere, i.e they must switch off before the pin and
socket component to minimise the risk of sparking and
ultimately an explosion.

Figure 7 Four Step Explanation of Connection

In some plug designs, the plug cannot be removed until the

receptacle/outlet is turned off. In other types, the plug must
be twisted before it can be removed, thereby switching off
the supply. Alternatively, the pins are retracted from the
socket before the plug is removed from the receptacle,
leaving the space enclosed until the pins are disconnected to
reduce the chance of sparking or naked flame.

All of the above facilitate the same basic function by not

allowing sparking or the ignition of flames to occur outside of
the enclosure where flammable gases may be present in the
atmosphere. On some production platforms, 60 Amp outlets
are installed of arc welding machines and can be moved
around the rig for operation as required, once an area has
been tested and declared gas free.

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Basic Electrical Outlets and Portable Equipment

4 Inspection
Inspection of electrical outlets usually involves searching for
damaged cabling that runs into the outlet and a check of the
condition of cable glands and the receptacle.

All securing bolts should be checked for corrosion and

replaced if corroded. Gaskets should be in good condition to
ensure water is kept out of the enclosures. Check the
condition of the protective caps/flaps to ensure the units are
in good working order for when the plugs are removed. All
switch gear mechanisms should be checked for proper
operation.

Figure 8 Damaged Cable

In regards to portable equipment, the leads and plugs should

be checked on a regular basis for damage. These
components are easily damaged when moving from one
location on the rig to another. The plugs may become
deformed by misuse and are difficult to connect when
plugging into respective receptacle. All plugs and receptacles
should be checked for arcing damage to the pins, sockets
and insulation. Ensure that inspections for water damage to
the insulation are carried out and regular checks are
conducted for signs of tracking.

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5 Maintenance
5.1 Plugs and Receptacles

In terms of maintenance to plugs and receptacles, the

preventative maintenance of cables and cable glands are
some of the most important aspects. These must be checked
for damage at the entry to the fitting and replaced as
required. One of the most important items is the condition of
cover or lid gaskets which are designed to keep the water
and dirt out of the enclosures. The pins of the plugs should
be greased with Vaseline or petroleum jelly to prevent ‘Verdi-
Gris’ forming. The formation of such will prevent the removal
of the plug if left for an extended period of time. The
insulators should be checked for water damage, tracking and
carbonisation which will ultimately lead to failure if left for an
extended period of time.

Figure 9 Serious Maintenance Required

The pins should be checked for arcing damage if they are the
of the push-in type, and have been withdrawn with the
power supply still connected and active. If not checked on a
regular basis, the pins and sockets can become welded
together and prevent the plug from being disconnected. In
areas such as offshore platforms and other installations
where salt is a prevalent issue in regards to corrosion, the
locking rings on some large plugs can become very difficult
to remove if not greased upon installation. If left plugged for
an extended period of time and forcibly removed, damage
will occur to the thread and the receptacle must be replaced.

There is several spray on wax based preservatives available

on the market that lubricate and seal plug and receptacle
combinations to prevent corrosion and deterioration in salt
environments.

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5.2 Portable Equipment Testing& Tagging

Every employer, in compliance with Occupational Health &

Safety standards must ensure that safe work practices and
guidelines along with risk management strategies are in
place. Personnel must be aware of their surrounding
environment at all times and consider the risk involved with
all operations, on particular those involved with electrical
components of oil and gas drilling facilities

5.3 What are the electrical requirements associated

to testing and tagging in Australia & New Zealand?

What are the requirements for testing and tagging

portable electrical equipment for use at workplaces
other than that of construction and demolition sites?

Tagging is not a requirement at workplaces other than

construction and demolition sites. However, there should be
some form of documentary evidence that a maintenance
program is in place.

Figure 10 Selection of Coloured Tags

Regulation 4.37 of the Occupational Safety and Health

Regulations 1996 requires the person in control of the
workplace to ensure that plant and equipment at the
workplace is subject to appropriate checks, tests and
inspections necessary to reduce the risk of injury or harm
occurring to a person at the workplace.

The following should be used as a guideline:

The Australian/New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 3760:2003 –

‘In-Service Safety Inspection and Testing of Electrical
Equipment’

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5.4 Who can inspect and test electrical equipment.

For workplaces other than construction and demolition sites,

a licensed electrical worker under the Electricity Act of 1945
may conduct routine electrical safety checks of electrical
equipment. Alternatively, a competent person may conduct
routine electrical safety checks using a plug-in type appliance
tester only.

For construction and demolition sites, only a licensed

electrical worker may conduct routine electrical safety checks
of electrical equipment used on construction and demolition
sites.

For further information please refer to the Energy Safety Fact

Sheet – “Licensing for testing and tagging electrical
equipment”.

5.5 Residual Current Devices

What are the requirements for residual current device

(RCD) protection in the workplace?

Regulation 3.60 of the Occupational Safety and Health

Regulations 1996, requires a person having control of a
workplace to provide protection for the users or operators of
portable or hand held electrical equipment against earth
leakage current by means of a non-portable RCD.

Figure 11 Selection of Residual Current devices

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5.6 Frequency of Inspection and Tests

Frequency of testing and tagging

Some industries have strict guidelines and policies

concerning the periodic testing and tagging of electrical
equipment. Your requirements are determined by your
relevant Occupational Health & Safety policy statement and
risk management strategy.

WorkCover Australia has in place certain rules and guidelines

concerning the frequency and requirement for testing and
tagging of equipment. Some industries such as the
construction industry are have policies and guidelines that
are vigorously enforced, but in many circumstances the
specific requirements and frequency of testing and tagging is
determined by the risk management strategy associated to
your industry and workplace.

5.6.1 A general ‘rule of thumb’ for testing & tagging

Frequency of testing and tagging is determined by the
specific Occupational Health & Safety policy statement or by
the regulatory requirements in the geographical area in
which you are employed.

Figure 12 Testing & Tagging Steps

The following may be used as a guideline to determine when

testing and tagging should be conducted.

• Prior to the initial commencement of service of

equipment

• Before the equipment is returned to service after a

repair

• Ensure that all third party contractor equipment to be

used on your facility is tested and tagged before
operation

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5.7 Who can Inspect and Test Electrical Equipment

For workplaces other than construction and demolition sites,

a person licensed as an electrical worker under the Electricity
Act 1945 may conduct routine electrical safety checks of
electrical equipment. Alternatively a competent person may
conduct routine electrical safety checks using a plug-in type
appliance tester only.

5.8 Testing Instruments

Used to perform the tests outlined in AS/NZS 3760?

The Standard AS/NZS 3760 requires that a range of tests be

carried out on electrical equipment, including earthing
continuity, insulation resistance, leakage current and the
operation of Residual.

5.8.1 Current Devices (RCDs).

Testing instruments that can be used to perform these tests
include, an insulation resistance tester (commonly known as
a megger), continuity tester, multimeter, Portable Appliance
Tester (PAT) and an RCD Tester (for testing the operation of
a Residual Current Device).

Figure 13 Earth Leakage Tester

Note: Tests performed on 415 volt electrical equipment will

require the use of test equipment appropriate to the task.
Most PAT Testers are specifically designed to perform tests
on 240 volt electrical equipment; therefore they cannot be
used to perform tests on 415 volt equipment.

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5.8.2 What is a Portable Appliance Tester (Pat)

A Portable Appliance Tester (PAT) is an electronic testing
instrument designed to perform a range of automatic tests
on plug-in type electrical equipment as outlined in the
Standard AS/NZS 3760.

Figure 14 Portable Appliance Tester

The results indicated by a PAT require no technical

interpretation, however the instrument must still be used by
a ‘competent person’ trained in its use.

5.8.3 Testing 415 Volt Three Phase Electrical

Equipment
The Standard AS/NZS 3760 covers testing of both 240 and
415 volt electrical equipment, and requires that a range of
tests be carried out on the equipment, including,

• earthing continuity

• insulation resistance

• leakage current.

Note: Tests performed on 415 volt electrical equipment will

require the use of test equipment appropriate to the task.
Most Portable Appliance Testers (Pats) are specifically
designed to perform tests on 240 volt electrical equipment;
therefore they cannot be used to perform tests on 415 volt
three-phase electrical equipment.

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6 Spare Parts
Spare plugs and receptacles should be kept for all the
different types of outlet on the rig as it is possible for these
to get damaged at any time, and the assembly may need to
be replaced with a new unit or spare parts.

Some outlets will be critical to the operation so there should

always be ample spares kept for these units to prevent
having to wait on parts to fix the problem.

There should always be ample spare plugs kept in supply for

outlets and power points that will be used by visiting service
companies. It is well known that they will always come
without a suitable plug attached to their equipment, even if
you supplied that unit with a plug the last time it came to
your facility, it will have been somewhere else and your plug
may have been removed because it was unsuitable to that
system.

With some of the multi pin plugs and receptacles there are
special tools required to assemble these units because the
solder or crimp type pins need to be pushed or pulled
through very tight fitting synthetic rubber discs to make
them watertight and to give them a good seal in adverse
conditions.

Figure 15 Assortment of Spares are Required

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7 Trouble Shooting
7.1 What If It Breaks Down

The normal cause of problems with electrical outlets is the

ingress of water into their enclosures or mounting boxes,
which in turn will cause a short circuit in the termination area
of the outlet. Therefore it is important to keep these areas
dry. The gaskets should always be kept in good condition to
seal the system and prevent serious damage to the fitting.
Always grease the securing bolts after their removal and
replace any that have rounded corners on their heads. The
same applies to other forms of fasteners which are in poor
condition.

Another source of trouble is when the cover is not replaced

on an empty receptacle allowing water to enter the
receptacle socket area, especially if it is salt water because
this will dry and leave salt residue through which the current
can track, leaving a burnt carbonised track which will
deteriorate until it shorts out. If live plugs are withdrawn with
the power on this can draw an arc which will leave burn
marks on the pins of the plugs and the opening to the
receptacle sockets, so it is then difficult to push the plug in
and withdraw it, and can lead to a plug and receptacle socket
and pin becoming welded, and these units should be replaced
as soon as possible to prevent this happening.

With some plugs the insert retaining screws and the screws
for the cable clamps can corrode and seize to the point where
they cannot be removed. It is good practice to install all
these items with a never seize type compound so they can be
removed at a later date. Many of these types of plugs are
supplied with several sealing rubbers or grommets to allow
for different cable sizes, therefore it is essential to pick the
right size rubber to fit the cable, making sure the seal is tight
to keep the water out of the plug interior.

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8 Questions
1. What type of power receptacle is suitable or use in
hazardous areas:

a) A waterproof one that will keep the weather out. b)

One that is stamped or labelled explosion proof, and
has the certification to prove it. c) One with a metal
casing with screwed conduit entries.

2. How can you tell if the portable power receptacles are

compliant for use in hazardous areas?

a) They are weather proof with compression glands

fitted to hold the cable. b) All the other items of
electrical equipment on the portable unit are certified.
c) Each receptacle should be labelled and certified Ex,
and the cable connections should be made with Ex
cable glands, and the cable should be suitable for Ex
use.

3. What type of protection is required for portable

equipment used in hazardous areas?

a) It must be water proof. b) All the fitting and

equipment on it must be certified explosion proof. c)
It must be supplied from an explosion proof
receptacle.

4. How can you tell if portable equipment is safe to use?

a) The cable should be undamaged. b) A plug suitable

for the system should be used. c) All portable
equipment should be tagged and tested, and the date
noted on the tag plus the signature of the tester.

5. What is the period between testing and tagging

portable equipment:

a) Every three months. b) Every six months. c) As per

the requirements of the local energy regulator.

6. 6. Name the types of test equipment used to carry out

these tests on portable equipment and extension
leads:

a) Multimeter. b) Megger. c) Portable appliance tester

( PAT).

7. Define what the word Grounding means in respect to

portable equipment:

a) That it is Class 1 insulation. b) That it is Class 2

insulation. c) That it is not grounded.

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9 Reference Material
The best reference material for any equipment is the
manufacturer’s service manuals that are usually supplied
with the new equipment.

These manuals cover everything from installation,

commissioning, trouble shooting and fault finding when the
equipment is in normal operation.

In most cases there are people employed with the

manufacturers who can assist in time of need by email or by
telephone to discuss a problem on the company technical
support line.

There are many manufacturers of explosion proof plugs and

receptacles that can supply catalogues of their products for
use in both zone 1 and zone 2 and also produce many of the
other explosion proof fixtures such as conduit fittings,
junction boxes, and explosion proof enclosures for the oil and
gas industry.

Many if these are tested and certified by organisations such

as Underwriters Laboratories, to verify they can fore fill there
purpose in the hostile environments of the oil and gas
industry.

Web Site

[Link]

[Link]
[Link]

[Link]

[Link]
[Link]

20
 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Electrical Outlets and Portable Equipment

10 Work Place Assignments

1. Go and find the documentation for testing and tagging
that should be available on your drilling package.

2. Familiarise yourself with the type and location of this

equipment and check to see when the next inspection
is due.

3. If a colour code tagging system is used find out what

the current colour is.

4. Make spot checks on portable equipment to confirm

that the colour coding is correct and the tags have
been filled out correctly.

5. Carry out a survey of the small power and lighting

panels to ascertain the what type of RCD’s are used.
Check that the ma trip rating specified on the RCD is
30ma.

6. Visually check the type and location of all of the

external receptacles that are situated throughout your
drilling package. These may be three pin 250 Vac to
480 Vac four pin receptacles for bug blowers or
portable three phase equipment.

7. Familiarise yourself with the protection offered on the

three phase outlets and their RCD trip ratings.

8. Check to see what sort of locking method is used to

capture the plug inside the varies outlets that you find
in the field.

9. Verify that the correct type of receptacles is used in

the Hazardous areas and their associated plugs.

10. Find the storage location of all the drilling facilities

portable leads and extension cords and visually check
there condition.

11. Check to make sure that these have all been tested
and tagged with the current colour coded tag
attached.

12. Look for and confirm the electrical integrity of any

portable power boards or large portable three phase
sockets which may exist. Check that these are
suitable to be used in hazardous areas and are
accordingly marked and have current tags attached.

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Electrical Outlets and Portable Equipment

11 Glossary
Ampere (amps) A measure of electrical current flow.

Arc-Fault Circuit Interrupter (AFCI) Provides protection

from fires caused by effects of electrical arcing in wiring. An
AM device will de-energize the circuit when an arc fault is
detected.

Circuit The path (usually wire) through which current flows

between an electrical energy source and an electrical device,
appliance or fixture.

Circuit breaker or Fuses Protect against over-current and

short circuit conditions that could result in potential fire
hazards by opening a circuit path in case of an overcurrent.

Earthing Method of connecting most exposed metal work

and metal appliances to electrical Earth - nominally 0V.
Windows and shelves are normally excluded but most metal
pipes etc. are included. This means that in the event of a
fault - eg. Live wire touching a metal case, then the earth will
facilitate automatic disconnection of the mains

ELCB Device to cut electrical power in the event of certain

earth leakage faults. There are 2 significantly different types
of ELCB, current operated and voltage operated. Now
superceded by RCDs, the designation 'ELCB' indicates an old
device.

Electrical faults A partial or total failure in an electrical

conductor or appliance.

Energized Electrically connected to a source of potential

difference, or electrically charged so as to have a potential
different from that of the ground.

Gauge Standard or scale of measure for circuit conductors.

Ground-Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI) Provides the

best available protection against severe shock and
electrocution. A GFCI device will de-energize a circuit when it
senses a difference in the amount of electricity passing
through the device and returning through the device, or a
"leak" of current from the circuit.

Grounded/grounding A conducting connection, whether

intentional or accidental, by which an electric circuit or
equipment is connected to the earth, or to some conducting
body of relatively large extent that serves in place of the
earth.

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Electrical Outlets and Portable Equipment

Overcurrent Any current in excess of the rated current or

ampacity of a conductor. May result in risk of fire or shock
from insulation damaged from heat generated by overcurrent
condition.

Outlet A contact device installed along a circuit for the

connection of an attachment plug and flexible cord to supply
power to portable equipment and electrical appliances. Also
known as receptacles.

Power plugs Are male electrical connectors that fit into

female electrical sockets. They have contacts that are pins or
blades which connect mechanically and electrically to holes
or slots in the socket. Plugs usually have a live or hot
contact, a neutral contact, and an optional earth or ground
contact. Many plugs make no distinction between the live and
neutral contacts, and in some cases they have two live
contacts. The contacts may be brass, tin or nickel plated.

Power sockets Are female electrical connectors that have slots

or holes which accept the pins or blades of power plugs inserted
into them and deliver electricity to the plugs. Sockets are usually
designed to reject any plug which is not built to the same
electrical standard. Some sockets have one or more pins that
connect to holes in the plug. phases from a split phase system.
Some plug/socket combinations are designed in a way that a
plug can be inserted only one possible way — this is referred
to as a polarized plug (not to be confused with positive and
negative polarity). Others allow the plug to be inserted with
live and neutral either way round — this is referred to as an
unpolarized plug. Furthermore even if live and neutral can
only connect one way, in some countries it is common to
wire them without regard for which is which. This can be
hazardous with some equipment in which the neutral is
connected directly to the chassis.

RCD Residual Current Device - affords extra protection

against electric shock, now mandatory in some installations,
and mandatory for sockets supplying equipment likely to be
used outdoors. These devices work by detecting a slight
current imbalance between Live and Neutral wires, and trip
the circuit breaker, if this is above the trip value - commonly
30mA. They are highly recommended where a supply utilises
an over-head supply and earthing Rod, and often two are
used. They can be problematic, especially in premises where
a lot of computers are used.
Other terms also used for the same or similar device - ELCB
- earth leakage circuit breaker (older fore-runner to RCDs)

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Cables & Cable Trays

Section 11
Basic Cables and
Cable Trays
1 Equipment Overview ................................................ 2
2 How Does It Work .................................................... 6
3 How Do I Operate It ................................................. 9
4 Inspection............................................................. 10
5 Maintenance.......................................................... 11
6 Spare Parts ........................................................... 12
7 Trouble Shooting ................................................... 13
8 Questions ............................................................. 15
9 Reference Material ................................................. 16
10 Work Place Assignments ......................................... 17
11 Glossary............................................................... 18

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Cables & Cable trays

1 Equipment Overview
1.1 Cable Tray

A cable tray system, according to the US National Electrical

Code, is "a unit or assembly of units or sections and
associated fittings forming a rigid structural system used to
securely fasten or support cables and raceways." Cable trays
are used to hold up and distribute cables.

1.2 Types

• Ladder

• Solid Bottom

• Trough

• Channel

• Wire Mesh

• Single Rail

1.3 Materials used

• Steel

• Aluminum

• Plastic

• Fiberglass reinforced plastic

The choice of materials is a matter of the physical and

mechanical properties produced by each, compared against
the intended function, as well as the environment, in which
the trays are to be installed.

1.4 Cable Tray Bonding

The cable trays are bonded together with copper earth or

ground cables across the joints for earth or ground continuity
so that if there is a fault with the cabling on the cable tray,
and the cable tray becomes live from that fault, that the fault
will be grounded over the total length of the cable tray and
not have one section of tray that is alive and a hazard to
personnel.

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Cables & Cable Trays

1.5 Cable Segregation

The cables are normally tied in place to keep them in order,

and grouped according to their function, where dividers can
be installed lengthways down the cable tray to separate low
voltage or low current cables from high voltage or high
current cables to stop signals being corrupted in control
cables by the power cables and DC cables of high current
carrying capacity.

Figure 1 Cross Section showing Cable Segregation

1.6 Cable Ties

Cable trays also support the cables on vertical runs from one
deck to another when tied in place with plastic coated metal
ties to support the weight in the case of heavy power cables.

Figure 2 Cable Attached to Cable Tray

Please note that use of plastic cable ties albeit ones which
are U/V resistant cannot be used in vertical cable trays
without the backup of stainless steel ties at pre-determined
distances (approx 2 metres) This is because in the event of a
fire and the plastic ties melting, the cable does not detach
from the cable tray over the majority of its run.

The use of Plastic/Nylon cable ties provided they are U/V and
chemically resistant is permitted in horizontal cable runs
where they are used primarily to “gang” the cables in groups
according to there function and basically keep the tray tidy.
They do not actually provide cable support which is done by
the tray itself.

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Cables & Cable trays

1.7 Cable Tray Covers

In very dirty situations such as refineries the cable trays can

be covered with steel or aluminium cable tray covers to keep
the dirt off the top tray and the cables and in that way the
trays below if they are in several layers.

Figure 3 Covered Cable Tray

1.8 Cable tray construction

The cable tray is produced in its basic state by metal

fabricators in steel or aluminium, the steel is normally
pressed or rolled, and the aluminium pressed or extruded to
shape to form the side members before being welded in the
form required for the particular project. Later versions are
now available in GRP or Fibreglass. These have the
advantage of being both insulators and corrosion proof albeit
a little more expensive.

Figure 4 Sections of Stainless Steel Cable Tray

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Cables & Cable Trays

The insulation provided by these trays has a safety aspect in

that the requirement for earth bonding is greatly reduced as
any cable fault on the tray will not make the whole tray a live
item. The disadvantage to this is that the circuit breaker will
not trip indicating the circuit has a fault as a result of a cable
grounding to the cable tray. So the fault can go undetected if
it is sheath damage and it does not find a point to ground.

Figure 5 Construction of Cable Tray

Above is a view of the cable tray arrangement for a land rig

mud tanks, where the cables are totally covered to protect
them for the total length of the Mud tank system.

1.9 Harsh Environment Cable Tray

On oil exploration rigs the cable employed for both AC and

DC is generally of the flexible type which copes better with
the constant movement and vibration of the rig. This applies
to sections that are constantly moved such as skidding and
cantilever systems when there is a requirement to change
well slots or relocate to other leases.

Figure 6 90° Section of Stainless Steel Cable Tray

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Cables & Cable trays

2 How Does It Work

2.1 Mounting Details

Cable tray is normally mounted on steel angle iron brackets

to support it through a building or steel structure. The
brackets are welded to the steel vertical supports at right
angles to sit under the cable tray. The cable tray is then
positioned on the angle iron brackets, through which holes
are drilled to take 3/8th inch / 10 mm bolts. These bolts are
used with pressed steel clamps to secure the cable tray to
the angle iron brackets.

Figure 7 Cable Tray Parts Assembly

2.2 Connecting Joints

The joints between the 20 ft/ 6 mtr lengths of cable tray are
joined with joining plates or fish plates, these are designed to
fit snugly into the side pressings of the cable tray on the
outside, to give the tray rigidity.

There are eight square bolt holes in each length of cable tray.
Four each side at each end, this is to match the holes in the
ends of the next section of cable tray. This is so that each
end will match the holes in the next length of cable tray.
There by allowing the holes at the unconnected end of a fish
plate to match the holes in the next length of cable tray. The
two lengths are bolted together with coach type bolts which
have squares under the heads to match the square holes in
the cable tray, this is to prevent the bolts turning when the
lock type nuts are applied.

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Cables & Cable Trays

2.3 Shapes Available

Cable tray can be manufactured in bends, curves, tees and

crosses, in shaped jointed sections in such a way that the
cabling is supported throughout its length and doesn’t have
“gaps” to jump where a bend is encountered.

Figure 8 Cable Tray Parts Available

2.4 Cable Ladder

The cable tray is usually in a ladder form with the rungs

welded in, it is not recommended that you walk on them, as
they are not rated for this type of use and may break under
such loading. In many cases the cable tray will be fabricated
on site during construction to the requirements of the cable
installers, and where they want to direct the cable to.

Figure 9 Stainless Steel Cable Tray

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Cables & Cable trays

2.5 Cable types

Many of the cables used on oil exploration rigs are of the

flexible type and there are many manufacturers around the
World who produce high current, high voltage cable suitable
for supplying items such as DC traction motors, such as
Olex, Beldon, Helukabel, and one that is well patronised,
Rockbestos Surprenant cable, which produce the heavy
DC type cables, and also produce Exane cable for the lighter
applications.

Figure 10 Cable Suppliers Warehouse

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Cables & Cable Trays

3 How Do I Operate It
3.1 Cable Installation

After installing the new cable tray as per the previous

section, one can start to install the required cable for the
installation by running the cable off the cable drums to avoid
twisting the cable and pulling the cable from one end to the
other over the entire distance.

Pull in enough cable to the far end to allow for termination

plus some spare at that end. Then start tying the cable on to
the cable tray with cable ties from the far end first, making
sure the cable is tied to follow all the corners and not cut
across them. This is also referred to as “dressing the cable”.
The cable should then be tied back to the cable drum so that
any slack can be pulled back to the drum, or more can be
pulled off the drum if required.

Figure 11 Installation of cable from Reel

When the cable is tied all the way back to the drum, then the
length to the termination point should be measured and
some spare length allowed. The cable can now be cut and
run into the switch gear at both ends and terminated as
required. Depending on the amount of cable to be installed
the cable can be layered one layer on top of the other to
maximise the use of the cable tray. This can be continued up
to the top of the side plates of the cable tray, tying in as you
go to maintain the cable formation in the cable tray and to
keep it tidy.

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Cables & Cable trays

4 Inspection
4.1 Cable Trays

The only inspection normally required is to check that the

cable tray covers are not lose, that the earth bonding is
intact, that there are no securing bolts missing or lose, and
that there are no broken cable ties, particularly on the
vertical runs.

On older facilities you may have to inspect occasionally for

corroded or broken brackets, clamps, or damage from other
operations such as overhead cranes, where loads have hit
the cable trays while the loads are being moved around the
rig.

Figure 12 Cable Tray Inspection

4.2 Cabling

The condition of the cables that are supported by the cable

tray is of importance especially where exposed to direct sun
light. You may find that the plastic cable ties have
deteriorated to a point where they are no longer effectively
attaching the cable to the trays and will need replacing. This
will be more obvious on sections of cable tray that are hung
vertically or transverse bulkheads on their side.

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Cables & Cable Trays

5 Maintenance
5.1 Cable Tray Replacement

Normally the only maintenance required will be the trays that

are damaged, normally the only time cable trays need repair
is if they have been hit by a crane load. In this case it will all
need to be put back to its original condition by removing any
damaged sections and installing new sections in their place.
If this is has to be done, then the grounding will need to be
checked around the damaged area. The earth bonding for the
cable trays will have to be checked for damage and replaced
with new cable and lugs if required. Also a check of all the
cables on the tray for damage at the same time would be
advised.

5.2 Cable Damage

Very little maintenance is required to the cabling unless it is

damaged, and serious damage will require the cable to be
replaced. Light sheath damage can be repaired with use of
the correct type of insulating tapes. In a situation where
severe damage has occurred and the cable cores are broken,
then this type of damage can be repaired with a "Scotchcast"
splicing kit. Normally considered when no spare cable is
available or a long down time will be needed to completely
replace the cable.

Figure 13 Scotchcast Splice Kit

When the cores can be repaired and insulated satisfactorily,

then the whole repair can be encapsulated in a polycarbonate
mould on which the ends can be cut to suit the size of the
sheath. These moulds come in two halves that click together
and can be taped to seal any leaks. You will find that there is
a satchel of two part epoxy resin which can be mixed and
pored into the mould and left to set. These have been known
to work well under water on Deep Well Pump cables and are
commonly used when replacing these units as the Deep Well
Pump units do not normally come supplied with enough cable
to reach the power source.

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Cables & Cable trays

6 Spare Parts
6.1 Cable Tray & Accessories

It is not usual to keep too much spare cable tray on the rig,
but it is a good idea to have some in the warehouse just in
case of accidents, complete with fish plates and cable tray
bolts and nuts to expedite repairs, and some spare earth
cable and appropriate cable lugs for that cable.

6.2 Cable

With cable it is best that this too is kept in stock in the

warehouse and not on the rig as it will deteriorate on the rig
and take up a lot of space that can be used for other things.
So the only cable that should be kept on the rig should be
the small flexible cable required for lighting and small power
that is in constant demand and likely to stop the operation if
it is not available immediately depending on the time it takes
to get supplies from the warehouse.

6.3 Selection of Insulation Tapes

Also a good stock of various tapes should be kept for cable

repairs, the most important of the tapes would have to be "
Scotch 23 " self vulcanising tape for water proofing any splice
or termination, even for some motor terminations in wet
locations. Some "Scots" mastic tape to fill voids when doing
cable joints, and some "Scots" 22000 volt heavy duty PVC
tape for sheath repairs, plus good quality normal insulating
tape in phase colours which is good for insulation and
marking on disconnections. It is a good idea to keep a supply
of “Scotchcote” liquid as well. This is basically reconstituted
rubber and contains a toluene solvent. As the solvent
evaporates away a layer of waterproof rubber is left behind.
In conjunction with rubber “self amalgamating” tape and
normal insulating tape “Scotchcote” provides a secure
waterproof joint.

6.4 Selection of Scotchcast Kits

A stock of " Scotchcast " splicing kits are good back up in

case of emergencies to repair multi-core cables that have
been cut, and need core and sheath repairs which are water
proof.

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Cables & Cable Trays

7 Trouble Shooting
7.1 What if it Breaks Down

Fault finding at times on rig cables can present several types

of problems, where cables have been cut, crushed, or pulled
apart during operations.

7.1.1 Cut Cables

Providing the cables have been cut cleanly and the
appropriate breakers have tripped open to protect the cable,
then these can be repaired with a "Sotchcast” splicing kit
until new cable can be installed. If used with mastic, these
joins can also be considered water tight if prepared in the
right way.

Figure 14 Exposed Rejoined cable

7.1.2 Stretched Cables

The same problem exists with cables that have been pulled
apart or stretched until cores have broken. It will only be the
loss of a control circuit that will indicate that there is a
problem. If the cores have not been pulled out of the plugs
or receptacles, only continuity and core to core testing will
expose broken or shorted wires. This makes the decision to
replace the cable fairly obvious.

Figure 15 Signs of a Stretched Cable

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Cables & Cable trays

7.1.3 Crushed Cables

With crushed cables it can be much harder to find damaged
cores as there may not be an appearance of exterior damage
if the sheath is not broken, but there may be severe internal
damage where the core insulation has ruptured and cores are
shorted or welded together. The only test to determine
damage will be to disconnect and open the ends of the cable,
then carry out a core to core short circuit check along with a
continuity test of all of the cores with a multimeter.

7.1.4 Fused Cables Cores

It is not unusual if the protection device hasn’t worked for
cable to be damaged by overheating. In this case the
insulation will have melted internally and the cores have
shorted or welded together before tripping the fuse or
breaker. If this has been going on over a long period of time,
the cables would have been at or near their thermal limit.
Several cables can be stuck together where the plastic
insulation has melted and the cables cannot be pulled apart.
This result can also be created when two many high current
cables are bundled together on one cable tray without
considering the heat dissipation or separation required.

Figure 16 Cable Festoon System

7.1.5 Umbilical Cables

In the case of umbilical cables in facilities such as Platform
and Tender Rigs where these can be 20 core control cables or
more, it is better to have spare cables already made up to
install in the event of a failure, complete with plugs and
receptacles to be run out and plugged in at short notice.

14
 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Cables & Cable Trays

8 Questions
1. Cable tray used for what purpose:

a) Support the cable, b) Provide a route for the

cable, c) Protect the cable, d) To tie the cable
to, e) to carry cable from one level to the next, f)
To separate power from control cables.

2. Name essential safety requirements for cable tray.

a) It supports the cable. b) It should be straight

c) The earthing should be continuous over the
entire length of the cable tray run.

3. What is required if cables are tied on vertical tray.

a) The cables should be straight. b) PVC coated

aluminium or stainless steel ties should be used
every third tie. c) Cables should not be stacked
on top of each other.

4 .How are lengths of cable tray joined?

a) Welded together b) Bolted together c) Joined

with fish plates

What should you not do on cable tray?

a) Walk on the cable tray. b) Pull cable on the

cable tray. c) Tie cable on the cable tray.

5. List the normal materials that

cable tray is made from.

a) Aluminium, b) Steel, c)
Fibre-glass, d) PVC plastic.

6. Describe how to protect the cable on the cable tray.

a) Ply-wood boards. b) Steel covers with securing

clips. c) canvas cover

7. If the cable trays are epaired after mechanical

damage, what must be checked?

a) That it is straight. b) That all the rungs are

there. c) That the earthing straps have been
reinstalled. d) That it is flat.

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Cables & Cable trays

9 Reference Material
The only reference material applicable in this area will be
catalogues from various manufacturers of available cable and
cable tray suitable for the harsh environments of the oil
exploration industry on shore and off, which can be from
extreme cold to extreme heat.

These cable trays are usually manufactured from extruded

aluminium or pressed or rolled steel which has be galvanised
to prevent corrosion in the harsh conditions, and the rungs
are normally welded into place.

The bends, tees, and crosses are normally fabricated by

cutting and bending to shape the sections required, and then
welding these pieces together to form the required section
for the job, these are then drilled to accept fish plates.

9.1 Web Sites

[Link]
[Link]/product/PDFLibrary/cabletray/metallic/[Link]

[Link]
=

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Cables & Cable Trays

10 Work Place Assignments

1. Check that all cable tray splice joints have the earth
bonding link across the connection to maintain earth
continuity.

2. Check that all cable tray joints are supported by

brackets near the joint.

3. Check that all the cable tray joints have all their
correct bolts and the correct fish plates to maintain
the strength of the cable tray and protect the cable
from sharp edges (hexagon head bolts).

4. Check there are no missing or loose rungs in the cable

tray that need to be repaired or replaced.

5. Check that the cables are protected from any sharp

edges that may wear into the cables with normal rig
vibration.

6. Check the cables are supported the entire length of

the cable run, from gland to gland.

7. Ensure that all the cable glands used are of the

correct size to seal and protect the cable through the
cable entries.

8. Check and see if any three phase supplies are run in

three separate cables as this can create problems if
they pass through a steel bulkhead, by generating
heat by induction between the phases, the can be
avoided by using non metallic gland plates on which
the induction has no affect.

9. Check that trailing or suspended cables in a catenary

system are all of equal length so that all the cables
carry the load when the cable is being moved; also
ensure that the cables are all clamped correctly to
ensure there will not be sheath damage as the cables
are moved.

10. Check that cables in a suspended cable or catenary

situation are clear of any sharp edges or points where
they can become snagged or caught up, where they
will damage the sheath of the cables.

11. Ensure that all the cables are tied into the cable tray
correctly and not too tight in the bends, particularly in
tight radius bends, and that plastic coated metal cable
ties are used on the vertical runs, where every third
cable tie should be stainless steel or aluminium,
plastic coated so that the cables do not fall off in the
event of a fire.
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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Cables & Cable trays

11 Glossary
Cable tray Cable tray comes in many forms from the
perforated sheet metal type trays with a turned up lip at
each side, to the heavy duty steel or aluminium cable tray
with pressed steel or extruded aluminium sides into which
there are rungs welded between the two sides to make a
ladder type assembly to lay the cable in to

Fish Plates Flat plates with eight holes punched into them
used to join two lengths of cable tray together. These are
used to connect the four holes in the side member of one
length of cable tray to the four holes in the next section of
cable tray. The fish plates in some cases interlock with the
side members of the cable tray.

Tray bolts The tray bolts are pan head to provide a smooth
surface that will not damage the cable insulation. These have
a square section under the head which will engage with
square holes in the ends of the cable tray so the bolts will not
turn when the nuts are being tightened.

Brackets These are normally manufactured from angle iron

or channel depending on the weight of cable to be carried.

Tray Clamps Each side member of the cable tray has a

bottom flange at ninety degrees from the sides which lays
flat on the brackets. The tray clamps are designed with a
bolt hole in the middle so that one half of the clamp will be
placed on the flange. The other side will be resting on the
bracket so that when the bolt is tightened it will clamp the
cable tray to the bracket so that it cannot be moved.

Ground links The ground link is a short piece of earth cable

of high amperage with cable lugs crimped on each end so
that it can be bolted on to the cable tray each side of a joint.
This is done to maintain earth continuity so that if there is
cable damage and a live cable comes in touch with the cable
tray it can find a ground, without making one section of cable
tray alive and dangerous in isolation.

Cable Tray Covers These are sheet steel or aluminium, and

are designed to sit on top of the cable tray to keep dirt off
the cables, and have a lip at the edge which will prevent the
cover sliding off, and may have clips to hold it in place. These
cover on the top cable tray can be apexed to improve
drainage and keep the cables dry. In cases such as shipyards
they can prevent damaged to cables by items such as
dropped hot welding rods, or nuts and bolts that have been
removed with oxy-acetylene dropping on the cables.

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Cables & Cable Trays

Cable Ties Or zip ties are used to attach the cable to the
cable tray to maintain the cable formation, and are normally
black or white and treated to make them impervious to ultra
violet radiation. There is also stainless steel or aluminium ties
which are used on the vertical runs to support the cable in
the event of fire. These may be plastic coated to prevent the
sharp edges cutting into the cable sheath, and are normally
every third tie.

Cable The cable used in drilling operations is usually chosen

for its ability to handle severe conditions which in the drilling
industry can be extreme heat to extreme cold. In some cases
harsh mechanical wear and tear plus the electrical loads
involved which may be high.

Cable Splice In the event of cable damage there are

several methods of temporary repair until such times as the
cable can be replaced permanently. If the damage is confined
to the sheath then heat shrink tubing can be used to affect a
good repair. The sheath damage can be repaired with tapes
and then the tubing can be passed over the damaged area
and “Scotch” mastic tape applied to the cable at each end of
the tubing to make it waterproof when the tubing is shrunk
with a hot air gun. The tubing will shrink to 50% of its
original size.

If the tubing type heat shrink cannot be fed over the length
of the cable, there is a heat shrink that can be applied to the
cable as a flat sheet and then joined zip style, before heating
and shrinking it to its final form.

There are many manufacturers of heat shrinking products

but “Raychem” would be one of the better known producers.

Cable lug These can be copper or aluminium and will be

sized to fit the appropriate cable size, with a flat tag at one
end with a bolt hole in it. The lug is applied to a cable by
pushing the female end on to the prepared cable and placing
a hexagonal tool over the end that was placed on the cable.
Force will then be applied to crush the lug sleeve on to the
cable so that it cannot be removed except by cutting the
cable. With the smaller cables hand crimping tools can be
used, but with larger cables the force must applied
hydraulically with a ten or twenty tonne crimping tool which
can be hand operated or supplied by an hydraulic power
pack, with an electric pump.

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Batteries, Battery Chargers, & UPS Units

Section12
Basic Batteries,
Chargers, & UPS Units

1 Equipment Overview ................................................ 2

2 How Does It Work .................................................... 7
3 How Do I Operate It ............................................... 18
4 Inspection............................................................. 19
5 Maintenance.......................................................... 20
6 Spare Parts ........................................................... 22
7 Trouble Shooting ................................................... 23
8 Questions ............................................................. 27
9 Reference Material ................................................. 29
10 Assignments....................................................... 30
11 Glossary ............................................................ 32

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
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1 Equipment Overview
1.1 Lead Acid Batteries

The Lead Acid battery is made up of plates, lead, and lead

oxide (various other elements are used to change density,
hardness, porosity, etc.) with a 35% sulfuric acid and 65%
water solution. This solution is called electrolyte which causes
a chemical reaction that produce electrons. When you test a
battery with a hydrometer you are measuring the amount of
sulfuric acid in the electrolyte. If your reading is low, that
means the chemistry that makes electrons is lacking. So
where did the sulfur go? It is resting to the battery plates
and when you recharge the battery the sulfur returns to the
electrolyte.

Figure 1 Exploded of View lead Acid Battery

1.2 Drilling Industry battery Applications

In the Drilling industry batteries are normally applied to

emergency or back up situations where they are used to
keep equipment operating when the main power source has
failed. For example the motor starter for the cold starts
generator or compressor. This is achieved by supplying
emergency air or power to get the main generating
machinery up and running again in the case of a total shut
down or black out.

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Basic Batteries, Battery Chargers, & UPS Units

1.3 UPS System Batteries

They are also used in UPS systems to support the main

power system in the event of failure. By providing power to
essential emergency equipment, such as radios, PA systems
PLC’s and computers, to keep them operating until power is
restored to the main system.

Figure 2 Bank of Batteries for UPS System

UPS/ Uninterrupted Power Supply are designed to keep the

power supply constant, and usually do this in simple terms
by using a bank of capacitors which are in steady charged
state unless there is a drop in supply voltage, when the
capacitors will discharge to boost the voltage back to normal.
When the voltage returns to normal the capacitors will
recharge ready for next time.

The UPS normally has a storage capacity such as

rechargeable batteries, so that if there is total power failure
the system will be maintained for a short period of time to
allow for normal operations to continue. This is to allow for
an orderly shut down of equipment if the failure of supply is
a long one, so there will be no damage or loss of data to
computer and essential equipment.

1.4 Emergency Lighting Batteries

Batteries are used in emergency lighting for the same

purpose, to provide some emergency lighting in hazardous
areas and escape paths if the main lighting is lost due to
power failure. This can be up to up to 3 hours or until the
power is restored. Manufacturers such as Ceag or Chalmit
provide multi tube florescent fixtures which are certified for
Hazardous areas and contain within the fitting nickel
cadmium batteries and inverters to provide the back up
power source.

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Batteries, Battery Chargers, & UPS Units

1.5 Elmagco Batteries

On some oil rigs the Elmagco Brake has a bank of batteries

to supply it with power should the main power supply be lost.
This is to give the drill crew time to react to the loss of main
power, and make the necessary arrangements to cope with
the situation at hand.

Figure 3 Elmagco Brake Emergency Back Up Batteries

Battery banks that are permanent fixtures, such as the

Elmagco Brake will have a permanent battery charger
installed to keep the batteries changed to the correct level of
charge, with a trickle and boost charge facility to maintain
the batteries at the required level all the time.

1.6 Portable Equipment Batteries

Some portable equipment will be equipped with batteries to

provide power to the starter motors for the small diesel
engines on the units. When a supply of air cannot be
guaranteed at the next location this self contained equipment
maybe sent. These batteries are normally charged by the
alternator on the engine of the unit while it is running.

1.7 Emergency equipment

Any emergency equipment is normally charged automatically

to keep that equipment ready all the times for the event of a
power failure should it occur. These batteries should be
checked during planned maintenance to make sure they are
being kept in good serviceable condition. This is to confirm
that the batteries are not in need of topping up with distilled
water, or checking that the charger is doing its job.

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1.8 Battery Rooms

On larger rigs and platforms there may be battery rooms

where the battery banks are kept with the charging systems
to maintain them at the correct charge level. These rooms
need to be vented to prevent the build up of hydrogen gas
and the danger of explosion. There will also be a supply of
electrolyte and distilled water to maintain the batteries along
with a hydrometer and Vaseline.

Figure 4 Large Capacity Battery Chargers

1.9 Battery Chargers

The simple battery charger is normally 120/14VAC

transformer, where the 14 volt or secondary side is
connected to a bridge rectifier. This will convert the AC
current to DC current to supply to the battery with a
capacitor placed across the 14VDC output to smooth the AC
ripple from the full wave rectification. This is done to produce
reasonable DC voltage of around 13.8 VDC to the battery to
give a charging current which is dependant on varies factors.

Figure 5 Multi-Cell Battery Charger

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Batteries, Battery Chargers, & UPS Units

With the normal portable battery chargers used in

automobile, truck, or oil rig use you may have a choice of
input voltage 240/120 VAC single phase. The output will be
much like a normal vehicle alternator output with a voltage
of between 13.5 to 14.5 VDC.

The normal battery chargers are equipped with a printed

circuit board that will control the output of the battery
charger to maintain a steady charge rate. These are designed
to allow for optimum charging rates that neither leaves the
batteries undercharged or overcharged which will lead to
excessive loss of electrolyte due to boiling. A cut out is
installed in the charger that will trip out on thermal overload
if the charging rate is too high; this is to protect the
transformer and components in the charger.

Figure 6 Multi Volt Battery Charger

Non essential equipment is usually charged with a portable

battery charger as and when required. Care should be taken
not to allow these batteries to go flat as this will shorten the
life of the batteries. Also be sure not to over charge these
batteries as this can damage the plates, or let them go
unchecked for water level during these charging periods.

1.10 Battery Manufacturers

There are too many battery, battery charger, and UPS

manufacturers around the World to even begin to cover
them, but one or two are well known such as;

Exide, Delco-Reme, Yuasa, Varta, Lucas, Caterpiller,

Schauer etc.

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Batteries, Battery Chargers, & UPS Units

2 How Does It Work

2.1 Lead Acid Batteries

A lead-acid battery is an electrical storage device that uses a

reversible chemical reaction to store energy. It uses a
combination of lead plates or grids and an electrolyte
consisting of a diluted sulphuric acid to convert electrical
energy into potential chemical energy and back again.

The electrolyte of lead-acid batteries is hazardous to your

health and may produce burns and other permanent damage
if you come into contact with it. Thus, when dealing with
electrolyte protect yourself appropriately!

2.2 Deep Cycle vs. Starter Batteries

Batteries are typically built for specific purposes and they

differ in construction accordingly. Broadly speaking, there are
two applications that manufacturers build their batteries for:

Starting and Deep Cycle.

• Starter Batteries As the name implies, are meant to

get combustion engines going. They have many thin
lead plates which allow them to discharge a lot of
energy very quickly for a short amount of time.
However, they do not tolerate being discharged
deeply, as the thin lead plates needed for starter
currents degrade quickly under deep discharge and
re-charging cycles. Most starter batteries will only
tolerate being completely discharged a few times
before being irreversibly damaged.

• Deep Cycle Batteries have thicker lead plates that

make them tolerate deep discharges better. They
cannot dispense charge as quickly as a starter battery
but can also be used to start combustion engines. You
would simply need a bigger deep-cycle battery than if
you had used a dedicated starter type battery instead.
The thicker the lead plates, the longer the life span,
all things being equal. Battery weight is a simple
indicator for the thickness of the lead plates used in a
battery. The heavier a battery for a given group size,
the thicker the plates, and the better the battery will
tolerate deep discharges.

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2.3 Valve-Regulated Lead Acid Batteries vs. Normal

Battery Containers come in several different configurations.

Flooded Batteries can be either the sealed or open variety.

• Sealed Flooded Cells are frequently found as starter

batteries in cars. Their electrolyte cannot be
replenished. When enough electrolyte has evaporated
due to charging, age, or just ambient heat, the
battery has to be replaced.

• Deep-Cycle Flooded Cells usually have removable

caps that allow you to replace any electrolyte that has
evaporated over time. Take care not to contaminate
the electrolyte - wipe the exterior container while
rinsing the towel frequently.

2.4 VRLA Batteries

Remain under constant pressure of 1-4 psi. This pressure

helps the recombination process under which 99+% of the
Hydrogen and Oxygen generated during charging are turned
back into water. The two most common VRLA batteries used
today are the Gel and Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) variety.

• Gel Batteries feature an electrolyte that has been

immobilized using a gelling agent like fumed silica.

• AGM Batteries feature a thin fibreglass felt that

holds the electrolyte in place like a sponge.

Neither AGM or Gel cells will leak if inverted, pierced, etc.

and will continue to operate even under water.

2.5 Battery Cells

Battery Cells are the most basic individual component of a

battery. They consist of a container in which the electrolyte
and the lead plates can interact. Each lead-acid cell
fluctuates in voltage from about 2.12 Volts when full to about
1.75 volts when empty. Note the small voltage difference
between a full and an empty cell (another advantage of lead-
acid batteries over rival chemistries).

2.6 Battery Voltage

The nominal voltage of a lead-acid battery depends on the

number of cells that have been wired in series. As mentioned
above, each battery cell contributes a nominal voltage of 2
Volts, so a 12 Volt battery usually consists of 6 cells wired in
series.

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Batteries, Battery Chargers, & UPS Units

2.7 State of Charge

The State of Charge describes how full a battery is. The exact
voltage to battery charge correlation is dependent on the
temperature of the battery. Cold batteries will show a lower
voltage when full than hot batteries. This is one of the
reasons why quality alternator regulators or high-powered
charging systems use temperature probes on batteries.

2.8 Depth of Discharge (DOD)

The Depth of Discharge (DOD) is a measure of how deeply a

battery is discharged. When a battery is 100% full, then the
DOD is 0%. Conversely, when a battery is 100% empty, the
DOD is 100%. The deeper batteries are discharged on
average, the shorter their so-called cycle life.

For example, starter batteries are not designed to be

discharged deeply (no more than 20% DOD). Indeed, if used
as designed, they hardly discharge at all: Engine starts are
very energy-intensive but the duration is very short. Most
battery manufacturers advocate not discharging their
batteries more than 50% before re-charging them.

Figure 7 Spiral Cell Construction Battery

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2.9 Battery Storage Capacity

The Amp-hour (Ah) Capacity of a battery tries to quantify the

amount of usable energy it can store at a nominal voltage.
All things equal, the greater the physical volume of a battery,
the larger its total storage capacity. Storage capacity is
additive when batteries are wired in parallel but not if they
are wired in series.

Most marine, automotive, applications use 12V DC. You have

the choice to either buy a 12V battery or to create a 12V
system by wiring several lower-voltage batteries/cells in
Series.

Figure 8 Series & Parallel Connections

2.10 Available Capacity versus Total Capacity

Since batteries depend on a chemical reaction to produce

electricity, their Available Capacity depends in part on how
quickly you attempt to charge or discharge them relative to
their Total Capacity. The Total Capacity is frequently
abbreviated to C and is a measure of how much energy the
battery can store. Available Capacity is always less than Total
Capacity.

Typically, the amp-hour capacity of a battery is measured at

a rate of discharge that will leave it empty in 20 hours (a.k.a.
the C/20 rate). If you attempt to discharge a battery faster
than the C/20 rate, you will have less available capacity and
vice-versa. The more extreme the deviation from the C/20
rate, the greater the available (as opposed to total) capacity
difference.

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
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This effect is non-linear. The available capacity at the C/100

rate (i.e. 100 hours to discharge) is typically only 10% more
than at the C/20 rate. Conversely, a 10% reduction in
available capacity is achieved just by going to a C/8 rate (on
average). Thus, you are most likely to notice this effect with
engine starts and other high-current applications like
inverters, windlasses, desalination, or air conditioning
systems.

For example, the starter in an engine will typically quickly

outstrip the capacity of the battery to keep cranking it for
any length of time. Hence the tip from mechanics to wait
some time between engine start attempts. Not only does it
allow the engine starter to cool down, it also allows the
chemistry in the battery to "catch-up". As the battery
reaches a new equilibrium, it’s available capacity increases. A
very elegant equation developed in 1897 by a scientist called
Peukert describes the charging and discharging behaviour of
batteries.

Look up [Link]

2.11 Conversion Efficiency

The conversion efficiency denotes how well a battery

converts an electrical charge into chemical energy and back
again. The higher this factor, the less energy is converted
into heat and the faster a battery can be charged without
overheating (all other things being equal).

• The lower the internal resistance of a battery, the

better its conversion efficiency

Figure 9 Charging Acceptance Limit

One of the main reasons why lead-acid batteries dominate

the energy storage markets is that the conversion efficiency
of lead-acid cells at 85%-95% is much higher than Nickel-
Cadmium (a.k.a. NiCad) at 65%, Alkaline (a.k.a. NiFe) at
60%, or other inexpensive battery technologies.

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2.12 Battery Life

Battery manufacturers define the end-of-life of a battery

when it can no longer hold a proper charge (for example, a
cell has shorted) or when the available battery capacity is
80% or less than what the battery was rated for. The life of
Lead Acid batteries is usually limited by several factors:

• Cycle Life is a measure of how many charge and

discharge cycles a battery can take before its lead
plate grids/plates are expected to collapse and short
out. The greater the average depth of discharge, the
shorter the cycle life.

• Age also affects batteries as the chemistry inside

them attacks the lead plates. The healthier the "living
conditions" of the batteries, the longer they will serve
you. Lead-Acid batteries like to be kept at a full
charge in a cool place.

• Only buy recently manufactured batteries, so learn to

decipher the date code stamped on every battery...
(Enquire w/manufacturer). The longer the battery has
sat in a store, the less time it will serve you! Since
lead acid batteries will not freeze if fully charged, you
can store them in the cold during winter to maximize
their life.

• Construction has a big role in battery life too, some

designs are better at preserving batteries than others
and the suitability of a design for a given application
plays a role also. For example, flooded lead-acid cells
will typically fare worse than their VRLA brethren in
operations that involve a lot of jerky motion, the
immobilized plates in VRLA cells will be stressed less
than suspended plates in cheap flooded cells.

• Plate Thickness helps, the thicker the plates, the more

abuse, charge and discharge cycles they can take.
Thicker plates will also survive any equalization
treatments for sulphation better. The heavier the
battery for a given group size, the thicker the plates
are, so you can use weight as one guide to buying
lead-acid batteries.

• Sulphation is a constant threat to batteries that are

not fully re-charged. A layer of lead sulphate can form
in these cells and inhibit the electro-chemical reaction
that allows you to charge/discharge batteries. Many
batteries can be saved from the recycling heap if they
are equalized. In closing, the design life of a battery
depends in part on its construction, its type, the
thickness of the plates, its charging profiles, etc. All
these factors come together to determine just how
long your battery may ultimately serve you.
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2.13 Float

This is a regulated voltage of not more than 13.4 volts and

usually less than 1 amp of current. This in time will bring the
battery to 100% charged or close to it. The float charge will
not boil or heat batteries but will maintain the batteries at
100% readiness and prevent cycling during long term
inactivity. Some gel cell and AGM batteries may require
special settings or chargers.

2.14 Equalization

Sulphation layers form barrier coats on the lead plates in

batteries that inhibit their ability to store and dispense
energy. The equalization step is a last resort to break up the
Sulphate layers using a controlled overcharge. The process
will cause the battery electrolyte to boil and gas, so it should
be only done under strict supervision and with the proper
precautions. It is more difficult to equalize a VRLA battery
than a flooded battery with removable caps. However it
apparently can be done as described at
[Link] Since I do not have the space
here to describe the Equalization process in detail, I'd consult
some of the links on the reference page instead.

2.15 Gassing

Batteries start to gas when you attempt to charge them

faster than they can absorb the energy. The excess energy is
turned into heat, which then causes the electrolyte to boil
and evaporate. The evaporated electrolyte can be
replenished in batteries with removable caps such as most
flooded deep-cycle batteries. Many car batteries are sealed
and thus need to be replaced when their electrolyte
evaporates over time.

Since AGM and Gel cells are always sealed, it is very

important to guarantee they are not overcharged. The only
way to ensure this is to use a temperature compensated
charging system. Such chargers use a temperature probe on
the battery to ensure that the battery does not get too hot.
As the battery heats up, the charging current is reduced to
prevent thermal runaway, a very dangerous condition.

2.16 Thermal Runaway

This is a very dangerous condition that can occur if batteries

are charged too fast. One of the by products of Gassing are
Oxygen and Hydrogen. As the battery heats up, the gassing
rate increases as well and it becomes increasingly likely that
the Hydrogen around it will explode. The danger posed by
high Hydrogen concentrations is one that requires that
batteries be installed in separate, well-ventilated areas.

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2.17 Self-Discharge

The self discharge rate is a measure of how much batteries

discharge on their own. The Self Discharge rate is governed
by the construction of the battery and the metallurgy of the
lead used inside.

For instance, flooded cells typically use lead alloyed with

Antimony to increase their mechanical strength. However,
the Antimony also increases the self discharge rate to 8-40%
per month. This is why flooded lead-acid batteries should be
in use often or left on a trickle charger.

The lead found in Gel and AGM batteries does not require a
lot of mechanical strength since it is immobilized by the gel
or fibreglass. Thus, it is typically alloyed with Calcium to
reduce Gassing and Self Discharge. The self discharge of Gel
and AGM batteries is only 2-10% per month and thus these
batteries need less maintenance to keep them happy.

2.18 Primary Batteries

A primary battery is designed to be used until it runs out,

then disposed of or recycled. These include carbon-zinc,
alkaline, silver oxide, zinc air and lithium batteries. Although
sometimes consisting of the same active materials as
secondary types, are constructed so that only one continuous
or intermittent discharge can be obtained.

2.18.1 Primary batteries have the following

properties:
• Designed as a single use battery, discarded or
recycled after it runs out

• Very high impedance which translates to long life

energy storage for low current loads

• Available in carbon-zinc, alkaline, silver oxide, zinc air

and some lithium metal batteries (like lithium-thionyl-
chloride)

• Lithium-thionyl-chloride (LTC) batteries come in

cylindrical form factors of AAA to D

• Larger C and D size LTC batteries are a chemical

hazard and cannot be transported by air

• Operating temperature range is - 40 ºC to + 85 ºC

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
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2.19 Secondary Batteries

Secondary batteries such as NiCd, NiMH and Lithium Ion (Li

ion), can be recharged, sometimes as often as 1,000 times,
by the flow of direct current through them in a direction
opposite to the current flow on discharge. By recharging after
discharge, a higher state of oxidation is created at the
positive plate (electrode) and a lower state at the negative
plate (cathode), returning the plates to approximately their
original charged condition.

2.19.1 Secondary batteries have the following

properties:
• Designed to be recharged

• Can be recharged up to 1,000 times depending on the

usage and battery type

• Very deep discharges result in a shorter cycle life,

whereas shorter discharges result in long cycle life for
most of these batteries

• Charge time varies from one to 12 hours, depending

upon battery condition, depth of discharge (DOD) and
other factors

• Include NiCd, lead-acid, NiMH, some lithium metal

and Li-ion batteries

• Lead-Acid and NiCd batteries are toxic and are subject

to stringent disposal regulations

• Some of the limitations posed by secondary batteries

are limited life, limited power capability, and low
energy-efficiency and disposal concerns.

2.19.2 Types of Secondary Batteries

[Link] Lead-Acid.

• The life of lead acid batteries is directly related to its

depth of discharge and duty cycle. It has been only in
the last three to five years that lead acid batteries
became available to survive constant cycling to below
50% charge. This means that a typical car battery
with a rated capacity of 500 watt-hours has only 250
watt hours of capacity. Their low energy efficiency
requires an extra 40% to be supplied to store to
capacity.

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[Link] Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) and Nickel-Metal

Hydride (NiMH).

• These batteries offer much better energy density than

lead-acid batteries. NiCd batteries perform best when
they are regularly discharged completely and then
recharged completely; otherwise, they display the
memory effect, which limits their depth of discharge
and usefulness. NiCd batteries can last for about
1,000 charge-discharge cycles and function well in
extreme temperatures.

• Many countries now impose strict disposal regulations

on lead-acid and NiCd batteries. The heavy metals
used in their manufacture can cause serious
environmental pollution if not recycled or stored.
Compliance with these regulations may add
significantly to the cost of these batteries.

Figure 10 Cross Section of Nickel-Cadmium Battery

NiMH batteries lasts approximately 40% longer per

charge than comparable Nickel Cadmium batteries. They
are lighter in weight and last up to 700 charge/discharge
cycles.

• Both NiCd and NiMH batteries cost substantially more

than lead-acid batteries.

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[Link] Lithium ion.

• Lithium ion batteries (Li ion) offer twice the energy

per charge of NiMH and approximately 500 charge-
discharge cycles. They are being used increasingly in
mobile phones and notebook computers. However,
they cannot sustain high currents at temperatures
below 0°C and are relatively expensive.

Figure 11 Lithium Ion Batteries

[Link] Lithium Polymer.

Lithium polymer batteries can be made in thin, flat or

shape fitting forms and their biggest plus is that they
won’t leak corrosive electrolyte. They provide 500 charge-
discharge cycles, but require smart chargers to monitor
them closely. Lithium polymer batteries are not suitable
for high-power applications, are limited to the operating
temperature range 0 - 65° and are relatively expensive.

Figure 12 Lithium Polymer Battery

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
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3 How Do I Operate It
3.1 Batteries

With batteries being installed for operation, there are a few

things to consider from the safety point of view, polarity
should always be observed when connecting the terminals. In
most cases the terminal clamps will be a different size
between the positive and negative connections. The negative
connection should be made last because this side is usually
grounded. If one should be unfortunate enough to ground
the spanner/wrench while connecting the terminal it will not
create an arc or flash over with the risk of igniting the
hydrogen given off by the newly charged battery.

The electrolyte level should be just above the top of the

plates, and should only be topped up with distilled water, not
more electrolyte, if top up is required. If the battery is to be
disconnected it should be fully charged, and it is wise not to
stand the battery directly on the ground or steel but to put it
on wood or rubber to maintain it in good order.

3.2 Battery Chargers

When using battery chargers, care should always be taken to

make sure of the polarity of the charger leads and battery
connections are of the correct polarity so as not to cause an
arc. The battery charger should always be turned off before
connecting or disconnecting from the battery to avoid
creating an arc or spark which could ignite the hydrogen gas
given off by the battery causing it to explode.

The charge rate of the battery should be noted and the

ammeter of the charger watched to ascertain the time
required to fully charge the battery. Normally the rate may
start off at 5 or 6 amps and fall quite quickly to 1 or 2 so to
fully charge a 75 ampere hour battery could take a
reasonably long period of time at 1 or 2 amps.

3.3 UPS Units

With The normal UPS, depending on size, it is normally a

case of connecting the supply to a 240/120 volt input,
depending on the application. And the connecting the output
to the supplies requiring the stable voltage supply, such as
computers and other equipment sensitive to voltage variation
to protect this equipment.

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4 Inspection
4.1 Batteries

To inspect the batteries it is normally a case of checking the

terminals for corrosion, and removing any build up with a
slightly alkaline solution such as Bi-carbonate of Soda or dish
washing up detergent which is slightly alkaline, and coating
the terminals with Vaseline or Petroleum Jelly to stop further
corrosion.

Check the electrolyte level in the battery, which should be

just above the top of the plates (3mm) and only distilled
water should be used to top it up, not electrolyte. The
batteries should be secured in mobile units with securing
clamps so they do not jump out of their boxes or enclosures.
Any violent movement can damage the plates in the battery
and shorten its life by depositing sediment on the bottom of
the casing that can short out the plates. In some emergency
cases, the battery can be emptied into a container, and the
battery gently flushed out to remove any sludge, and the
electrolyte returned to the battery and the battery then re-
charged.

4.2 Battery Chargers

The battery chargers should be checked for corrosion at the

terminal clamps or terminations of the batteries, and any
corrosion removed and treated with a mild solution of
alkaline to clean the acid residue off. The areas should be
treated with Vaseline or Petroleum Jelly, and the cables
should be checked for damage, and repaired if required. The
charging rate should be checked to make sure the unit is
operating correctly and that it is charging at the required
rate, 13.5 to 14.5 volts.

4.3 UPS Units

The UPS should be checked to make sure that any cooling

vents are kept clean and clear, and that any cooling fans are
operating as they should to cool the unit and prevent it
overheating.

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5 Maintenance
5.1 Battery Maintenance

The battery should be cleaned using a baking soda and water

mix; a couple of table spoons to a pint of water. Cable
connection needs to be clean and tightened. Many battery
problems are caused by dirty and loose connections. A
serviceable battery needs to have the fluid level checked.
Use only mineral free water. Distilled water is best. Don't
overfill battery cells especially in warmer weather. The
natural fluid expansion in hot weather will push excess
electrolytes from the battery. To prevent corrosion of cables
on top post batteries use a small bead of silicon sealer at the
base of the post and place a felt battery washer over it. Coat
the washer with high temperature grease or petroleum jelly
(Vaseline), then place cable on the post and tighten. Coat the
exposed cable end with the grease. Most folks don't know
that just the gases from the battery condensing on metal
parts cause most corrosion.

5.2 Battery Testing

This can be done in more than one way. The most popular is
measurement of specific gravity and battery voltage. To
measure specific gravity buy a temperature compensating
hydrometer and measure voltage, use a digital D.C.
Voltmeter. A good digital load tester may be a good purchase
if you need to test batteries sealed batteries.

Figure 13 Hydrometer & Distilled Water

You must first have the battery fully charged. The surface
charge must be removed before testing. If the battery has
been sitting at least several hours (I prefer at least 12 hours)
you may begin testing. To remove surface charge the battery
must experience a load of 20 amps for 3 plus minutes.
Turning on the headlights (high beam) will do the trick. After
turning off the lights you are ready to test the battery.

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Battery maintenance is based around keeping the

terminations clean and free from acid build up, and coated
with Vaseline or petroleum jelly to prevent build up, and
maintaining the electrolyte level in the batteries to the
correct level. If they are kept in a battery room or enclosure,
a periodic check should be made that the extraction fan
system is working correctly and removing any build up of
hydrogen gas from the room for the safe operation of the
battery room or enclosure to prevent the build up of
explosive gases.

Figure 14 Battery Load Tester

With the battery chargers care should be taken to keep the

battery connections in good order, and with the portable
units the crocodile clips need to be kept free of acid residue
build up to prevent corrosion to the jaws or the springs. The
cables and plugs need to be kept in good repair, and the
cooling vents on the enclosure need to be kept clear to
maintain the cooling to prevent the transformer overheating.
It must be remembered that with batteries on charge giving
off hydrogen gas, any spark can cause an explosion which
can cause personnel injury.

In 2003 over 6000 people suffered eye injury in the United

States due to motor vehicle batteries exploding in motor
vehicles while being worked on. With this in mind, the least
one should do is to wear safety glasses while working near
batteries. If working on batteries in a battery room, there
are normally face shields, rubber aprons and rubber gloves
supplied for your protection, and if there is any chance that
you could cause a spark, you should be wearing them. It
must be remembered that if you are in a battery room, there
is more than one battery gassing off, and several batteries
exploding could put you in a serious situation. This is why
good ventilation is critical, to remove the gas from the room.

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6 Spare Parts
6.1 General

Keeping spare parts for battery chargers will depend on size,

if they are of the large non portable type, then these may
require spare transformers, circuit boards, resistors, diodes,
and ammeters if these chargers are critical to the operation,
but in general these types of charger do not usually give too
much trouble as they are usually of good quality any way.
They usually have over load protection to prevent component
damage.

6.2 Portable Equipment

Figure 15 Portable Battery Charger

With the portable type battery chargers, these are normally

quite cheap anyway and easily replaced at very short notice,
and not worth repairing generally.

6.3 Larger Pieces of Equipment

Once again it depends on size as to whether to UPS is a

repairable item or not, with the larger models it would be
worth stocking the major components, but with smaller unit
once again replacement would be the better option.

Figure 16 UPS Battery Charger

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7 Trouble Shooting
7.1 What if it Breaks Down

With batteries in a vital situation that are back up for the

Elmagco Brake or something of that nature, it would be wise
to test these if they are in a bank of batteries after there
warranty period of say two years. To find out if any of these
batteries fail to hold a charge, or test them with a discharge
type tester to find out the condition of the battery. All of
which means shutting down the battery bank to do it, or if
the system is considered vital, change the whole bank of
batteries on the expiry of the warranty for a new set to
eliminate the risk of failure to the best of your ability.

In the case of single batteries, these can be tested to see

what condition they are in and replaced if required when
necessary, or if they fail to hold a charge. If a rig has been
stacked for any period of time, all the batteries should be
replaced, as they will have been standing discharged, and
this is the worst possible thing one can do to a battery.

It depends on the size of the UPS as to whether one should

go beyond a simple check for lose connection to the point of
ordering parts to repair the unit. With the smaller units it
would probably be better to replace the whole unit with a
new one than to try and get individual components. With the
larger units which should be of better quality it may be an
advantage to keep a stock of the more important spare parts
to cater for minor repairs such as capacitors, batteries,
circuit boards electronic components etc.

7.2 Overcharging

Is the most destructive element in battery service. Usually

the electrician is not aware that this is occurring as he
believes his alternator or battery charger is "automatic."
Unfortunately, these automatic circuits are sensitive to
voltage surges, heat, direct lightening strikes and indirect
lightening electromagnetic influences and could fail or shift
their calibration. When they fail, overcharging begins to
effect the batteries. During overcharging, excessive current
causes the oxides on the plates of the battery to "shed" and
precipitate to the bottom of the cell and also heat the
battery, thus removing water from the electrolyte. Once
removed, this material (which represents capacity) is no
longer active in the battery. In addition, the loss of water
from the electrolyte may expose portions of the plates and
cause the exposed areas to oxidize and become inactive,
thus reducing additional capacity. Sealed batteries are not
immune from the same internal results when overcharged. In
fact, sealed recombination absorption and gel batteries are
particularly sensitive to overcharging.

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Once moisture is removed from the battery, it cannot be

replaced. Portions of the battery damaged due to
overcharging are irretrievable. However, if detected early,
corrective adjustments to the charging device will save the
undamaged portion of the battery. Initial signs of
overcharging are excessive usage of water in the battery,
continuously warm batteries, or higher than normal battery
voltages while under the influence of the charger. If
overcharging is suspected, correct immediately.

7.3 Over Discharging

Is a problem which originates from insufficient battery

capacity causing the batteries to be over worked. Discharges
deeper than 50% (in reality well below 12.0 Volts or 1.200
Specific Gravity) significantly shorten the Cycle Life of a
battery without increasing the usable depth of cycle.
Infrequent or inadequate complete recharging can also cause
over discharging symptoms called SULFATION. Despite that
charging equipment is regulating back properly, over
discharging symptoms is displayed as loss of battery capacity
with lower than normal specific gravity. Sulfation occurs
when sulphur from the electrolyte combines with the lead on
the plates and forms lead sulphate. Once this condition
becomes chronic, battery chargers will not remove the
hardened sulphate. Sulfation can usually be removed by a
proper desulfation or equalization charge with external
manual battery chargers. To accomplish this task, the
flooded plate batteries must be charged at 6 to 10 amps. at
2.4 to 2.5 volts per cell until all cells are gassing freely and
their specific gravity returns to their full charge
concentration. Sealed AGM batteries should be brought to
2.35 volts per cell and then discharged to 1.75 volts per cell
and this process must be repeated until the capacity returns
to the battery. Gel batteries may not recover. In most cases,
the battery may be returned to complete its service life.

7.4 Charging

Alternators and float battery chargers including regulated

photo voltaic chargers have automatic controls which taper
the charge rate as the batteries come up in charge. It should
be noted that a decrease to a few amperes while charging
does not mean that the batteries have been fully charged.
Battery chargers are of three types. There is the manual
type, the trickle type, and the automatic switcher type.

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7.5 Battery Evaluation

Routine battery examinations divulge irregularities in the

charging system as well as in the batteries. The principle
method is to examine the electrochemistry of the battery
through hydrometric electrolyte inspection. As previously
discussed, this important examination cannot be
accomplished with sealed absorption or gel batteries. Voltage
readings alone require experience to interpret.

Hydrometric readings will uncover early warnings of

overcharging or over discharging before batteries are
damaged. The state-of-charge and reliability of a lead acid
battery can best be determined by the specific gravity of the
electrolyte measured directly with a common bulb-type
hydrometer with a glass float. We do not recommend the ball
float type hydrometer.

Specific gravity is a unit of measurement for determining the

Sulphuric acid content of the electrolyte. The recommended
fully charged specific gravity of batteries is 1.255 to 1.265
taken at 80°F. More than .025 spread in readings between
fully charged cells indicates that the battery may need an
equalization charge. If this condition persists, the cell is
failing and the battery should be replaced.

Since water has a value of 1.000, electrolyte with a specific

gravity of 1.260 means it is 1.260 times heavier than pure
water while pure concentrated sulphuric acid has a specific
gravity of 1.835.

The following table illustrates typical specific gravity values

for a cell in various stages of charge:

• 100% Charged 1.255 - 1.260 Sp. Gr.

• 75% Charged 1.220 - 1.225 Sp. Gr.

• 50% Charged 1.185 - 1.190 Sp. Gr.

• 25% Charged 1.150 - 1.155 Sp. Gr.

• 0% Charged 1.115 - 1.120 Sp. Gr.

Temperature compensation of hydrometric readings is

usually unnecessary unless the battery is extremely hot or
cold, however, after hard charging or discharging, you may
want to add or subtract points of Specific Gravity based on
the table.

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7.6 Hydrometer

Do not apply hydrometer colour coding to readings taken

from deep cycle batteries. These red-white-green markings
are for "hot" automotive battery types. Also, hydrometer
readings taken immediately after water is added to a cell is
inaccurate. The water must be thoroughly mixed with the
underlying electrolyte by charging, before hydrometer
readings are reliable. In addition, do not assume a deep cycle
battery will not take a charge because you have been
charging it for a while and the float will not rise. If the
battery has been fully discharged or partially sulphated it will
require considerable charging or equalization before
recovering. As electrolyte levels are reduced in the battery, it
is important to add water to each cell.

Figure 17 Hydrometers

Note; that only the water portion of the electrolyte

evaporates, therefore, it is not necessary to add acid to
a battery during maintenance. In fact, the addition of acid
to an active battery will reduce its capacity and shorten its
remaining life. Water should be added to cells after charging
the battery. This will eliminate spillage due to expansion of
electrolyte upon charging. Generally speaking, any water
that is safe to drink is safe to use in a battery. Do not use
water of a known high mineral content or stored in metallic
containers. It is the metal impurities in the water that lower
the performance of the battery. Distilled water guarantees
purity.

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8 Questions
8.1 Batteries

1. What is the most common type of battery found on

drill rigs?

a) Nickel Cadmium b) Lead Acid c) lithium Iron

2. What types of applications are batteries used for on

drill rigs.

a) UPS Systems b) Koomey Units

c) Communication equipment d) a b & c

3. What is the greatest danger present with batteries?

The _________ of explosive gasses during charging

4. What can be done to reduce the above danger?

Remove any form of ignition and ensure good
_________.

5. What should be added if the electrolyte is low?

(a) electrolyte (b) tap water
(b) bilge water (d) distilled water

6. What does the electrolyte consist of?

(a) sulphuric acid (b) Water (c) Caustic soda
(d) Heavy water (d) a & b

7. What can be used to remove acid residue?

(a) Mr. Polish & Shine (b) Bicarbonate of soda
(c) Brasso

8. What can be used to prevent acid residue building up

on terminals?
(a) Petroleum Jelly (b) Vitamin E Cream (c) Lithium
Grease

9. What should always be worn when working on

batteries?

(a) Gloves (b) goggles (c) acid proof apron (d) a b

&c

10. Where should batteries be housed?

(a) away from ignition source (b) Battery box
(c) Battery house (d) Dry safe area (e) a d c & d

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11. What should be included in a planned maintenance

programme for the batteries?
(a) Check _______ level
(b) Check terminals for ________
(c) Smear _______on terminals
(d) Record S.G. using a _______

12. What type of materials would you expect batteries to

be sitting on?
(a) Steel (b) Wood (c) Rubber mat (d) Lead sheet
(d) b & c

8.2 Battery Chargers

1. Describe what the float function on a battery charger

does.

The float charge will not boil or heat batteries but will
maintain the batteries at ______% readiness

2. Describe what the equalize function does on a battery

charger.
Equalization is a last resort to break up the
_________ layers using a controlled overcharge.

3. When would you normally activate the equalise

function?

When _________ to break up the Sulphate layers

using a controlled overcharge.

4. If you have a black battery can you use yellow battery

charger?
(a) Yes. (b) No. (c) Maybe. (d) Never.

5. Can a Battery charger that is designed for lead acid

batteries be used on Nickel Cadmium?
(a) Yes. (b) No.

6. Does overcharging damage flooded cell Lead Acid

batteries?
(a) Yes. (b) No. (c) Yes unless equalising.

7. Does over discharging damage flooded cell Lead Acid

batteries.
(a) yes. (b) No. (c) Yes unless they are deep cycle
type.

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9 Reference Material
The best reference material for any equipment is the
manufacturer’s service manuals that are usually supplied
with the UPS, Battery Chargers and batteries when they new.

These manuals cover everything from installation to the

commissioning when it is newly installed to trouble shooting
and fault finding when the system is in normal operation.

In most cases there are people employed with the

manufacturers who can assist in time of need by email or by
telephone who can talk over a problem with you on the
company technical support line.

9.1 Web Sites

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]
t/energy_storage/batteries/

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

9.2 Standards that Apply

API RP 7C-11F section 2.11 / IEC 61892 - 6 section 10.2

IEC 61892-6 10.2.6

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10 Assignments
10.1 Batteries

1. Take a walk around your new facility and look for the
locations of the battery banks which will be associated
with essential equipment or UPS equipment. These
may consist of battery boxes, battery rooms, or
battery cabinets.

2. Make a note of the type of batteries that you find and

there hook up configuration and output voltage.

3. Check the general condition of these battery banks

and look for signs of potential problems. Eg lack of gel
on terminals, excessive terminal corrosion, loose
connections, low electrolyte levels, bulging battery
cases, condition of enclosure etc.

4. Use a hydrometer to test the SG of each cell and

record the measurements.

5. Use a Voltmeter to measure the voltage across each

cell and the output voltage, record the
measurements.

6. Using this information fill in the log book if one exists

or start up your own.

10.2 Battery Chargers

1. After checking your facilities drawing and schematics

go and find the location of the battery chargers
associated with these battery banks.

2. Look at the instrumentation associated with these

charges and verify that the voltage and charging
current is within acceptable parameters.

3. Check to see whether the chargers concerned have a

float and equalize ability.

4. Make sure that all indication lamps are in working

order.

5. Go and find if there are any OEM manuals available

for these battery charges.

6. Visually inspect the Battery Chargers internal

components for any obvious signs of overheating.

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10.3 UPS

1. After checking your facilities drawing and schematics

go and find the location of any UPS units that are
inherent on your facility.

2. Look at the instrumentation associated with these UPS

systems and verify that the output voltage and
current is within acceptable parameters.

3. Go and find if there are any OEM manuals available

for these UPS units.

4. Visually inspect the UPS internal components for any

obvious signs of overheating. (Note. follow all
necessary safety considerations)

5. Look for the static bypass switch and read the

instructions from the OEM manual regarding the use
of this function.

6. Go over the procedure of switching into by-pass if

practicable or do a dummy simulation of the steps
required to by-pass the system. (Note. a failure of
essential equipment should be avoided at all times)

7. Having looked at all of the battery banks in the

Battery assignments you will now be aware of the
batteries that provide backup power for this UPS in
the event of a blackout. If there is any doubt or
confusion go and identify the associated battery bank.

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11 Glossary
11.1 Batteries

Absorbed (or absorptive) Glass Mat A technique for

sealed lead-acid batteries. The electrolyte is absorbed in a
matrix of glass fibres, which holds the electrolyte next to the
plate, and immobilizes it preventing spills. AGM batteries
tend to have good power characteristics, low internal
resistance, and good behaviour during charging.

Amp, Ampere Unit of electrical current. Abbreviated "A"

Amp-hour Unit of electrical energy, one amp of current

flowing for one hour. Abbreviated Ah

Anode The negative electrode of a battery (or other

device).

Automotive post A battery terminal style found on starting

batteries in internal-combustion vehicles. A round post made
of lead. See terminal styles for comparison.

CCA Cold Cranking Amps

Cathode The positive electrode of a battery (or other

device).

Cold Cranking Amps A performance rating for automobile

starting batteries. It is defined as the current that the battery
can deliver for 30 seconds and maintain a terminal voltage
greater than or equal to 1.20 volts per cell, at 0degrees
Fahrenheit (-18Celsius), when the battery is new and fully
charged. Starting batteries may also be rated for Cranking
Amps, which is the same thing but at a temperature of 32F
(0C).

Cycle Life How many charge/discharge cycles the battery

can endure before it loses its ability to hold a useful charge.
Cycle life typically depends on the depth of discharge. For
example, if a hypothetical battery pack will propel your car
for a maximum range of 100 miles, and you drive 50 miles
between charges, (50% DOD) then you may get 600 trips
before replacing the pack; but if you drove 80 miles between
charges, you might only get 400 trips before the pack wears
out. (All numbers were made up.)

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Depth of Discharge (DOD) The amount of energy that

has been removed from a battery (or battery pack). Usually
expressed as a percentage of the total capacity of the
battery. For example, 50% depth of discharge means that
half of the energy in the battery has been used. 80% DOD
means that eighty percent of the energy has been
discharged, so the battery now holds only 20% of its full
charge.

Electrode A conductor by which electrical current enters or

leaves a non-metallic medium, such as the electrolyte in a
battery (as well as vacuum tubes and lots of other devices).

Electrolyte An electrically conductive medium, in which

current flow is due to the movement of ions. In a lead-acid
battery, the electrolyte is a solution of sulphuric acid. In
other batteries, the electrolyte may be very different.

Energy Density The amount of energy that can be

contained in a specific quantity of the fuel source. Typically
quoted in watt-hours per pound, wh/lb, or watt-hours per
kilogram, wh/kg. For example, flooded lead-acid batteries
generally have about 25 wh/kg, the latest advanced lead-
acid designs claim about 50 wh/kg, and newer battery
technologies such as NiMH and LiON are in the 80-135 wh/kg
range.

Flooded cell A design for lead-acid batteries. The

electrolyte is an ordinary liquid solution of acid. Flooded cells
are prone to making gas while being charged. Flooded cells
must be periodically checked for fluid level and water added
as necessary. Flooded cells are also typically less expensive
than AGM or gel type lead-acid batteries.

Fuel Cell A battery where reactants are supplied to the cell

from an external source. The most commonly cited example
is the hydrogen fuel cell, in which hydrogen and oxygen are
combined, producing electric current and water.

Gel Cell A technique for sealed lead-acid batteries. The

electrolyte solution is in a gel form, usually silica gel, instead
of plain liquid.

Hydrometer A tool for testing the specific-gravity of a

fluid, such as the electrolyte in a flooded battery. Typically a
squeeze-bulb is used to suck up a sample of the fluid, and a
float indicates the specific gravity.

Lead-acid A technique for rechargeable batteries.

Electrodes of lead oxide and metallic lead are separated by
an electrolyte of sulphuric acid.

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LiON LiIon Lithium ion. A technique for rechargeable

batteries. Instead of using metallic lithium as the anode,
lithium ions are added to a carbon electrode.

Lithium A light metal, atomic number 3. Used in advanced

rechargeable batteries.

Lithium Polymer A technique for rechargeable batteries.

The lithium anode is separated from the cathode by a thin
polymer electrolyte.

NiMH Nickel Metal Hydride

NiCad Nickel Cadmium. (Historical note, NiCad is/was a

registered trademark, but has effectively passed into the
public domain, like aspirin.)

Nickel Cadmium "Old" rechargeable battery technology.

For many years, rechargeable dry cell meant nickel-
cadmium. Recently, newer technologies such as nickel-metal
hydride have mostly replaced NiCad, since they have better
energy characteristics and don't contain toxic cadmium. The
battery has a nickel-hydroxide cathode, a cadmium anode,
and aqueous potassium hydroxide electrolyte. Saft is a
leading manufacturer of nickel-cadmium batteries for EV
applications.

Nickel Metal Hydride A technique for making rechargeable

batteries. NiMH batteries are common in laptop computers
and cellular phones. The battery is similar to nickel-cadmium
but uses an anode of a metal hydride; a variety of metal
alloys are used.

Peukert's equation A formula that shows how the

available capacity of a lead-acid battery changes according to
the rate of discharge. The capacity of a battery is expressed
in Amp-Hours, but it turns out that the simple formula of
current time’s hours doesn't accurately represent the
situation. Peukert found that the equation: C = I n T

fits the observed behaviour of batteries. "C" is the theoretical

capacity of the battery, "I" is the current, "T" is time, and "n"
is the Peukert number , a constant for the given battery. The
equation captures the fact that at higher currents, there is
less available energy in the battery.

Peukert number A value that indicates how well a lead-

acid battery performs under heavy currents. The Peukert
number is the exponent in Peukert's equation. A value close
to 1 indicates that the battery performs well; the higher the
number, the more capacity is lost when the battery is
discharged at high currents. The Peukert number of a battery
is determined empirically. For Peukert numbers for typical EV
batteries, see Uve W. Rick's Battery Page.

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Specific Gravity The density of a material, expressed as

the ratio of the mass of a given volume of the material and
the mass of the same volume of water; a specific gravity
greater than 1 means heavier than water, less than 1 means
lighter than water. The specific gravity of the electrolyte in a
battery can be used to measure the state of charge of the
battery.

Spiral-Wound A particular design for the electrodes in a

lead-acid battery. Instead of having the electrodes as flat
plates, the electrodes are rolled up in a spiral, like a
cinnamon roll. The Optima is an example of a spiral-wound
battery.

State of Charge The amount of electrical charge in the

battery, expressed as a percentage of the difference between
the fully-charged and fully-discharged states.

Starved Electrolyte A technique for "maintenance free"

lead-acid batteries. These batteries are less prone to gassing,
so they don't require frequent checking and addition of
water. "Starved" because the battery contains just enough
electrolytes to provide the necessary chemical reaction, as
opposed to the older "flooded" arrangement which contains
considerably more electrolyte than needed to make the rated
amp-hour capacity.

Valve Regulated A technique for making lead-acid

batteries. Instead of simple vent caps on the cells to let gas
escape, VRLA have pressure valves that open only under
extreme conditions. Valve-regulated batteries also need an
electrolyte design that reduces gassing, usually involving a
catalyst that causes the hydrogen and oxygen to recombine
into water.

Watt-hour Unit of electrical energy, or work. 1 watt

expended continuously for 1 hour equals 1 watt-hour.

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11.2 UPS & Battery Charger

Backup time Time during which the UPS can supply the
rated load with nominal-quality power while the mains are
down. This time depends on the battery and the efficiency of
the UPS. Typical backup ranges from five minutes to several
hours.

Battery (vented) The battery cells are equipped with a

filling port for distilled, demineralised water used to top up
the free electrolyte.

Battery circuit breaker (see Circuit breaker (battery))

Battery Monitor Battery monitoring and protection system

developed and patented by MGE UPS SYSTEMS for UPS
systems. It incorporates software to calculate the real
available backup time, predicts when batteries need
replacement and a protection system against excessive
discharges.

Bypass (manual) Manually operated switch used to supply

the load via direct connection to utility power during
servicing of the UPS system.

Bypass (automatic) In the event of an overload or an

unlikely UPS problem, your application is still powered thanks
to the automatic bypass module.

Charger Device associated with the rectifier and used to

supply the battery with the electrical power (DC current)
required to recharge and/or float charge the battery, thus
ensuring the rated backup time.

Circuit breaker (battery) DC circuit breaker that protects

the battery of a UPS.

Cubicle (parallel UPS unit) Cubicle containing a

rectifier/charger and an inverter. It is connected to one or
several other identical cubicles and a bypass cubicle to make
up a parallel UPS.

Cubicle (single UPS unit) Cubicle containing a

rectifier/charger, an inverter and a bypass. Connected to a
battery, it operates alone, forming a single UPS. Compare
with Cubicle (parallel UPS unit).

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Current (float) DC current that maintains the battery at

nominal charge, corresponding the float voltage. This current
compensates open circuit losses.

Current (inrush) Temporary current observed in a network

when electrical devices are energised, generally due to the
magnetic circuits of the devices. The effect is measured by
the currents maximum peak value and the rms current value
it generates.

Current harmonics (see Harmonics (current and voltage)

Ratio between the rms value of all harmonics of a non-
sinusoidal alternating periodic value and that of the
fundamental. This value may also be expressed as a function
of the individual distortion of each harmonic Hn = Yn /Y1

Electromagnetic compatibility Possibility of a device to

operate normally when installed near other devices, given
the disturbances emitted by each device and their mutual
sensitivities.

Filter (phase-shift) Filter used to reduce, if necessary, the

overall distortion due to the current harmonics injected into
the mains upstream of a UPS by its rectifier-charger. Filtering
is superior to that of a traditional filter of the L or C type.

Harmonics (current and voltage) All alternating current

which is not absolutely sinusoidal is made up of a
fundamental and a certain number of current harmonics
which are the cause of its deformation (distortion) when
compared to the theoretical sine-wave. For each current
harmonic of order n and an rms value In, there is a voltage
harmonic with an rms value Un. If Zsn is the voltage source
output impedance for the harmonic of the nth order, then:
Un = Zsn x In

IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission)

Advisory organization that draws up international standards
in the electro technical field.

Interference (high-frequency) High-frequency parasitic

current that is either conducted (electrostatic origin) or
radiated (electromagnetic origin) by a device.

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Basic Batteries, Battery Chargers, & UPS Units

Inverter UPS subassembly that recomposes a sine-wave

output (regulated and without breaks) using the DC current
supplied by the rectifier-charger or the battery. The primary
elements of the inverter are the DC/AC converter, a
regulation system and an output filter.

Inverter (off-line or stand-by) UPS configuration in which

the inverter is parallel-mounted to the load supply line and
backs up the mains. This configuration offers a substantial
cost reduction but is applicable only to low outputs, under 3
kVA, because it results in an interruption lasting up to 10 ms
during transfer and does not filter inrush currents.

Inverter (on-line) UPS configuration in which the inverter

is in series mounted between the mains and the load. All
power drawn by the load passes via the inverter. This is the
only configuration used for high outputs.

Load (linear) Load for which voltage form and current form
are similar. Voltage and current are related by Ohm's law
U(t) = Z x I(t).

Load (non-linear) Load (generally with a switched-mode

power supply) generating major harmonic currents. Current
wave form is different from voltage wave form. Ohm's law is
not applicable. It can be used only with each harmonic.

Load power Apparent power Pu that the UPS inverter

supplies under given load conditions. It is less than or equal
to the rated output Pn. The ratio Pu/Pn defines the % load of
the inverter.

Noise level Acoustical decibel level of a source of noise,

measured according to the applicable ISO standard.

Output (rated) Apparent power Pn that the UPS can deliver

under given load conditions (power factor = 0.8).

Percent load Ratio between the power Pu drawn by the

load and the rated output Pn of a UPS system (Pu/Pn).
Sometimes referred to as the load factor.

Power factor Ratio between the active power P supplied to

a load and the apparent power S supplied to said load by an
AC power supply.

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Power source (alternate) Backup source used in the

event of a mains failure. The connection time and the
duration of the source depend on the type of source used.

Power source (safety) Power source for loads defined as

critical by applicable safety regulations. This supply must not
be affected by a mains failure and is generally separate from
other supplies.

PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) Inverter high-frequency

chopping technique using a means of regulation enabling
rapid modification of pulse widths over a single period, thus
making it possible to maintain the inverter output within
tolerances even for non-linear loads.

Rectifier/charger UPS component that draws on the mains

the power required to supply the inverter and to float charge
or recharge the battery. The alternating input current is
rectified and then distributed to the inverter and the battery.

Redundancy (active) Parallel UPS configuration in which

several UPS units with equal outputs are parallel connected
and share the load. In the event one UPS unit fails, the other
units pick up its share without any interruption in the supply
of power to the load.

Redundancy (standby) UPS configuration in which one or

several UPS units operate on stand-by, with no load or only a
partial load, and can immediately back up a faulty UPS unit
by no-break transfer of the load, carried out by a static
switch.

Reliability Probability that a device will accomplish a

required function under given conditions over a given period
of time. Rms value of AC current with harmonics The rms
value Yrms of a non-sinusoidal alternating current may be
determined on the basis of the individual harmonic currents:
where Y is the rms value of the fundamental.

Safety installation The installation supplying electrical

equipment which may have a direct effect on the safety of
users and must therefore remain energised even in the event
of a mains failure. In general, characteristics concerning the
power supply and conditions for transfer to the safety source
for such electrical equipment are covered by applicable
regulations.

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Basic Batteries, Battery Chargers, & UPS Units

Static bypass switch Power-electronics device that can be

used to switch from one source to another without
interruption in the supply of power. In a UPS, transfer is from
Mains 1 to Mains 2 and back. Transfer without interruption is
possible due to the fact that there are no mechanical parts
and the ultra-fast switching capabilities of the electronic
components.

UPS (Uninterruptible Power supply)) An electrical device

providing an interface between the mains power supply and
sensitive loads (computer systems, instrumentation, etc.).
The UPS supplies sinusoidal AC power free of disturbances
and within strict amplitude and frequency tolerances. It is
generally made up of a rectifier/charger and an inverter
together with a battery for backup power in the event of a
mains failure.

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Basic Alarm Systems

Section 13
Alarm Systems

1 Equipment Overview ................................................ 2

2 How Does It Work .................................................... 9
3 How Do I Operate It ............................................... 18
4 Inspection............................................................. 20
5 Maintenance.......................................................... 21
6 Spare Parts ........................................................... 23
7 Trouble Shooting ................................................... 24
8 Questions ............................................................. 25
9 Reference Material ................................................. 26
10 Work Place Assignments....................................... 27
11 Glossary ............................................................ 29

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1 Equipment Overview
1.1 General

Alarm systems are of vital importance to the safe operation

of drilling rigs.

These will include some the most common alarms.

• General Alarms

o Fire & gas alarm

o H²S alarm

o Man over board alarm

o Abandon ship or site alarms

• Equipment Specific Alarms

o Drillers alarms

o Engine room alarms

o Plant room alarms

o Crane over limit alarms

Some of these alarms will be localised to engine generator

skid or engine room equipment, and others will be general
for all to hear, such as the gas alarms or abandon
rig/platform alarms for an oil or gas production platform.

Also on offshore rigs all personnel will need to know if there

is an emergency unfolding. They may need to go to their
muster stations to prepare to abandon the facility if the
emergency cannot be brought under control.

Well kick alarms which are installed to indicate the well is

flowing are predominately fitted to offshore oil rigs. This is to
inform the Driller and rig floor crew of a serious event
occurring. These alarms initiate a sequence of actions the rig
floor crew are required to undertake in order to “secure” the
well. In these situations time is of the essence, the alarm
initiates actions immediately without further communication
being necessary and can be as simple as a horn blowing on
the rig floor.

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1.2 Rig Floor Alarms

1.2.1 Mud Flow Alarm

In regard to rig floor alarms the driller has various alarms
involved with the drilling operation which keeps him informed
about the condition of the drilling systems during the drilling
of the well. One of the most important is the Flow Show
(Flow Indication) which indicates the rate of flow of the
returning mud in the flow line from the well, and thereby the
performance of the hydrostatic head and down hole well
condition.

Figure 1 Explosion Proof Alarms

These flow alarms can be set to give alarms for high and low
flow. The high alarm will give indication of a well that has
started to flow. This occurs when the down hole pressure
exceeds the weight of the drilling fluid used to neutralise it.
This increase in pressure will push oil or gas up the casing
and increase the mud returns, giving a high alarm. Or in the
case of a lost circulation situation where they have drilled
into a void and are losing large volumes of mud with little or
no returns, this will give a low alarm.

1.2.2 Mud Loss/Gain Alarm

Another alarm on the rig floor for the same situation is the
Loss/Gain indication which will warn of loss or gain in the
whole system by measuring the amount of drilling fluid in
each mud pit in the active system. This will also measure the
total volume of all of the pits in the mud system and any loss
or gain in that system.

This can be set to a percentage point above and below a set

point to warn of a change in volume of the active volume of
the mud. This will warn if mud is being lost in the circulation,
or gained from a “kick”, with oil or gas being added to the
system.

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1.3 Machinery Alarms

Alarms for various other sources are both numerous and far
ranging, from over tension alarms for the mooring system, to
low pressure alarms for the drinking or sewage water
systems. It is the duty of all personnel on board to familiarise
themselves with all alarm conditions and signal indications
pertinent to their duties and endeavour to learn all the alarm
signals and indications on the installation they serve.

Figure 2 Explosion Proof Machinery Alarms

1.4 Engine Room Alarms

The engine room alarms are designed to make the

maintenance staff aware of problems that are unfolding,
normally unseen by the crew on duty as engine rooms are
predominately unmanned. These alarm activations alert the
crews that action should be taken to correct the situation
before it becomes critical, and causes an engine or generator
shuts down due to a fault.

In general these alarms are for the protection of the engines,

such as warnings of low oil pressure, high temperature, over
speed trips or that an engine has stopped running. They can
also be for low levels in fuel tanks, or water tanks, high
levels in the bilges if an automatic pump has failed to start to
drain the bilges. Or they can be low air pressure if a
compressor has failed to start, all of these are critical for the
smooth operation of the engine room. Alarms can be
programmed to measure the “high salinity” in the drinking
water being produced by the water maker. In this case this
alarm would activate a solenoid valve so that the salty water
is dumped overboard and not pumped to the rig storage
tanks. There can also be alarms to warn of high
temperatures in generators or transformers.

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1.5 General Alarms

These can be Audible with visual indication in the form of a

daisy chain of coloured lights. As the emergency progresses
the warning sound will change along with the sequence of
indication lights. All installations are different and a transfer
to other rigs in the fleet often means learning the new rigs
alarm protocols. Some alarms are rig specific but others are
required by regulatory bodies to conform to a standard and
must comply. These include the General Alarm, abandon ship
alarms along with fire and the various Gas alarms.

Figure 3 General Alarm

General alarms are initiated for the safety of the whole crew
who have been allocated muster positions where they must
assemble in the case of an emergency. This is so that a head
count can be taken to establish if anyone is missing. If a
person cannot be located then a search can be organised to
look for them. They may be associated with the cause of the
alarm and need urgent help in the case of a H²S or
Hydrocarbon release at the well heads.

When a general alarm emergency has gone to the next level

personnel will be advised that they may have to leave the rig
or platform for there own safety. They must be prepared to
abandon the facility and be standing by their appointed
method of departure, such as life boats or rafts, and await
the order to abandon.

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1.5.1 Gas Alarms

In the case of a gas alarm, where there has been a
significant release of hydrocarbons or H²S gas which has the
potential to cause an explosion the level of alertness is raised
to make all personnel aware that they will need to leave the
area and muster at a safe designated location.

Figure 4 Gas Alarm Computer Readout Screen

[Link] Gases that can be Encountered

H²S Gas

• Hydrogen sulfide is a colorless, highly flammable and

explosive gas produced naturally by decaying organic
matter and by certain industrial processes. Hydrogen
sulfide has a characteristic rotten-egg odor; however,
olfactory fatigue may occur and consequently it may
not provide adequate warning of hazardous
concentrations.

• Hydrogen sulfide is a mucous membrane and

respiratory tract irritant; pulmonary edema, which
may be immediate or delayed, can occur after
exposure to high concentrations.

• Symptoms of acute exposure include nausea,

headaches, delirium, disturbed equilibrium, tremors,
convulsions, and skin and eye irritation. Inhalation of
high concentrations of hydrogen sulfide can produce
extremely rapid unconsciousness and death. Exposure
to the liquefied gas can cause frostbite injury.

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1.6 Combustible Hydrocarbon (CHC)

• Is any organic gas or vapour which when mixed with

air or oxygen is capable of the propagation of flame
away from the source of ignition when ignited.

1.6.1 Fire Alarms

Most fire alarm systems have manual call points placed at
strategic positions around their facilities. These generally
require a station to have the break glass push button
activated which will set off the alarm to alert everyone to the
fact that there is a fire near the location of that alarm point.
When one of these break glass push buttons is activated the
alarm will be indicated on an alarm panel in a control centre
to indicate where the fire is, emergency crew can then be
sent there to fight the fire and isolate it from the surrounding
equipment.

Figure 5 Fire Alarm Bell Type

In all of these cases regular drills are carried out with the
actual sounding of these alarms and the crew is expected to
carry out their designated responses as if the alarm is a real
condition.

1.6.2 Abandon ship Alarm

When the order to abandon the facility is reached, a
continuous alarm is sounded from horns or sirens to make
everyone aware that they must leave by their appointed
method of departure as soon as possible. This is ensure their
chances of survival from a disastrous situation which can no
longer be controlled by the staff on that rig or platform.

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1.7 Manufacturers

There are many manufacturers located world wide that make

these systems which are not specific to the drilling industry,
but also manufacture fire and gas detection equipment for
heavy industry, marine and mining applications. These are
built to a high standard required in situations where
dangerous concentrations of gas and dust occur.

Drager, MSA Europe, Industrial Scientific Corporation,

RAE, GIG, and Honeywell.

Figure 6 Selection Manufacturers Equipment

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2 How Does It Work

2.1 General Alarm

The General Alarm system can consists of a series of Bells

horns or speakers that are strategically place throughout a
facility. These are electrically or air driven to meet their
designed decibel output. These are normally initiated by
manual call points or on the instruction of the person in
charge of the operation if they consider that personnel should
be called to the muster points around the rig. In the event of
an escalation in the emergency personnel should be prepare
to depart the facility if an abandon rig order is given.

Figure 7 Fire & Gas Manual Call Point

Although normally manually activated the General Alarm can

also be automatically generated. This is particularly the case
with the fire alarm system. A time delay relay is incorporated
within the master fire panel and if the alarm indication is not
acknowledged within a certain time the fire panel
automatically sends a signal to the General Alarm panel and
the alarm is activated. This is to ensure the alarm is not
ignored.

2.2 Engine Alarm Systems

When a diesel engine is operated in a hazardous area or in

an application where special precautions are justified, it is
often a general requirement that the engine automatically
shuts down if its speed, critical temperatures or oil pressure
fall outside of predetermined limits. It is widely recognised
that the best method to achieve such an emergency
automatic shut down is by closure of an engine air intake
shut down valve. To comply with API RP 54 9.15.1 both the
engine air intake and diesel fuel supply must be shut down
automatically in the event of engine overspeed. It must also
be possible to operate the air shut down valve manually.

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2.3 Elmagco Brake

These alarm systems extend to many pieces of equipment

used for the drilling operation, such as pressure switches and
flow switches to warn of failure of cooling fluid to the
Elmagco brake, or temperature switches to indicate the over
temperature of the cooling water from the brake. These
switch activations will turn on a warning alarm and light.

Figure 8 Baylor Brake Alarm System

2.4 Drilling Equipment

Alarms for the Koomey unit will indicate loss of pressure in

the accumulator which could affect well safety, and alarms to
indicate the failure of the rig air pressure system to maintain
sufficient pressure in the air system to support the operation
of the drilling systems, such as clutches on the Drawworks.
On newer rigs the switches are or can be replaced with
pressure transducers along with digital indicators. The alarm
contacts being contained within same instrument as the
digital readout. This gives the added advantage of a digital
readout to allow the relevant personnel to actually see the
cause behind the alarm signal.

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2.5 Gas Detection

The gas alarms are normally triggered by gas sensors, which

constantly monitors the gas around the facilities with sensors
positioned at all the high risk locations such as the bell
nipple, rig floor, return lines, shale shakers, and mud pits.
Any location where the returning mud can carry gas will
trigger an alarm if the level rises above the declared safe
level. Also in locations where hydrogen sulphide gas( H²S ) is
to be found, sensors for this will be mounted in the same
locations to trigger a different alarm to warn of the presence
of the H2S gas should it occur.

Figure 9 Selection of Gas Sensors

2.5.1 Types of Sensors

There are many sensors used to detect gases. Some gases
can be detected by some sensors and not by others, and
some sensors are more accurate or gas-specific than others.
Types of sensors include Solid State (also known as Metal
Oxide Semiconductor), Electrochemical, Catalytic, Infrared,
Galvanic, Photo acoustic, PID and others.

2.5.2 Reasons for Different kinds of Sensors

Most gases can only be detected by one or two sensor types.

Then consideration is given to required accuracy and
specificity, sensor life expectancy, and finally cost.

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2.5.3 Solid State (MOS) Sensors

The sensor technology is a proprietary solid state metal oxide

semiconductor. The sensor consists of two thin films: a
temperature sensitive heater film, and a hydrogen sulfide
sensitive sensor film. Both films are deposited on a silicon
microchip by vacuum deposition. The heater film elevates the
operating temperature of the sensor film to a level where an
optimized sensitivity and response to hydrogen sulfide is
achieved. The sensor film consists of a proprietary metal
oxide that shows a dynamic signal change to hydrogen
sulfide gas.

Advantages: Low cost, long life, quite resistant to

poisoning.
Disadvantages: Broad spectrum, non-specific, not as
accurate as other types.

2.5.4 Electrochemical Sensors

Electrochemical sensors are used primarily to detect oxygen

and toxic gases. Each sensor is designed to be specific to the
gas it is intended to detect. Electrochemical sensors are
essentially fuel cells composed of noble metal electrodes in
an electrolyte. The electrolyte is normally an aqueous
solution of strong inorganic acids. When a gas is detected the
cell generates a small current proportional to the
concentration of the gas.

Advantages: Accurate, repeatable, more gas specific,

defined cross sensitivities.
Disadvantages: Relatively short life, moderately expensive.

2.5.5 Catalytic Sensors

Catalytic bead sensors are used primarily to detect
combustible gases. They have been in use for more than 50
years. Initially, these sensors were used for monitoring gas
in coal mines, where they replaced canaries that had been
used for a long period of time. The sensor itself is quite
simple in design and is easy to manufacture. In its simplest
form, as used in the original design, it was comprised of a
single platinum wire. Catalytic bead sensors were produced
over the world by a large number of different manufacturers,
but the performance and reliability of these sensors varied
widely among these various manufacturers.

Figure 8 Catalytic Sensors

Advantages: Range 0 — 100% LEL for many combustible

gases, accurate, long life.
Disadvantages: Moderately expensive, can be poisoned.

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2.5.6 Infrared Sensors

IR sensors make up a significant part of the gas-sensor
instrumentation market, and IR spectroscopy sensors remain
the most accurate and reliable because they don't rely on
catalytic or electrochemical interactions. The sensor elements
in many other types of devices are prone to react with
chemical species similar to the target and can become
contaminated or depleted with prolonged use. Since IR gas-
sensor elements do not touch the gas, they are not poisoned
by contact with the environment.

Figure 10 IR Detector

The IR detector is filtered to monitor a specific part of the IR

spectrum. As the gas of interest passes between the powered
IR source and the detectors, the absorption spectrum
changes, along with the detector output. The instrument
electronics process this data to determine the concentration
of the gas of interest, potentially setting off an alarm,
triggering an action, or simply providing the information for
monitoring purposes.

Advantages: Very gas specific, best way to detect CO2,

very accurate & stable, long life.
Disadvantages: Expensive.

2.5.7 What does % LEL mean

Combustible gases form flammable mixtures with air. For
each gas there is an explosive range within which the fuel to
air mixture will support combustion. LEL is an abbreviation
for Lower Explosive Limit, which is the minimum
concentration of each gas in air that must be present for
combustion or explosion to occur. Percentage LEL refers to a
method of measuring the concentration of a combustible gas
where the range of the sensor is set to correspond with the
concentration of gas that is below the explosive range. In
this case the Lower Explosive Limit equals 100 % LEL.

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2.5.8 Definition of PPM

Parts Per Million. 100 % volume equals 1,000,000 ‘parts’ , 1
% volume equals 10,000 ‘parts’

2.5.9 Definition of % Volume

The percentage of a gas in the total volume of air.

2.6 Smoke & Fire Detection

Smoke detectors are commonly used to detect the presence

of smoke particles in the air as an early indication of fire by
sensing light scattered from a light beam by smoke particles
that infiltrate the smoke detector. Smoke detectors are
known safety appliances which are installed in various
structures, including homes, office buildings, and
warehouses, to monitor for the presence of smoke, and to
provide an alarm in the event smoke is detected. Smoke
detectors are particularly used in closed spaces such as
houses, factories, offices, shops, ships, aircraft, and the like,
with virtually every building being required by law to have
some sort of early warning fire detection system. The alarm
may be audible and/or visual within the monitored space,
and may be electronically communicated to a remote
monitoring site. Smoke detection systems generally fall into
one of two categories including photoelectric detectors
and ionization smoke detectors.

Figure 11 Photoelectric Smoke Detector

2.6.1 Photoelectric smoke detectors

Photoelectric smoke detectors employ optical sensors to
detect the presence of smoke in a detection chamber. Optical
sensors operate based upon principles of scattered light
absorption.

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A photoelectric smoke detector system measures the

ambient smoke conditions of a confined space and activates
an alarm in response to the presence of unacceptably high
amounts of smoke.

Photoelectric detectors include an infrared (IR) light source

and an IR photodiode receiver positioned at opposite ends of
the detector's chamber. They are located off axis from each
other to prevent the IR light source emitted energy from
flowing directly to the receiver.

2.6.2 Ionization Type Smoke Detector

Ionization smoke detectors work by monitoring the
conductance of air ionised by a radioactive source, which
changes in the presence of smoke particles.

Figure 12 Optical Ionization Detector

A ionization type smoke detector generally comprises of a

smoke detecting section having an inner ionization chamber,
and an outer ionization chamber defined between the
intermediate electrode and an outer electrode. Ionization
smoke detectors are more sensitive than the photoelectric
type detectors in detecting smaller particles of combustion,
i.e. generally smaller than one micron. However,
photoelectric smoke detectors are more sensitive than
ionization detectors in detecting large combustion particulate.

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2.7 Location of Sensors

A sensor is a point monitor, which means it can monitor gas

only at a single point. It does not cover an area. If gas from
a leak does not reach the sensor, it will not be detected. The
selection of the number of sensors to install and the site for
each sensor is one of the most critical factors to be
considered for overall system effectiveness. Placing the
sensor in the wrong location will defeat the purpose for which
it is intended. One of the most important concepts to keep in
mind is that the sensor should be placed between the
potential leak and the ignition source for combustibles or
between the leak and the likely location of people for toxic
gases. For complicated installations, it is good practice to
prepare drawings showing all potential leak sites. The
locations should be graded in terms of their potential for
harm.

2.7.1 Vapour Density of Gases to Be Monitored

Sensors should be located near the ground for gases or

vapours which are heavier than air. You should consider not
installing them closer than 18 inches above the ground so
they will not be as likely to collect mud and water. To detect
heavy gases some companies do not allow sensors to be
installed higher than 36 inches. Sensors should be located
near the ceiling or roof or exit fan to detect lighter than air
gases. You can not rely, however, on heavier or lighter gases
always behaving in a predictable manner. Even inside, air
currents can create anomalies. Be especially aware of areas
which could become potential gas pockets

2.7.2 Air Currents

Locate the sensor where prevailing air currents would be

likely to contain the maximum concentration of the gas being
monitored. Consider the possibility of changes in wind
direction at different times of the day or during different
seasons. Your local weather information centre should have
data on the direction and velocity of prevailing winds during
the yearly cycle.

2.7.3 Dispersion of Gas/Vapour

Generally sensors should be located close to any potential

leak source. Liquids of low volatility, in particular, may
require the location of the sensor in the immediate area of
the vapour source. Liquids with high flash points or slow
rates of dispersion take a long time to produce readings if
the sensors are any distance from the spill or leak.

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2.7.4 Temperature Limitations

All sensors and electronics have ambient temperature

limitations. The installation of the sensor must be within the
operating range of each. If the area is too hot for the
electronics, a sensor extension kit is available to separate the
sensor from the transmitter/remote calibration modules. If
the gas temperature is too hot for the sensor, a gas
reclamation adapter is available to draw air samples to the
sensor. By connecting metal coils to the inlet side of this
adapter, the gas can be cooled down. If any preconditioning
system is to be used, make sure that the vapours will not
condense in the piping.

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3 How Do I Operate It
3.1 General Alarm

The general alarm will be controlled by the person in control

of the operation on any rig operation except in the case of
rigs operating on production platforms where the platform
supervision will be in charge of the overall safety of all
personnel on the platform, and control the muster points and
lifeboats and rafts in the case of an abandon platform
operation.

Certain rigs have General Alarm controls on the drill floor,

primarily to warn the entire installation of an immediate
serious problem and avoid the protracted delays which can
occur when telephone communications are involved prior to
the General alarm being sounded. I don’t suppose anyone
minds a few false alarms if ultimately his life is at stake.

3.2 Manual Call Points

In the case of fire on most facilities there will be break glass

push buttons stations at all locations in addition to automatic
smoke/heat or UV sensors, above engines and machinery of
that type which in the event of fire activate to alert all senior
personnel to the fire. Should the senior personnel (after
investigation) decide the situation is becoming serious they
can elect to activate the General alarm to communicate the
fact that all personnel need to report to their muster points
for a fire muster.

3.3 Abandon Rig Alarm

If the situation deteriorates to the worse case scenario

where it becomes necessary to abandon the rig or platform,
and the situation cannot be brought under control, the
general alarm will be activated to abandon the rig or
platform. The General alarm controls are of a distinctive
design and are only to be used for this application.

3.4 Local Equipment Alarm

Each individual piece of machinery or equipment will have its

own alarm system to warn of malfunction of any part of that
machine should it fail. The function of these alarms is to
warn personnel of the problem, and protect the machine
from damage.

Once the alarm is acknowledged it can be dealt with by the

appropriate staff in the local areas where they occur. These
alarms will raise indication such as a lights and/or audible
signals to indicate an outstanding fault, and these lights may
flash to draw attention to the problem.

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It is normal to have an accept and cancel function on the

panel, so that it is possible to accept the fault and silence the
horns or bells and then investigate the problem. Once the
problem is cleared the cancel button will clear the light ready
for the next fault.

The panels should be designed so that the acceptance of one

alarm does not preclude the generation of a different alarm
within the same panel; also the acceptance should be timed
such that if it is not cancelled after acceptance for a defined
period of time it simply reverts to an alarm condition once
again.

3.5 Drilling Alarms

Drilling alarms are set by the driller to the parameters

required by the drilling operation, so with the Flow Show
(flow indication) this is set by percentage above and below
normal so that any drift from normal will bring up an alarm
to ensure the driller is aware of the problem.

Figure 13 Drillers Cabin with Multiple Alarms

Another important indicator the driller has is the Pit Levels or

Pit Indication which informs the driller about the level in each
mud pit and the total volume of the whole system, which
again indicates the loss or gain of mud in the system with an
alarm facility to warn of loss and gain in the mud pits.

These systems normally allow the driller to select the pit

levels he wishes to monitor and exclude the others; he will
normally select only the “active” tanks, allowing mud mixing
and additions to the non-active tanks within the system.

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3.6 Inspection

The alarms that are not in regular use and may not have
operated for some time must be tested to be sure they are
still in working order, and most panels have a lamp test
function which should be operated often to make sure that all
the lamps are working such as the Koomey remote control
panel.

Some of the flow switches such as those used in the Elmagco

brake cooling system need to be checked on a regular basis
as the paddle may seize with local corrosion and stop the
switch operating as it should.

Pressure and temperature sensors should be checked

regularly to make sure they have not drifted off calibration
and no longer operating in the desired range, this should be
done for the safety of the piece of equipment, and to prevent
damage from occurring in the future.

Gas and Fire alarm systems must be regularly checked and if

necessary recalibrated to ensure their correct operations at
all times. There is normally a test function isolation switch on
the fire alarm panel so that sensors can be tested without
setting off an alarm. While local alarms on the various items
of equipments are normally checked/tested during the
normal PMS routines, or carried out as part of the daily work
tasks to ensure they’re still operating as they should.

Figure 14 Drill Console Panels Removed for Inspection

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4 Maintenance
4.1 Alarm Systems

General maintenance on the alarm systems comes down to

regular checks to see if the alarm is still operating in that the
sensors still operate, opening or closing the switches to
protect the equipment in question, and that all the horns,
sirens, and bells are in working order.

4.2 Control Panels

With the control panels, lamps and internal horns or buzzers

need to be checked to make sure they are operating,
particularly if they do not have a lamp test facility, as lamps
may have blown and need to be replaced,

4.3 Flow Indication

Flow show paddles need to be checked to make sure they

have their full range of movement and are not hampered by
a build up of mud or corrosion, and pit calibration checked if
there is any doubt about the total volume.

4.4 Elmagco Brake

The flow switches for the Elmagco brake need to be checked

on a regular basis to make sure the paddles are not stuck in
the down position due to corrosion if they have been
standing for a long period of time. In the case of temperature
sensor for the outlet water of the brake, as with any
temperature sensor is best tested by immersion in water of
the correct temperature.

4.5 Regulatory Bodies

Regulatory bodies carry out inspections of the installations at

pre-determined intervals, often at very short notice. Alarm
signals and indications are numerous and varied, the
“Inspector” will need to ascertain the correct operation of all
alarm systems present. He will not normally test every one
but a selection and depending on the results of the selection
can elect to go deeper and deeper into the rig alarm
systems, it is good maintenance practice to keep all alarm
systems calibrated and operational at all times. Failure of
alarm systems can cause catastrophic consequences from
severe equipment damage to total installation loss.

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4.6 Gas Detection Systems

4.6.1 Maintenance
Maintenance on a properly installed, quality system is
minimal and need only consist of a visual inspection and
verification of operation. Calibration frequency depends on
sensor type and application.

4.6.2 Frequency of Calibration

• Typical frequency for commercial applications is
1 to 2 times per year.

• In areas where health hazards may exist,

3 to 4 times per year.

• And in Industrial applications

4 to 6 times per year or even monthly.

4.6.3 Calibration
Instrument calibration refers to exposing the instrument to a
known quantity of the measured substance (real or
simulated) and resetting the instrument if required. This
verifies that the instrument is operating properly and adjusts
for any sensor drift. For gas detection equipment this
involves exposing the sensor to a known concentration of the
target gas, usually from a calibration gas cylinder, and
resetting the instrument to adjust for sensor drift.

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5 Spare Parts
5.1 Switches/Gas Sensors

Spare parts for these systems will consist of a supply of

pressure switches and temperature sensors for the quick
replacement of faulty engine components. Or for the gas
detection systems a supply of gas detector heads for both
H²S and CHC. Also the different types of fire detector
sensors for both smoke and flame should be kept in store.

5.2 Lamps/Pushbuttons/Relays & Transformers

A selection of lamps should be kept for the control panels,

and a spare push button for the accept and cancel buttons on
these panels. Spare lenses for any lamps in the correct
colours in case of breakage should also be included and
spare relays and control transformers should be kept to keep
the system operating in the event of failure.

5.3 Horns/Bells & Sirens

There should also be spares for the horns , bells, sirens, and
flashing lights to maintain the system in the high noise
environment to ensure that all alarms can be heard where
ever personnel are working.

5.4 Flow & Temp Switches

The Elmagco brake will require spare flow switches and

temperature sensors as these are essential warning devices
subjected to constant use.

5.4.1 Complete Flow Line Sensor

With the Flow Show or flow line sensor, a spare one of these
units should always be on hand. This allows for a so quick
change out can if required to keep the system in operating
condition. These components operate in very harsh
conditions so replacement is the easiest method of repair,
the faulty one can then be repaired at leisure.

5.5 Mfg. Recommended Spare Parts

Use of the manufacturers recommended spares listing will

ensure you have the correct spares on hand in case of
problems. This is especially true when working in remote
areas of the world. If the manufacturer has a “local”
distributor, then keeping hordes of spares cannot be justified
economically, however if the spares parts are located 1,000’s
of miles away and customs can mean even further delays,
the spares stock should be further increased.

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6 Trouble Shooting
6.1 What if it Brakes Down

Once again any problem will be confined to a piece of

equipment or system and should be easily rectified if normal
troubleshooting procedures are followed. A process of
elimination is carried out to identify the source of the
breakdown and valuable information can be gleaned from the
operators of such equipment.

6.2 OEM Manual & Schematics

The first place to start an investigation with any malfunction

on equipment that you are not familiar with is to arm
yourself with the associated schematics and the OEM
manual. Depending on the type of fault will dictate how you
approach the problem. Faults which present themselves with
the Drilling system alarms will generally be localized to the
associated equipment where as the gas and fire alarm
systems may be interfaced to a common control unit.

6.3 Component or Wiring Failure

On all of these systems trouble shooting comes down

generally two things, component failure or wiring problems.
If the system fails it will normally be sensors, such as
pressure switches or temperature sensors which fail to open
or close as required. Consequently they will fail to bring
about the alarm function or initiate a shut down, or may
prevent the re-start if the contact remains open.

6.4 Testing & Checking

This is why testing and checking of alarm systems is so vital.

There is no point in knowing that the oil pressure sensor on
an engine is faulty when the engine later on seizes up after
an oil leak develops. Or the H²S sensors on the rig floor have
faulted last week and today a gas release has cut your
companies payroll bill by half. Period planned maintenance of
Alarm systems has paramount importance in offshore
installations, both to avoid expensive equipment damage or
more importantly personnel safety.

6.5 Self Diagnostic Function

Many of the better systems have a self diagnostic function

where the system cycles the sensors to check each sensor
and will bring up an alarm if the sensor is at fault. The simple
replacement of a defective sensor may solve the problem
with a fault alarm being displayed on the enunciator panel.

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7 Questions
1. Are some gases heavier or lighter than others?
a) Yes. b) No.

2. Are there many types of sensors used for gas

detection?
a) Yes. b) No.

3. Name three different kinds of sensors used.

a) __________ b) _________ c) __________

4. What are the advantages of Solid State sensors?

a) Accurate b) repeatable c) more gas specific d) all
the above

5. What are the disadvantages of Electrochemical

sensors?
a) Relatively short life b) Moderately expensive d) a
&b

6. What are the advantages of Catalytic sensors?

a) 0-100% LEL for many combustible gases accurate
b) long life c) a & b

7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of

Infrared sensors?
a) Very gas specific b) best way to detect CO2 c)
very accurate & stabled) long life e) a. b. c. & d

8. Does gas detection equipment need maintenance and

calibration?
a) Yes. b) No.

9. What is calibration?
(a) exposing the ________to a known quantity of the
measured substance.
(b) resetting the instrument to adjust for _____ drift.

10. Where does H2S come from?

a) Smelly socks b) Rotten eggs c) Decomposing
organic matter d) a. b. & c.

11. What does % LEL mean?

a) % of Light emitting from lamp b) % Long
elongated links c) Lower explosive limit.

12. What does ppm mean?

a) Parts per microbars. b) Parts per millibars
(c) Parts per millilitres. d) Parts per million.

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8 Reference Material
The best reference material for any equipment is the
manufacturer’s service manuals that are usually supplied
with the alarm systems and sensors that you have on your
facility.

These manuals cover everything from installation to the

commissioning when it is newly installed, to trouble shooting
and fault finding when the systems are in normal operation.

In most cases there are people employed with the

manufacturers who can assist in time of need by email or by
telephone who can talk over a problem with you on the
company technical support line.

8.1 Manufacturers

Drager, MSA Europe, Industrial Scientific Corporation,

RAE, GIG, and Honeywell.

8.2 Web Sites

8.3 Gas Detection

[Link]
6296

[Link]

8.3.1 Solid State (MOS) Sensors

[Link]

8.3.2 Electrochemical Sensors

[Link]

8.3.3 Catalytic Sensors

[Link]

8.3.4 Infrared Sensors

[Link]
ml

8.4 Smoke & Fire Detection

[Link]
[Link]/Safety_and_surveillance_electronics/Sm
oke_detectors/

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9 Work Place Assignments

1. Look at your rigs documentation and find any
schematics and OEM manuals that gives you
information on these systems, familiarise yourself
with the location and type of alarm and sensors
applicable to your facility.

2. Make your way up to the Drillers console on the rig

floor and observe the alarms that exist to alert him of
problems or breakdowns. Look to see how these are
enunciated and acknowledged and go and find the
source to their signals.

3. Ask the Driller to explain the operation of the mud

flow instrumentation and the set points that are
adjustable for mud gain and mud loss. Find the mud
flow instrument that these signals originate from. The
Driller will be able to tell you where this is located.

4. Look at the Baylor Elmagco Brake and find the alarm

system that monitors water flow and temperature. If
possible momentarily turn off the water flow and
check that the flow alarm activates.

5. Find the Drawworks break cooling flow instrument and

check to see that this is operational. Compare this
reading to the documentation to ascertain that the
correct amount of water is flowing.

6. Take a walk around the engine room and familiarise

yourself with the alarm systems that protect the
engines and generators from damage. Some of these
will be warning alarms while others will initiate engine
shutdowns. Consult the OEM docs and manuals to
make you conversant.

7. While in this area look for the Halon, Hi fog and Fire &
Gas systems that protect this area. Look for the
location of flashing warning lights and audible alarms.

8. In the plant or machinery rooms find all of the alarm

systems that warn of potential problems. Look at the
air compressors enunciator panels and find the
remote waring devices that warns of low air pressure
in the system.

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9. Find the location of the HVAC & Refigeration

machinery rooms if they exists for your facility and
make a note of the control panels and associated
alarms.

10. Look for the location of the main fire & gas alarm
panel or panels depending on how large your facility
is. Observe the indication lamps and acknowledge and
reset controls on these panels. Record any fault
indications that may require further investigation.

11. Make your self aware of the location and means of

activation of the abandon ship or site alarms. These
locations will depend on the type of facility that you
are on and generally will be located in the vicinity of
the Tool pusher, Drilling Superintendent, Offshore
Installation Manager, Company man or site manager

12. While walking around your facility look for the

locations and types of sensors associated with the fire
and gas systems.

13. Check the maintenance records for an overview on

what has been done with these system in the past
and the last date that a function and calibration test
was carried out.

14. Go into the store room or area and find out what
spare parts are kept on hand for all of these systems.

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10 Glossary
Alarm Is an audible, visual, or physical presentation
designed to warn the instrument user that a specific level of
a dangerous gas/vapor concentration has been reached or
exceeded.

Alarm Set Point Is the selected gas concentration level

where an alarm is activated.

Ambient Air Is air to which the sensing element is

normally exposed.

Analyzer Is an instrument which can determine

qualitatively and quantitatively the components in a mixture.

Annunciator This is a panel that annunciates and displays

an audible and visual indication of alarm conditions or faults
that occur with the system or systems that it is designed to
monitor.. It generally incorporates an audible alarm,
indicator lights for three levels of gas alarms, the
sensor/system OK and FAIL lights and a silence button. The
silence button momentarily silences the audible alarm and
also tests the operation of the indicator lights and buzzer.

Approved Is acceptance by the authority having jurisdiction.

The term is considered synonymous with "listed" and
"certified."

Area Monitor Is a term that is often misleadingly applied

to gas monitoring sensors that are installed in a regular grid
pattern throughout an area requiring monitoring. A true area
monitor must be able to measure the concentration of a
substance at any point in three dimensional space in a
defined value or it must be able to indicate the total quantity
of a substance that has penetrated a defined volume.

BASEEFA. British approval agency. The Electrical

Equipment Certification Service (EECS) is based at the Health
and Safety Laboratory's Buxton research centre in
Derbyshire, England. It provides a range of testing and
certification services primarily related to equipment and
systems intended for use in potentially explosive
atmospheres.

Blocking Certain conditions can cause a sensor not to

function. when this happens, normal gas sensing is blocked
until the conditions are removed. The most common block is
lack of oxygen. Oxygen deprivation can be caused by sensor
flooding and a clogged flame arrestor.

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Calibration Is the procedure used to adjust the instrument

for proper response (e.g., zero level, span, alarm and range).

Calibration Gas Is the known concentration(s) of gas used

to set the instrument span or alarm level(s).

Clean Air Is air that is free of any substance that will

adversely affect the operation of or cause a response of the
instrument. Clean air is also called "zero air" or "zero gas".

Combustible Hydrocarbon (CHC) Is any organic gas or

vapour which when mixed with air or oxygen is capable of
the propagation of flame away from the source of ignition
when ignited.

Combustion is the rapid oxidation of a material evolving

heat and generally light.

Common Sensor This sensor allows the user to switch

sensor elements and flame arrestors instead of the whole
sensor. A sensor is thereby replaced with a minimum of cost
in time and money.

Control Unit/Module [Controller] Is that portion of a

multi-part gas detection instrument which is not directly
responsive to the gas but which responds to the electrical
signal obtained from one or more detector heads to produce
an indication, alarm, or other output function. The control
unit contains the operating controls such as zero, span and
alarm set point adjustments along with readouts, status
indicators, recorder outputs and relay contacts.

Detector Head Is the gas-responsive portion of a gas

detection instrument located in the area where sensing the
presence of gas is desired. Its location may be integral with
or remote from any circuitry.

Diffusion Is a process by which the atmosphere being

monitored is transported to the gas-sensing element by
natural random molecular movement. This movement is
accelerated by thermal energy.

Electrical Noise Electrical noise has been creating

problems ever since the first antennas were installed and
lightning storms interfered. Almost every form of electrical or
electronic device has had to live with the problem at one
time or another. Today, we recognize that almost any device
which operates on the principle of moving an electron from
one point to another can be a receiver of electrical noise.
Since the problem first became obvious to early radio
engineers, the term ‘radio frequency interference’ (RFI) was
most often applied.

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As engineers spread the use of electronics beyond its

beginnings in radio communication, it was found that
electrical interference didn’t confine itself to the radio
spectrum. The newer term electromagnetic interference
(EMI) acknowledges the fact that electrical interference
encompasses the entire electromagnetic spectrum from the
lowest magnetic frequencies through the highest microwave
frequencies.

Fail Safe Any system that cannot fail in any mode without
providing a directly observable indication of failure. Consider
an electrical relay with a set of contacts that are open when
it is un-powered. If a power source and a light bulb are
connected in series with the contacts, the lamp will glow
when the relay is energized. If the goal of this system is to
insure that the relay has power, then this system is said to
be fail safe. If the lamp, relay contacts, lamp power source
relay coil, or the relay coil power supply fail, then the lamp
extinguishes itself providing a directly observable foolproof
indication of failure.

Fire Indicator Panel A control and indicating panel

containing the alarm zone facilities

Fire/Smoke Doors A door designated to reduce the rate

of smoke and or fire of spread of smoke and or fire during a
fire.

Flame Arrestor Its purpose is to prevent flame

propagation from the heated sensor side of the sensor. It
reduces the differential cooling effect of wind on the sensing
element and protects the sensor from flooding by a high
velocity of gas. It also protects the sensing element from
damage during handling. It should be checked for proper
attachment and fit, and for signs of corrosion, dirt or
moisture. An area must be declassified (free from
Combustible Gas) before a flame arrestor can be removed
from a catalytic system.

Flameproof or Explosion Proof Flame paths through

housing flanges or flame arrestors are dimensioned such that
the hot, gaseous products of internal explosion, which may
leak out of the enclosure, will be sufficiently cooled to
prevent igniting the specific flammable surroundings. The
enclosures are strong enough to withstand the internal
explosions without damaging these controlled flame paths.
Surfaces that may contact the flammable atmospheres have
maximum temperatures below the ignition point of the
specific gas or vapour to be encountered.

Flammable (Explosive) Limits. For gases or vapours

which form flammable mixtures with air or oxygen, there is a
minimum concentration of vapour in air or oxygen below
which propagation of flame does not occur on contact with a
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source of ignition. There is also a maximum proportion of

vapour or gas in air above which propagation of flame does
not occur. These boundary-line mixtures of vapour or gas
with air, which if ignited will just propagate flame, are known
as the "lower and upper flammable limits" (LFL and UFL) or
the "lower and upper explosive limits" (LEL and UEL), and
are usually expressed in terms of percentage by volume of
gas or vapour in air. LEL and LFL are different terms for the
same concept and can be used interchangeably. In popular
terms, a mixture below the lower flammable limit is too
"lean" to burn or explode and a mixture above the upper
flammable limit too "rich" to burn or explode.

Flammable (Explosive) Range. The range of flammable

vapour or gas-air mixture between the upper and lower
flammable limits is known as the "flammable range", also
often referred to as the "explosive range". For example, the
lower limit of flammability of acrylonitrite at ordinary ambient
temperatures is approximately 3 percent vapour in air by
volume, while the upper limit of flammability is about 17
percent. All concentrations by volume of acrylonitrite vapour
in air falling between 3 percent and 17 percent are in the
flammable or explosive range.

Flashpoint Is the minimum temperature at which a liquid

gives off a sufficient vapour to reach 100% LEL (sufficient
vapour to form an ignitable mixture with the air near the
surface of the liquid).

Flooding Sensor flooding occurs when a gas concentration

at the sensor exceeds its stoichiometric mixture. The signal
from the sensor reverts to zero because the mixture in the
air is too gas-rich to burn.

Gas Detection Instrument Is an assembly of electrical,

mechanical and chemical components (either a single
integrated unit or a system comprised of two or more
physically separate but interconnected component parts)
which senses and responds to the presence of gas in air
mixtures.

Gas Sensing Element (Sensor) Is the particular

subassembly or element in the gas detection instrument
which, in the presence of a gas, produces a change in its
electrical, chemical, or physical characteristics.

Hydrogen Sulphide Is interchangeable for: hydrogen

sulphide, H2S, dihydrogen sulphide, and hydrogen sulphide
gas.

IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health)

Represents the maximum concentration level of a substance
from which one could escape within 30 minutes without

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escape-impairing symptoms or any irreversible effects (For

instance 300 ppm for Hydrogen Sulphide).

Ignitable Mixture A mixture within the flammable range

(between the lower and upper flammable/explosive limits)
that, when ignited, is capable of the propagation of flame
away from the source of ignition.

Ignition Temperature Is the minimum temperature

necessary to initiate combustion (oxidation) and have self-
sustained combustion of the solid, liquid, gas, or vapour of
interest.

Interference An interferent is any gas other than the

target gas that will cause a gas detecting sensor to give a
signal. In the case of a combustible sensor, any combustible
gas or vapour will cause a signal.

Intrinsic Safety Electrical apparatus and its associated

wiring in the hazardous location is intrinsically safe when it is
designed to operate with insufficient electrical or thermal
energy, under either normal or abnormal conditions, to ignite
the specific hazardous atmospheric mixture.

Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)

Lower Flammable Limit (LFL) The lower explosive limit
(LEL) or lower flammable limit (LFL) of a combustible gas is
defined as the smallest amount of the gas that will support a
self-propagating flame when mixed with air (or oxygen) and
ignited. In gas-detection systems, the amount of gas present
is specified in terms of % LEL: 0% LEL being a combustible
gas-free atmosphere and 100% LEL being an atmosphere in
which the gas is at its lower flammable limit. The relationship
between % LEL and % by volume differs from gas to gas.
Typical settings for the alarm circuit are 20% for the low
alarm, 40% for the high alarm and 60% for the high-high
alarm.
The LEL of a gas is affected by the temperature and
pressure: as the temperature increases, the LEL decreases
and hence the explosion hazard increases; the relationship
between LEL and pressure is fairly complex, but at
approximately one atmosphere a pressure increase usually
lowers the LEL. The LEL of a gas is not significantly affected
by the humidity fluctuations normally encountered in the
operation of a gas-detecting system.

Manual Call Points A device for the manual operation of a

fire alarm system. The definition includes a break-glass
alarm

Monitor Is an instrument used for continuous

measurement of a condition which must be kept within
prescribed limits. Monitors are not the same as analysers. An
analyser is capable of determining the quality, quantity
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and/or type of specific substance or substances in a mixture.

A monitor continuously measures a condition which must be
kept within prescribed limits.

NEC National Electrical Code

NEMA National Electrical Manufacturers Association.

Technical standards for electrical equipment.

Non sparking Non sparking circuits are those which

contain no contacts or in which contacts are isolated from the
surrounding atmosphere such as by hermetic sealing.

Nominal Voltage Is the voltage given by the manufacturer

as the recommended operating voltage of their gas detection
equipment. If a range (versus a specific voltage) is given, the
nominal voltage shall be considered as the midpoint of the
range, unless otherwise specified.

Non Incendive Non incendive circuits are those which may

spark under normal operating conditions, but which may not
release enough energy to cause ignition. Circuits may contain
enough energy for potential ignition should both the
equipment fail and the process fail (two concurrent failures).

Point Monitor All popular gas monitors are point

monitors. This means that their sensors are only capable of
indicating the concentration of a substance at a single point
in three dimensional space. Selection of the proper point in
three dimensional space at which to place a sensor or sample
probe is the most important element in the art of gas
monitoring.

Poisons Sensors can be quickly destroyed (or poisoned) by

certain materials. Even low concentrations of poisoning
substances can cause serious problems. The two most
common phenomena are coating and etching

Portable Refers to a self-contained, battery-operated or

transportable gas monitor worn or carried by the person
using it. A gas detector that can be carried.

Ported Sensor Provides a 1/4" NPT connection on the side

of a sensor body or sensor adaptor for delivery of calibration
gas. Typically used when sensor is located in a hard-to-
reach or hazardous location.

PPM Parts Per Million

Range Is the series of outputs corresponding to values of

concentrations of the gas of interest over which accuracy is
ensured by calibration.

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SAM Sequential Acknowledgment Module provides a relay

contact transfer whenever any one gas detection alarm
occurs in a zone, but each alarm can be sequentially
acknowledged.

Sample Draw Refers to a method to cause deliberate flow

of the atmosphere being monitored to a gas-sensing
element.

Sensing Element A sensing element is unique to each gas

to be monitored. The element is constructed to plug into a
circuit board in the sensor housing. Sensor elements can,
with the use of a special tool, be replaced in the field.

Sensor A gas detecting sensor converts the presence of a

gas or vapour into an electrically measurable signal. The
sensor is the heart of a gas monitor. The system is as good
as the sensor.

Span Is the algebraic difference between the upper and

lower values of a range.

Stationary Refers to a gas detection instrument intended

for permanent installation in a fixed location.

Test Gas Is a known concentration of the gas to be

detected diluted with clean air.

Toxic Gas or Vapour Any substance which causes illness

or death when inhaled or absorbed by the body in relatively
small quantities. H2S is a highly toxic gas.

Transmitter A transmitter in a gas detection system

amplifies the signal from the sensor and converts it into a
more convenient form for transmission. Some monitors
collect sensor signals without the use of transmitters.

Trouble Signal Is a signal (contact, transfer, and/or visible

or audible signal) advising an instrument user of conditions
such as input power failure, an open circuit breaker, a blown
fuse, loss of continuity to the detector head, defective gas-
sensing element, or significant downscale indication

Vapour Is the gaseous state of a material below its boiling

point.

Vapour Density Relates the molecular weight of a gas to

the molecular weight of air.

Zero Gas Zero gas is clean air, and is an excellent way of

insuring that a small release of gas is not near the sensor while
zeroing the sensor signal during calibration.

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Section 13
Alarm Systems

1 Equipment Overview ................................................ 2

2 How Does It Work .................................................... 9
3 How Do I Operate It ............................................... 18
4 Inspection............................................................. 20
5 Maintenance.......................................................... 21
6 Spare Parts ........................................................... 23
7 Trouble Shooting ................................................... 24
8 Questions ............................................................. 25
9 Reference Material ................................................. 26
10 Work Place Assignments....................................... 27
11 Glossary ............................................................ 29

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
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1 Equipment Overview
1.1 General

Alarm systems are of vital importance to the safe operation

of drilling rigs.

These will include some the most common alarms.

• General Alarms

o Fire & gas alarm

o H²S alarm

o Man over board alarm

o Abandon ship or site alarms

• Equipment Specific Alarms

o Drillers alarms

o Engine room alarms

o Plant room alarms

o Crane over limit alarms

Some of these alarms will be localised to engine generator

skid or engine room equipment, and others will be general
for all to hear, such as the gas alarms or abandon
rig/platform alarms for an oil or gas production platform.

Also on offshore rigs all personnel will need to know if there

is an emergency unfolding. They may need to go to their
muster stations to prepare to abandon the facility if the
emergency cannot be brought under control.

Well kick alarms which are installed to indicate the well is

flowing are predominately fitted to offshore oil rigs. This is to
inform the Driller and rig floor crew of a serious event
occurring. These alarms initiate a sequence of actions the rig
floor crew are required to undertake in order to “secure” the
well. In these situations time is of the essence, the alarm
initiates actions immediately without further communication
being necessary and can be as simple as a horn blowing on
the rig floor.

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1.2 Rig Floor Alarms

1.2.1 Mud Flow Alarm

In regard to rig floor alarms the driller has various alarms
involved with the drilling operation which keeps him informed
about the condition of the drilling systems during the drilling
of the well. One of the most important is the Flow Show
(Flow Indication) which indicates the rate of flow of the
returning mud in the flow line from the well, and thereby the
performance of the hydrostatic head and down hole well
condition.

Figure 1 Explosion Proof Alarms

These flow alarms can be set to give alarms for high and low
flow. The high alarm will give indication of a well that has
started to flow. This occurs when the down hole pressure
exceeds the weight of the drilling fluid used to neutralise it.
This increase in pressure will push oil or gas up the casing
and increase the mud returns, giving a high alarm. Or in the
case of a lost circulation situation where they have drilled
into a void and are losing large volumes of mud with little or
no returns, this will give a low alarm.

1.2.2 Mud Loss/Gain Alarm

Another alarm on the rig floor for the same situation is the
Loss/Gain indication which will warn of loss or gain in the
whole system by measuring the amount of drilling fluid in
each mud pit in the active system. This will also measure the
total volume of all of the pits in the mud system and any loss
or gain in that system.

This can be set to a percentage point above and below a set

point to warn of a change in volume of the active volume of
the mud. This will warn if mud is being lost in the circulation,
or gained from a “kick”, with oil or gas being added to the
system.

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1.3 Machinery Alarms

Alarms for various other sources are both numerous and far
ranging, from over tension alarms for the mooring system, to
low pressure alarms for the drinking or sewage water
systems. It is the duty of all personnel on board to familiarise
themselves with all alarm conditions and signal indications
pertinent to their duties and endeavour to learn all the alarm
signals and indications on the installation they serve.

Figure 2 Explosion Proof Machinery Alarms

1.4 Engine Room Alarms

The engine room alarms are designed to make the

maintenance staff aware of problems that are unfolding,
normally unseen by the crew on duty as engine rooms are
predominately unmanned. These alarm activations alert the
crews that action should be taken to correct the situation
before it becomes critical, and causes an engine or generator
shuts down due to a fault.

In general these alarms are for the protection of the engines,

such as warnings of low oil pressure, high temperature, over
speed trips or that an engine has stopped running. They can
also be for low levels in fuel tanks, or water tanks, high
levels in the bilges if an automatic pump has failed to start to
drain the bilges. Or they can be low air pressure if a
compressor has failed to start, all of these are critical for the
smooth operation of the engine room. Alarms can be
programmed to measure the “high salinity” in the drinking
water being produced by the water maker. In this case this
alarm would activate a solenoid valve so that the salty water
is dumped overboard and not pumped to the rig storage
tanks. There can also be alarms to warn of high
temperatures in generators or transformers.

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1.5 General Alarms

These can be Audible with visual indication in the form of a

daisy chain of coloured lights. As the emergency progresses
the warning sound will change along with the sequence of
indication lights. All installations are different and a transfer
to other rigs in the fleet often means learning the new rigs
alarm protocols. Some alarms are rig specific but others are
required by regulatory bodies to conform to a standard and
must comply. These include the General Alarm, abandon ship
alarms along with fire and the various Gas alarms.

Figure 3 General Alarm

General alarms are initiated for the safety of the whole crew
who have been allocated muster positions where they must
assemble in the case of an emergency. This is so that a head
count can be taken to establish if anyone is missing. If a
person cannot be located then a search can be organised to
look for them. They may be associated with the cause of the
alarm and need urgent help in the case of a H²S or
Hydrocarbon release at the well heads.

When a general alarm emergency has gone to the next level

personnel will be advised that they may have to leave the rig
or platform for there own safety. They must be prepared to
abandon the facility and be standing by their appointed
method of departure, such as life boats or rafts, and await
the order to abandon.

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1.5.1 Gas Alarms

In the case of a gas alarm, where there has been a
significant release of hydrocarbons or H²S gas which has the
potential to cause an explosion the level of alertness is raised
to make all personnel aware that they will need to leave the
area and muster at a safe designated location.

Figure 4 Gas Alarm Computer Readout Screen

[Link] Gases that can be Encountered

H²S Gas

• Hydrogen sulfide is a colorless, highly flammable and

explosive gas produced naturally by decaying organic
matter and by certain industrial processes. Hydrogen
sulfide has a characteristic rotten-egg odor; however,
olfactory fatigue may occur and consequently it may
not provide adequate warning of hazardous
concentrations.

• Hydrogen sulfide is a mucous membrane and

respiratory tract irritant; pulmonary edema, which
may be immediate or delayed, can occur after
exposure to high concentrations.

• Symptoms of acute exposure include nausea,

headaches, delirium, disturbed equilibrium, tremors,
convulsions, and skin and eye irritation. Inhalation of
high concentrations of hydrogen sulfide can produce
extremely rapid unconsciousness and death. Exposure
to the liquefied gas can cause frostbite injury.

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1.6 Combustible Hydrocarbon (CHC)

• Is any organic gas or vapour which when mixed with

air or oxygen is capable of the propagation of flame
away from the source of ignition when ignited.

1.6.1 Fire Alarms

Most fire alarm systems have manual call points placed at
strategic positions around their facilities. These generally
require a station to have the break glass push button
activated which will set off the alarm to alert everyone to the
fact that there is a fire near the location of that alarm point.
When one of these break glass push buttons is activated the
alarm will be indicated on an alarm panel in a control centre
to indicate where the fire is, emergency crew can then be
sent there to fight the fire and isolate it from the surrounding
equipment.

Figure 5 Fire Alarm Bell Type

In all of these cases regular drills are carried out with the
actual sounding of these alarms and the crew is expected to
carry out their designated responses as if the alarm is a real
condition.

1.6.2 Abandon ship Alarm

When the order to abandon the facility is reached, a
continuous alarm is sounded from horns or sirens to make
everyone aware that they must leave by their appointed
method of departure as soon as possible. This is ensure their
chances of survival from a disastrous situation which can no
longer be controlled by the staff on that rig or platform.

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1.7 Manufacturers

There are many manufacturers located world wide that make

these systems which are not specific to the drilling industry,
but also manufacture fire and gas detection equipment for
heavy industry, marine and mining applications. These are
built to a high standard required in situations where
dangerous concentrations of gas and dust occur.

Drager, MSA Europe, Industrial Scientific Corporation,

RAE, GIG, and Honeywell.

Figure 6 Selection Manufacturers Equipment

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2 How Does It Work

2.1 General Alarm

The General Alarm system can consists of a series of Bells

horns or speakers that are strategically place throughout a
facility. These are electrically or air driven to meet their
designed decibel output. These are normally initiated by
manual call points or on the instruction of the person in
charge of the operation if they consider that personnel should
be called to the muster points around the rig. In the event of
an escalation in the emergency personnel should be prepare
to depart the facility if an abandon rig order is given.

Figure 7 Fire & Gas Manual Call Point

Although normally manually activated the General Alarm can

also be automatically generated. This is particularly the case
with the fire alarm system. A time delay relay is incorporated
within the master fire panel and if the alarm indication is not
acknowledged within a certain time the fire panel
automatically sends a signal to the General Alarm panel and
the alarm is activated. This is to ensure the alarm is not
ignored.

2.2 Engine Alarm Systems

When a diesel engine is operated in a hazardous area or in

an application where special precautions are justified, it is
often a general requirement that the engine automatically
shuts down if its speed, critical temperatures or oil pressure
fall outside of predetermined limits. It is widely recognised
that the best method to achieve such an emergency
automatic shut down is by closure of an engine air intake
shut down valve. To comply with API RP 54 9.15.1 both the
engine air intake and diesel fuel supply must be shut down
automatically in the event of engine overspeed. It must also
be possible to operate the air shut down valve manually.

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2.3 Elmagco Brake

These alarm systems extend to many pieces of equipment

used for the drilling operation, such as pressure switches and
flow switches to warn of failure of cooling fluid to the
Elmagco brake, or temperature switches to indicate the over
temperature of the cooling water from the brake. These
switch activations will turn on a warning alarm and light.

Figure 8 Baylor Brake Alarm System

2.4 Drilling Equipment

Alarms for the Koomey unit will indicate loss of pressure in

the accumulator which could affect well safety, and alarms to
indicate the failure of the rig air pressure system to maintain
sufficient pressure in the air system to support the operation
of the drilling systems, such as clutches on the Drawworks.
On newer rigs the switches are or can be replaced with
pressure transducers along with digital indicators. The alarm
contacts being contained within same instrument as the
digital readout. This gives the added advantage of a digital
readout to allow the relevant personnel to actually see the
cause behind the alarm signal.

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2.5 Gas Detection

The gas alarms are normally triggered by gas sensors, which

constantly monitors the gas around the facilities with sensors
positioned at all the high risk locations such as the bell
nipple, rig floor, return lines, shale shakers, and mud pits.
Any location where the returning mud can carry gas will
trigger an alarm if the level rises above the declared safe
level. Also in locations where hydrogen sulphide gas( H²S ) is
to be found, sensors for this will be mounted in the same
locations to trigger a different alarm to warn of the presence
of the H2S gas should it occur.

Figure 9 Selection of Gas Sensors

2.5.1 Types of Sensors

There are many sensors used to detect gases. Some gases
can be detected by some sensors and not by others, and
some sensors are more accurate or gas-specific than others.
Types of sensors include Solid State (also known as Metal
Oxide Semiconductor), Electrochemical, Catalytic, Infrared,
Galvanic, Photo acoustic, PID and others.

2.5.2 Reasons for Different kinds of Sensors

Most gases can only be detected by one or two sensor types.

Then consideration is given to required accuracy and
specificity, sensor life expectancy, and finally cost.

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2.5.3 Solid State (MOS) Sensors

The sensor technology is a proprietary solid state metal oxide

semiconductor. The sensor consists of two thin films: a
temperature sensitive heater film, and a hydrogen sulfide
sensitive sensor film. Both films are deposited on a silicon
microchip by vacuum deposition. The heater film elevates the
operating temperature of the sensor film to a level where an
optimized sensitivity and response to hydrogen sulfide is
achieved. The sensor film consists of a proprietary metal
oxide that shows a dynamic signal change to hydrogen
sulfide gas.

Advantages: Low cost, long life, quite resistant to

poisoning.
Disadvantages: Broad spectrum, non-specific, not as
accurate as other types.

2.5.4 Electrochemical Sensors

Electrochemical sensors are used primarily to detect oxygen

and toxic gases. Each sensor is designed to be specific to the
gas it is intended to detect. Electrochemical sensors are
essentially fuel cells composed of noble metal electrodes in
an electrolyte. The electrolyte is normally an aqueous
solution of strong inorganic acids. When a gas is detected the
cell generates a small current proportional to the
concentration of the gas.

Advantages: Accurate, repeatable, more gas specific,

defined cross sensitivities.
Disadvantages: Relatively short life, moderately expensive.

2.5.5 Catalytic Sensors

Catalytic bead sensors are used primarily to detect
combustible gases. They have been in use for more than 50
years. Initially, these sensors were used for monitoring gas
in coal mines, where they replaced canaries that had been
used for a long period of time. The sensor itself is quite
simple in design and is easy to manufacture. In its simplest
form, as used in the original design, it was comprised of a
single platinum wire. Catalytic bead sensors were produced
over the world by a large number of different manufacturers,
but the performance and reliability of these sensors varied
widely among these various manufacturers.

Figure 8 Catalytic Sensors

Advantages: Range 0 — 100% LEL for many combustible

gases, accurate, long life.
Disadvantages: Moderately expensive, can be poisoned.

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2.5.6 Infrared Sensors

IR sensors make up a significant part of the gas-sensor
instrumentation market, and IR spectroscopy sensors remain
the most accurate and reliable because they don't rely on
catalytic or electrochemical interactions. The sensor elements
in many other types of devices are prone to react with
chemical species similar to the target and can become
contaminated or depleted with prolonged use. Since IR gas-
sensor elements do not touch the gas, they are not poisoned
by contact with the environment.

Figure 10 IR Detector

The IR detector is filtered to monitor a specific part of the IR

spectrum. As the gas of interest passes between the powered
IR source and the detectors, the absorption spectrum
changes, along with the detector output. The instrument
electronics process this data to determine the concentration
of the gas of interest, potentially setting off an alarm,
triggering an action, or simply providing the information for
monitoring purposes.

Advantages: Very gas specific, best way to detect CO2,

very accurate & stable, long life.
Disadvantages: Expensive.

2.5.7 What does % LEL mean

Combustible gases form flammable mixtures with air. For
each gas there is an explosive range within which the fuel to
air mixture will support combustion. LEL is an abbreviation
for Lower Explosive Limit, which is the minimum
concentration of each gas in air that must be present for
combustion or explosion to occur. Percentage LEL refers to a
method of measuring the concentration of a combustible gas
where the range of the sensor is set to correspond with the
concentration of gas that is below the explosive range. In
this case the Lower Explosive Limit equals 100 % LEL.

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2.5.8 Definition of PPM

Parts Per Million. 100 % volume equals 1,000,000 ‘parts’ , 1
% volume equals 10,000 ‘parts’

2.5.9 Definition of % Volume

The percentage of a gas in the total volume of air.

2.6 Smoke & Fire Detection

Smoke detectors are commonly used to detect the presence

of smoke particles in the air as an early indication of fire by
sensing light scattered from a light beam by smoke particles
that infiltrate the smoke detector. Smoke detectors are
known safety appliances which are installed in various
structures, including homes, office buildings, and
warehouses, to monitor for the presence of smoke, and to
provide an alarm in the event smoke is detected. Smoke
detectors are particularly used in closed spaces such as
houses, factories, offices, shops, ships, aircraft, and the like,
with virtually every building being required by law to have
some sort of early warning fire detection system. The alarm
may be audible and/or visual within the monitored space,
and may be electronically communicated to a remote
monitoring site. Smoke detection systems generally fall into
one of two categories including photoelectric detectors
and ionization smoke detectors.

Figure 11 Photoelectric Smoke Detector

2.6.1 Photoelectric smoke detectors

Photoelectric smoke detectors employ optical sensors to
detect the presence of smoke in a detection chamber. Optical
sensors operate based upon principles of scattered light
absorption.

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A photoelectric smoke detector system measures the

ambient smoke conditions of a confined space and activates
an alarm in response to the presence of unacceptably high
amounts of smoke.

Photoelectric detectors include an infrared (IR) light source

and an IR photodiode receiver positioned at opposite ends of
the detector's chamber. They are located off axis from each
other to prevent the IR light source emitted energy from
flowing directly to the receiver.

2.6.2 Ionization Type Smoke Detector

Ionization smoke detectors work by monitoring the
conductance of air ionised by a radioactive source, which
changes in the presence of smoke particles.

Figure 12 Optical Ionization Detector

A ionization type smoke detector generally comprises of a

smoke detecting section having an inner ionization chamber,
and an outer ionization chamber defined between the
intermediate electrode and an outer electrode. Ionization
smoke detectors are more sensitive than the photoelectric
type detectors in detecting smaller particles of combustion,
i.e. generally smaller than one micron. However,
photoelectric smoke detectors are more sensitive than
ionization detectors in detecting large combustion particulate.

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2.7 Location of Sensors

A sensor is a point monitor, which means it can monitor gas

only at a single point. It does not cover an area. If gas from
a leak does not reach the sensor, it will not be detected. The
selection of the number of sensors to install and the site for
each sensor is one of the most critical factors to be
considered for overall system effectiveness. Placing the
sensor in the wrong location will defeat the purpose for which
it is intended. One of the most important concepts to keep in
mind is that the sensor should be placed between the
potential leak and the ignition source for combustibles or
between the leak and the likely location of people for toxic
gases. For complicated installations, it is good practice to
prepare drawings showing all potential leak sites. The
locations should be graded in terms of their potential for
harm.

2.7.1 Vapour Density of Gases to Be Monitored

Sensors should be located near the ground for gases or

vapours which are heavier than air. You should consider not
installing them closer than 18 inches above the ground so
they will not be as likely to collect mud and water. To detect
heavy gases some companies do not allow sensors to be
installed higher than 36 inches. Sensors should be located
near the ceiling or roof or exit fan to detect lighter than air
gases. You can not rely, however, on heavier or lighter gases
always behaving in a predictable manner. Even inside, air
currents can create anomalies. Be especially aware of areas
which could become potential gas pockets

2.7.2 Air Currents

Locate the sensor where prevailing air currents would be

likely to contain the maximum concentration of the gas being
monitored. Consider the possibility of changes in wind
direction at different times of the day or during different
seasons. Your local weather information centre should have
data on the direction and velocity of prevailing winds during
the yearly cycle.

2.7.3 Dispersion of Gas/Vapour

Generally sensors should be located close to any potential

leak source. Liquids of low volatility, in particular, may
require the location of the sensor in the immediate area of
the vapour source. Liquids with high flash points or slow
rates of dispersion take a long time to produce readings if
the sensors are any distance from the spill or leak.

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2.7.4 Temperature Limitations

All sensors and electronics have ambient temperature

limitations. The installation of the sensor must be within the
operating range of each. If the area is too hot for the
electronics, a sensor extension kit is available to separate the
sensor from the transmitter/remote calibration modules. If
the gas temperature is too hot for the sensor, a gas
reclamation adapter is available to draw air samples to the
sensor. By connecting metal coils to the inlet side of this
adapter, the gas can be cooled down. If any preconditioning
system is to be used, make sure that the vapours will not
condense in the piping.

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3 How Do I Operate It
3.1 General Alarm

The general alarm will be controlled by the person in control

of the operation on any rig operation except in the case of
rigs operating on production platforms where the platform
supervision will be in charge of the overall safety of all
personnel on the platform, and control the muster points and
lifeboats and rafts in the case of an abandon platform
operation.

Certain rigs have General Alarm controls on the drill floor,

primarily to warn the entire installation of an immediate
serious problem and avoid the protracted delays which can
occur when telephone communications are involved prior to
the General alarm being sounded. I don’t suppose anyone
minds a few false alarms if ultimately his life is at stake.

3.2 Manual Call Points

In the case of fire on most facilities there will be break glass

push buttons stations at all locations in addition to automatic
smoke/heat or UV sensors, above engines and machinery of
that type which in the event of fire activate to alert all senior
personnel to the fire. Should the senior personnel (after
investigation) decide the situation is becoming serious they
can elect to activate the General alarm to communicate the
fact that all personnel need to report to their muster points
for a fire muster.

3.3 Abandon Rig Alarm

If the situation deteriorates to the worse case scenario

where it becomes necessary to abandon the rig or platform,
and the situation cannot be brought under control, the
general alarm will be activated to abandon the rig or
platform. The General alarm controls are of a distinctive
design and are only to be used for this application.

3.4 Local Equipment Alarm

Each individual piece of machinery or equipment will have its

own alarm system to warn of malfunction of any part of that
machine should it fail. The function of these alarms is to
warn personnel of the problem, and protect the machine
from damage.

Once the alarm is acknowledged it can be dealt with by the

appropriate staff in the local areas where they occur. These
alarms will raise indication such as a lights and/or audible
signals to indicate an outstanding fault, and these lights may
flash to draw attention to the problem.

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It is normal to have an accept and cancel function on the

panel, so that it is possible to accept the fault and silence the
horns or bells and then investigate the problem. Once the
problem is cleared the cancel button will clear the light ready
for the next fault.

The panels should be designed so that the acceptance of one

alarm does not preclude the generation of a different alarm
within the same panel; also the acceptance should be timed
such that if it is not cancelled after acceptance for a defined
period of time it simply reverts to an alarm condition once
again.

3.5 Drilling Alarms

Drilling alarms are set by the driller to the parameters

required by the drilling operation, so with the Flow Show
(flow indication) this is set by percentage above and below
normal so that any drift from normal will bring up an alarm
to ensure the driller is aware of the problem.

Figure 13 Drillers Cabin with Multiple Alarms

Another important indicator the driller has is the Pit Levels or

Pit Indication which informs the driller about the level in each
mud pit and the total volume of the whole system, which
again indicates the loss or gain of mud in the system with an
alarm facility to warn of loss and gain in the mud pits.

These systems normally allow the driller to select the pit

levels he wishes to monitor and exclude the others; he will
normally select only the “active” tanks, allowing mud mixing
and additions to the non-active tanks within the system.

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3.6 Inspection

The alarms that are not in regular use and may not have
operated for some time must be tested to be sure they are
still in working order, and most panels have a lamp test
function which should be operated often to make sure that all
the lamps are working such as the Koomey remote control
panel.

Some of the flow switches such as those used in the Elmagco

brake cooling system need to be checked on a regular basis
as the paddle may seize with local corrosion and stop the
switch operating as it should.

Pressure and temperature sensors should be checked

regularly to make sure they have not drifted off calibration
and no longer operating in the desired range, this should be
done for the safety of the piece of equipment, and to prevent
damage from occurring in the future.

Gas and Fire alarm systems must be regularly checked and if

necessary recalibrated to ensure their correct operations at
all times. There is normally a test function isolation switch on
the fire alarm panel so that sensors can be tested without
setting off an alarm. While local alarms on the various items
of equipments are normally checked/tested during the
normal PMS routines, or carried out as part of the daily work
tasks to ensure they’re still operating as they should.

Figure 14 Drill Console Panels Removed for Inspection

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4 Maintenance
4.1 Alarm Systems

General maintenance on the alarm systems comes down to

regular checks to see if the alarm is still operating in that the
sensors still operate, opening or closing the switches to
protect the equipment in question, and that all the horns,
sirens, and bells are in working order.

4.2 Control Panels

With the control panels, lamps and internal horns or buzzers

need to be checked to make sure they are operating,
particularly if they do not have a lamp test facility, as lamps
may have blown and need to be replaced,

4.3 Flow Indication

Flow show paddles need to be checked to make sure they

have their full range of movement and are not hampered by
a build up of mud or corrosion, and pit calibration checked if
there is any doubt about the total volume.

4.4 Elmagco Brake

The flow switches for the Elmagco brake need to be checked

on a regular basis to make sure the paddles are not stuck in
the down position due to corrosion if they have been
standing for a long period of time. In the case of temperature
sensor for the outlet water of the brake, as with any
temperature sensor is best tested by immersion in water of
the correct temperature.

4.5 Regulatory Bodies

Regulatory bodies carry out inspections of the installations at

pre-determined intervals, often at very short notice. Alarm
signals and indications are numerous and varied, the
“Inspector” will need to ascertain the correct operation of all
alarm systems present. He will not normally test every one
but a selection and depending on the results of the selection
can elect to go deeper and deeper into the rig alarm
systems, it is good maintenance practice to keep all alarm
systems calibrated and operational at all times. Failure of
alarm systems can cause catastrophic consequences from
severe equipment damage to total installation loss.

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4.6 Gas Detection Systems

4.6.1 Maintenance
Maintenance on a properly installed, quality system is
minimal and need only consist of a visual inspection and
verification of operation. Calibration frequency depends on
sensor type and application.

4.6.2 Frequency of Calibration

• Typical frequency for commercial applications is
1 to 2 times per year.

• In areas where health hazards may exist,

3 to 4 times per year.

• And in Industrial applications

4 to 6 times per year or even monthly.

4.6.3 Calibration
Instrument calibration refers to exposing the instrument to a
known quantity of the measured substance (real or
simulated) and resetting the instrument if required. This
verifies that the instrument is operating properly and adjusts
for any sensor drift. For gas detection equipment this
involves exposing the sensor to a known concentration of the
target gas, usually from a calibration gas cylinder, and
resetting the instrument to adjust for sensor drift.

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5 Spare Parts
5.1 Switches/Gas Sensors

Spare parts for these systems will consist of a supply of

pressure switches and temperature sensors for the quick
replacement of faulty engine components. Or for the gas
detection systems a supply of gas detector heads for both
H²S and CHC. Also the different types of fire detector
sensors for both smoke and flame should be kept in store.

5.2 Lamps/Pushbuttons/Relays & Transformers

A selection of lamps should be kept for the control panels,

and a spare push button for the accept and cancel buttons on
these panels. Spare lenses for any lamps in the correct
colours in case of breakage should also be included and
spare relays and control transformers should be kept to keep
the system operating in the event of failure.

5.3 Horns/Bells & Sirens

There should also be spares for the horns , bells, sirens, and
flashing lights to maintain the system in the high noise
environment to ensure that all alarms can be heard where
ever personnel are working.

5.4 Flow & Temp Switches

The Elmagco brake will require spare flow switches and

temperature sensors as these are essential warning devices
subjected to constant use.

5.4.1 Complete Flow Line Sensor

With the Flow Show or flow line sensor, a spare one of these
units should always be on hand. This allows for a so quick
change out can if required to keep the system in operating
condition. These components operate in very harsh
conditions so replacement is the easiest method of repair,
the faulty one can then be repaired at leisure.

5.5 Mfg. Recommended Spare Parts

Use of the manufacturers recommended spares listing will

ensure you have the correct spares on hand in case of
problems. This is especially true when working in remote
areas of the world. If the manufacturer has a “local”
distributor, then keeping hordes of spares cannot be justified
economically, however if the spares parts are located 1,000’s
of miles away and customs can mean even further delays,
the spares stock should be further increased.

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6 Trouble Shooting
6.1 What if it Brakes Down

Once again any problem will be confined to a piece of

equipment or system and should be easily rectified if normal
troubleshooting procedures are followed. A process of
elimination is carried out to identify the source of the
breakdown and valuable information can be gleaned from the
operators of such equipment.

6.2 OEM Manual & Schematics

The first place to start an investigation with any malfunction

on equipment that you are not familiar with is to arm
yourself with the associated schematics and the OEM
manual. Depending on the type of fault will dictate how you
approach the problem. Faults which present themselves with
the Drilling system alarms will generally be localized to the
associated equipment where as the gas and fire alarm
systems may be interfaced to a common control unit.

6.3 Component or Wiring Failure

On all of these systems trouble shooting comes down

generally two things, component failure or wiring problems.
If the system fails it will normally be sensors, such as
pressure switches or temperature sensors which fail to open
or close as required. Consequently they will fail to bring
about the alarm function or initiate a shut down, or may
prevent the re-start if the contact remains open.

6.4 Testing & Checking

This is why testing and checking of alarm systems is so vital.

There is no point in knowing that the oil pressure sensor on
an engine is faulty when the engine later on seizes up after
an oil leak develops. Or the H²S sensors on the rig floor have
faulted last week and today a gas release has cut your
companies payroll bill by half. Period planned maintenance of
Alarm systems has paramount importance in offshore
installations, both to avoid expensive equipment damage or
more importantly personnel safety.

6.5 Self Diagnostic Function

Many of the better systems have a self diagnostic function

where the system cycles the sensors to check each sensor
and will bring up an alarm if the sensor is at fault. The simple
replacement of a defective sensor may solve the problem
with a fault alarm being displayed on the enunciator panel.

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7 Questions
1. Are some gases heavier or lighter than others?
a) Yes. b) No.

2. Are there many types of sensors used for gas

detection?
a) Yes. b) No.

3. Name three different kinds of sensors used.

a) __________ b) _________ c) __________

4. What are the advantages of Solid State sensors?

a) Accurate b) repeatable c) more gas specific d) all
the above

5. What are the disadvantages of Electrochemical

sensors?
a) Relatively short life b) Moderately expensive d) a
&b

6. What are the advantages of Catalytic sensors?

a) 0-100% LEL for many combustible gases accurate
b) long life c) a & b

7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of

Infrared sensors?
a) Very gas specific b) best way to detect CO2 c)
very accurate & stabled) long life e) a. b. c. & d

8. Does gas detection equipment need maintenance and

calibration?
a) Yes. b) No.

9. What is calibration?
(a) exposing the ________to a known quantity of the
measured substance.
(b) resetting the instrument to adjust for _____ drift.

10. Where does H2S come from?

a) Smelly socks b) Rotten eggs c) Decomposing
organic matter d) a. b. & c.

11. What does % LEL mean?

a) % of Light emitting from lamp b) % Long
elongated links c) Lower explosive limit.

12. What does ppm mean?

a) Parts per microbars. b) Parts per millibars
(c) Parts per millilitres. d) Parts per million.

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Basic Alarm Systems

8 Reference Material
The best reference material for any equipment is the
manufacturer’s service manuals that are usually supplied
with the alarm systems and sensors that you have on your
facility.

These manuals cover everything from installation to the

commissioning when it is newly installed, to trouble shooting
and fault finding when the systems are in normal operation.

In most cases there are people employed with the

manufacturers who can assist in time of need by email or by
telephone who can talk over a problem with you on the
company technical support line.

8.1 Manufacturers

Drager, MSA Europe, Industrial Scientific Corporation,

RAE, GIG, and Honeywell.

8.2 Web Sites

8.3 Gas Detection

[Link]
6296

[Link]

8.3.1 Solid State (MOS) Sensors

[Link]

8.3.2 Electrochemical Sensors

[Link]

8.3.3 Catalytic Sensors

[Link]

8.3.4 Infrared Sensors

[Link]
ml

8.4 Smoke & Fire Detection

[Link]
[Link]/Safety_and_surveillance_electronics/Sm
oke_detectors/

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9 Work Place Assignments

1. Look at your rigs documentation and find any
schematics and OEM manuals that gives you
information on these systems, familiarise yourself
with the location and type of alarm and sensors
applicable to your facility.

2. Make your way up to the Drillers console on the rig

floor and observe the alarms that exist to alert him of
problems or breakdowns. Look to see how these are
enunciated and acknowledged and go and find the
source to their signals.

3. Ask the Driller to explain the operation of the mud

flow instrumentation and the set points that are
adjustable for mud gain and mud loss. Find the mud
flow instrument that these signals originate from. The
Driller will be able to tell you where this is located.

4. Look at the Baylor Elmagco Brake and find the alarm

system that monitors water flow and temperature. If
possible momentarily turn off the water flow and
check that the flow alarm activates.

5. Find the Drawworks break cooling flow instrument and

check to see that this is operational. Compare this
reading to the documentation to ascertain that the
correct amount of water is flowing.

6. Take a walk around the engine room and familiarise

yourself with the alarm systems that protect the
engines and generators from damage. Some of these
will be warning alarms while others will initiate engine
shutdowns. Consult the OEM docs and manuals to
make you conversant.

7. While in this area look for the Halon, Hi fog and Fire &
Gas systems that protect this area. Look for the
location of flashing warning lights and audible alarms.

8. In the plant or machinery rooms find all of the alarm

systems that warn of potential problems. Look at the
air compressors enunciator panels and find the
remote waring devices that warns of low air pressure
in the system.

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9. Find the location of the HVAC & Refigeration

machinery rooms if they exists for your facility and
make a note of the control panels and associated
alarms.

10. Look for the location of the main fire & gas alarm
panel or panels depending on how large your facility
is. Observe the indication lamps and acknowledge and
reset controls on these panels. Record any fault
indications that may require further investigation.

11. Make your self aware of the location and means of

activation of the abandon ship or site alarms. These
locations will depend on the type of facility that you
are on and generally will be located in the vicinity of
the Tool pusher, Drilling Superintendent, Offshore
Installation Manager, Company man or site manager

12. While walking around your facility look for the

locations and types of sensors associated with the fire
and gas systems.

13. Check the maintenance records for an overview on

what has been done with these system in the past
and the last date that a function and calibration test
was carried out.

14. Go into the store room or area and find out what
spare parts are kept on hand for all of these systems.

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10 Glossary
Alarm Is an audible, visual, or physical presentation
designed to warn the instrument user that a specific level of
a dangerous gas/vapor concentration has been reached or
exceeded.

Alarm Set Point Is the selected gas concentration level

where an alarm is activated.

Ambient Air Is air to which the sensing element is

normally exposed.

Analyzer Is an instrument which can determine

qualitatively and quantitatively the components in a mixture.

Annunciator This is a panel that annunciates and displays

an audible and visual indication of alarm conditions or faults
that occur with the system or systems that it is designed to
monitor.. It generally incorporates an audible alarm,
indicator lights for three levels of gas alarms, the
sensor/system OK and FAIL lights and a silence button. The
silence button momentarily silences the audible alarm and
also tests the operation of the indicator lights and buzzer.

Approved Is acceptance by the authority having jurisdiction.

The term is considered synonymous with "listed" and
"certified."

Area Monitor Is a term that is often misleadingly applied

to gas monitoring sensors that are installed in a regular grid
pattern throughout an area requiring monitoring. A true area
monitor must be able to measure the concentration of a
substance at any point in three dimensional space in a
defined value or it must be able to indicate the total quantity
of a substance that has penetrated a defined volume.

BASEEFA. British approval agency. The Electrical

Equipment Certification Service (EECS) is based at the Health
and Safety Laboratory's Buxton research centre in
Derbyshire, England. It provides a range of testing and
certification services primarily related to equipment and
systems intended for use in potentially explosive
atmospheres.

Blocking Certain conditions can cause a sensor not to

function. when this happens, normal gas sensing is blocked
until the conditions are removed. The most common block is
lack of oxygen. Oxygen deprivation can be caused by sensor
flooding and a clogged flame arrestor.

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Calibration Is the procedure used to adjust the instrument

for proper response (e.g., zero level, span, alarm and range).

Calibration Gas Is the known concentration(s) of gas used

to set the instrument span or alarm level(s).

Clean Air Is air that is free of any substance that will

adversely affect the operation of or cause a response of the
instrument. Clean air is also called "zero air" or "zero gas".

Combustible Hydrocarbon (CHC) Is any organic gas or

vapour which when mixed with air or oxygen is capable of
the propagation of flame away from the source of ignition
when ignited.

Combustion is the rapid oxidation of a material evolving

heat and generally light.

Common Sensor This sensor allows the user to switch

sensor elements and flame arrestors instead of the whole
sensor. A sensor is thereby replaced with a minimum of cost
in time and money.

Control Unit/Module [Controller] Is that portion of a

multi-part gas detection instrument which is not directly
responsive to the gas but which responds to the electrical
signal obtained from one or more detector heads to produce
an indication, alarm, or other output function. The control
unit contains the operating controls such as zero, span and
alarm set point adjustments along with readouts, status
indicators, recorder outputs and relay contacts.

Detector Head Is the gas-responsive portion of a gas

detection instrument located in the area where sensing the
presence of gas is desired. Its location may be integral with
or remote from any circuitry.

Diffusion Is a process by which the atmosphere being

monitored is transported to the gas-sensing element by
natural random molecular movement. This movement is
accelerated by thermal energy.

Electrical Noise Electrical noise has been creating

problems ever since the first antennas were installed and
lightning storms interfered. Almost every form of electrical or
electronic device has had to live with the problem at one
time or another. Today, we recognize that almost any device
which operates on the principle of moving an electron from
one point to another can be a receiver of electrical noise.
Since the problem first became obvious to early radio
engineers, the term ‘radio frequency interference’ (RFI) was
most often applied.

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As engineers spread the use of electronics beyond its

beginnings in radio communication, it was found that
electrical interference didn’t confine itself to the radio
spectrum. The newer term electromagnetic interference
(EMI) acknowledges the fact that electrical interference
encompasses the entire electromagnetic spectrum from the
lowest magnetic frequencies through the highest microwave
frequencies.

Fail Safe Any system that cannot fail in any mode without
providing a directly observable indication of failure. Consider
an electrical relay with a set of contacts that are open when
it is un-powered. If a power source and a light bulb are
connected in series with the contacts, the lamp will glow
when the relay is energized. If the goal of this system is to
insure that the relay has power, then this system is said to
be fail safe. If the lamp, relay contacts, lamp power source
relay coil, or the relay coil power supply fail, then the lamp
extinguishes itself providing a directly observable foolproof
indication of failure.

Fire Indicator Panel A control and indicating panel

containing the alarm zone facilities

Fire/Smoke Doors A door designated to reduce the rate

of smoke and or fire of spread of smoke and or fire during a
fire.

Flame Arrestor Its purpose is to prevent flame

propagation from the heated sensor side of the sensor. It
reduces the differential cooling effect of wind on the sensing
element and protects the sensor from flooding by a high
velocity of gas. It also protects the sensing element from
damage during handling. It should be checked for proper
attachment and fit, and for signs of corrosion, dirt or
moisture. An area must be declassified (free from
Combustible Gas) before a flame arrestor can be removed
from a catalytic system.

Flameproof or Explosion Proof Flame paths through

housing flanges or flame arrestors are dimensioned such that
the hot, gaseous products of internal explosion, which may
leak out of the enclosure, will be sufficiently cooled to
prevent igniting the specific flammable surroundings. The
enclosures are strong enough to withstand the internal
explosions without damaging these controlled flame paths.
Surfaces that may contact the flammable atmospheres have
maximum temperatures below the ignition point of the
specific gas or vapour to be encountered.

Flammable (Explosive) Limits. For gases or vapours

which form flammable mixtures with air or oxygen, there is a
minimum concentration of vapour in air or oxygen below
which propagation of flame does not occur on contact with a
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source of ignition. There is also a maximum proportion of

vapour or gas in air above which propagation of flame does
not occur. These boundary-line mixtures of vapour or gas
with air, which if ignited will just propagate flame, are known
as the "lower and upper flammable limits" (LFL and UFL) or
the "lower and upper explosive limits" (LEL and UEL), and
are usually expressed in terms of percentage by volume of
gas or vapour in air. LEL and LFL are different terms for the
same concept and can be used interchangeably. In popular
terms, a mixture below the lower flammable limit is too
"lean" to burn or explode and a mixture above the upper
flammable limit too "rich" to burn or explode.

Flammable (Explosive) Range. The range of flammable

vapour or gas-air mixture between the upper and lower
flammable limits is known as the "flammable range", also
often referred to as the "explosive range". For example, the
lower limit of flammability of acrylonitrite at ordinary ambient
temperatures is approximately 3 percent vapour in air by
volume, while the upper limit of flammability is about 17
percent. All concentrations by volume of acrylonitrite vapour
in air falling between 3 percent and 17 percent are in the
flammable or explosive range.

Flashpoint Is the minimum temperature at which a liquid

gives off a sufficient vapour to reach 100% LEL (sufficient
vapour to form an ignitable mixture with the air near the
surface of the liquid).

Flooding Sensor flooding occurs when a gas concentration

at the sensor exceeds its stoichiometric mixture. The signal
from the sensor reverts to zero because the mixture in the
air is too gas-rich to burn.

Gas Detection Instrument Is an assembly of electrical,

mechanical and chemical components (either a single
integrated unit or a system comprised of two or more
physically separate but interconnected component parts)
which senses and responds to the presence of gas in air
mixtures.

Gas Sensing Element (Sensor) Is the particular

subassembly or element in the gas detection instrument
which, in the presence of a gas, produces a change in its
electrical, chemical, or physical characteristics.

Hydrogen Sulphide Is interchangeable for: hydrogen

sulphide, H2S, dihydrogen sulphide, and hydrogen sulphide
gas.

IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health)

Represents the maximum concentration level of a substance
from which one could escape within 30 minutes without

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escape-impairing symptoms or any irreversible effects (For

instance 300 ppm for Hydrogen Sulphide).

Ignitable Mixture A mixture within the flammable range

(between the lower and upper flammable/explosive limits)
that, when ignited, is capable of the propagation of flame
away from the source of ignition.

Ignition Temperature Is the minimum temperature

necessary to initiate combustion (oxidation) and have self-
sustained combustion of the solid, liquid, gas, or vapour of
interest.

Interference An interferent is any gas other than the

target gas that will cause a gas detecting sensor to give a
signal. In the case of a combustible sensor, any combustible
gas or vapour will cause a signal.

Intrinsic Safety Electrical apparatus and its associated

wiring in the hazardous location is intrinsically safe when it is
designed to operate with insufficient electrical or thermal
energy, under either normal or abnormal conditions, to ignite
the specific hazardous atmospheric mixture.

Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)

Lower Flammable Limit (LFL) The lower explosive limit
(LEL) or lower flammable limit (LFL) of a combustible gas is
defined as the smallest amount of the gas that will support a
self-propagating flame when mixed with air (or oxygen) and
ignited. In gas-detection systems, the amount of gas present
is specified in terms of % LEL: 0% LEL being a combustible
gas-free atmosphere and 100% LEL being an atmosphere in
which the gas is at its lower flammable limit. The relationship
between % LEL and % by volume differs from gas to gas.
Typical settings for the alarm circuit are 20% for the low
alarm, 40% for the high alarm and 60% for the high-high
alarm.
The LEL of a gas is affected by the temperature and
pressure: as the temperature increases, the LEL decreases
and hence the explosion hazard increases; the relationship
between LEL and pressure is fairly complex, but at
approximately one atmosphere a pressure increase usually
lowers the LEL. The LEL of a gas is not significantly affected
by the humidity fluctuations normally encountered in the
operation of a gas-detecting system.

Manual Call Points A device for the manual operation of a

fire alarm system. The definition includes a break-glass
alarm

Monitor Is an instrument used for continuous

measurement of a condition which must be kept within
prescribed limits. Monitors are not the same as analysers. An
analyser is capable of determining the quality, quantity
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and/or type of specific substance or substances in a mixture.

A monitor continuously measures a condition which must be
kept within prescribed limits.

NEC National Electrical Code

NEMA National Electrical Manufacturers Association.

Technical standards for electrical equipment.

Non sparking Non sparking circuits are those which

contain no contacts or in which contacts are isolated from the
surrounding atmosphere such as by hermetic sealing.

Nominal Voltage Is the voltage given by the manufacturer

as the recommended operating voltage of their gas detection
equipment. If a range (versus a specific voltage) is given, the
nominal voltage shall be considered as the midpoint of the
range, unless otherwise specified.

Non Incendive Non incendive circuits are those which may

spark under normal operating conditions, but which may not
release enough energy to cause ignition. Circuits may contain
enough energy for potential ignition should both the
equipment fail and the process fail (two concurrent failures).

Point Monitor All popular gas monitors are point

monitors. This means that their sensors are only capable of
indicating the concentration of a substance at a single point
in three dimensional space. Selection of the proper point in
three dimensional space at which to place a sensor or sample
probe is the most important element in the art of gas
monitoring.

Poisons Sensors can be quickly destroyed (or poisoned) by

certain materials. Even low concentrations of poisoning
substances can cause serious problems. The two most
common phenomena are coating and etching

Portable Refers to a self-contained, battery-operated or

transportable gas monitor worn or carried by the person
using it. A gas detector that can be carried.

Ported Sensor Provides a 1/4" NPT connection on the side

of a sensor body or sensor adaptor for delivery of calibration
gas. Typically used when sensor is located in a hard-to-
reach or hazardous location.

PPM Parts Per Million

Range Is the series of outputs corresponding to values of

concentrations of the gas of interest over which accuracy is
ensured by calibration.

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SAM Sequential Acknowledgment Module provides a relay

contact transfer whenever any one gas detection alarm
occurs in a zone, but each alarm can be sequentially
acknowledged.

Sample Draw Refers to a method to cause deliberate flow

of the atmosphere being monitored to a gas-sensing
element.

Sensing Element A sensing element is unique to each gas

to be monitored. The element is constructed to plug into a
circuit board in the sensor housing. Sensor elements can,
with the use of a special tool, be replaced in the field.

Sensor A gas detecting sensor converts the presence of a

gas or vapour into an electrically measurable signal. The
sensor is the heart of a gas monitor. The system is as good
as the sensor.

Span Is the algebraic difference between the upper and

lower values of a range.

Stationary Refers to a gas detection instrument intended

for permanent installation in a fixed location.

Test Gas Is a known concentration of the gas to be

detected diluted with clean air.

Toxic Gas or Vapour Any substance which causes illness

or death when inhaled or absorbed by the body in relatively
small quantities. H2S is a highly toxic gas.

Transmitter A transmitter in a gas detection system

amplifies the signal from the sensor and converts it into a
more convenient form for transmission. Some monitors
collect sensor signals without the use of transmitters.

Trouble Signal Is a signal (contact, transfer, and/or visible

or audible signal) advising an instrument user of conditions
such as input power failure, an open circuit breaker, a blown
fuse, loss of continuity to the detector head, defective gas-
sensing element, or significant downscale indication

Vapour Is the gaseous state of a material below its boiling

point.

Vapour Density Relates the molecular weight of a gas to

the molecular weight of air.

Zero Gas Zero gas is clean air, and is an excellent way of

insuring that a small release of gas is not near the sensor while
zeroing the sensor signal during calibration.

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 A training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Communications Systems

Section 14
Communication
Systems

1 Equipment Overview.............................................. 2
2 How Does It Work ................................................. 4
3 How Do I Operate It .............................................. 7
4 Inspection ............................................................ 8
5 Maintenance ......................................................... 9
6 Spare Parts ........................................................ 10
7 Trouble Shooting................................................. 11
9 Questions........................................................... 12
10 Reference Material .............................................. 13
11 Work Place Assignments
12 Glossary ............................................................ 15

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Communication Systems

1 Equipment Overview
1.1 PA Systems

A good communication system is essential to the smooth

running of a drilling operation. It is essential that all
departments can communicate with each other at all times.
In general, it is better if there are several lines to ensure
minimum congestion from a one line system so that several
conversations can be carried on at one time.

Figure 1 Selection of Gai-Tronic Stations

On MODU Oil Rigs and Oil & Gas Installations, the most
popular PA system is the GAI-TRONICS range of
communication equipment.

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1.2 Portable Radios

On some operations it is easier to use short range radios to

communicate via particular channels for certain crew/people.
For example, mechanics and electricians are able to
communicate regarding a job they are working on without
interfering with rig floor operations.

Figure 2 Motorola Hand Held Radios

The most common hand held radio is that of the MOTOROLA

series. These units are manufactured to various standards
and specifications for different functions around the rig or
platform, with VHF and UHF use for communication with the
work boats, helicopters and emergency channels for general
operational communications.

Radios can also be of the FM form for use on the rig or

platform between departments, which effectively remove
traffic from the PA system. These radios are short range
units confined to the rig or platform and are ideal personnel
communication between rig crew.

In many places, this form of communication has become

more popular than the PA system, whereby each person is
allocated a channel and can be contacted if required.

1.3 Combination of Systems

These two systems can be used together where outside work

is deemed easier with radios and inside work is carried out
with the use of a PA system.

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2 How Does It Work

2.1 RigCom / EZ Page

RigCom is a common-talk communication system designed

for hazardous areas on land and offshore oil rigs. The system
is simple to use with push-to-talk, release-to listen operation
and can withstand environmental extremes. The system
consists of an explosion-proof case which houses the
electronics and an explosion proof loudspeaker functioning as
the microphone. Optional accessories include a gooseneck
microphone, footswitch and the capability to remote mount
the speaker. RigCom is also available in a hands-free model.
The RigCom is compatible with GAI-Tronics' EZ Page. EZ
Page is a common-talk communications system designed for
a wide variety of rugged applications. EZ Page provides a low
cost alternative to the RigCom in non-hazardous, industrial
applications. EZ Page configurations are identical to RigCom:
Master / Slave and Common Line.

Figure 3 Drillers Telephone

2.2 Driller's Intercom Systems

Driller's Intercom Systems provide communications between

drill operators and rig personnel. The system's digital
architecture is used to link the stations with the central
intercom server. The server unit includes station line cards,
audio interfaces and relay interfaces allowing ease of
connection to PA, radio or alarm systems. Additionally, tone
generators and telephone/radio interfaces may be added to
create complex loud speaking and PA systems. The intercom
stations are available as explosion-proof, weatherproof or
desktop units.

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The stations have direct access by using the keypad, pre-

programmed keys or speed dials. This feature allows the user
the capability of performing point to point private calls. The
system may be configured to allow group calls, conference
calls and all call announcements.

Figure 4 Sound Proof Communication Booth

2.3 Centra Page/Party

GAI-Tronics Centra Page system provides dependable paging

and party line communications for hazardous industrial
facilities. Centra Page features centrally-located electronics
which allows easy maintenance. Standard Centra Page
cabinets can support up to 30 handset stations and up to 60
paging speakers. Alarms and telephone interfacing can also
be added to Centra Page. All stations are wired to the central
cabinet, where station status can be monitored. To maximize
flexibility, stations are available in Desktop, Desk-Edge,
Weatherproof, Indoor and Flush Mount configurations. The
Central Cabinet must be located in a non-hazardous area.
Stations and speakers may be located in both hazardous and
non-hazardous locations, depending on the method used to
install the wiring.

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2.4 ADVANCE / SmartSeries / Page/ Party

SmartSeries system field devices utilize the latest technology

in data communications to significantly improve system
integrity and functionality. By interfacing with the
SmartSeries control unit, the devices exchange fault and
activity messages. The SmartStatus feature provides a
graphical display of the entire communication system,
rendering the system very user-friendly.
Current faults are displayed or logged, depending on the
system configuration to provide maintenance personnel a
means of diagnosing equipment problems. For example, a
handset left off-hook may degrade an audio channel. To
alleviate this problem, the stations report this condition and
are effectively programmed to electronically go back ‘on-
hook’ after a pre-set time period which has been configured
upon start up.

Figure 5 Pump Room Sound Proof Booth

Other systems functions are monitored by the control unit

and include the use of the page line, integrity of the system
cable and the functionality of the station amplifier and
associated speakers. Supervision of these features
significantly reduces the costs associated with maintaining a
communication system. With emergency notification as a
significant industrial concern, GAI-Tronics offers the
ADVANCE Emergency Notification System.

The ADVANCE Control Unit interfaces with GAI-Tronics

standard Page/Party® or SmartSeries stations to provide all
of the features required for an Emergency Notification
System. SmartSeries systems are fully adaptable to a variety
of facility sizes. Using SmartLink technology, multiple
independent communication systems can be interfaced and
monitored from a central location.

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3 How Do I Operate It
3.1 Gai-Tronics Systems

Gai-Tronics systems normally have a channel allotted to each

location so that one can look at the directory and turn the
knob to that number. The selected radio is then paged by
pushing the page button on the handset or the button of the
control unit. The paged crew member can answer the call on
any other Gai-Tronics handset.

Figure 6 Push to Page Selection of Stations

It is normal practice to nominate the channel number that

you are sing. If not, he/she will not know to what number
your unit is allocated. Be aware, that at any time people can
listen to your conversation by lifting another handset and
switching to the channel on which you are talking. This
system can be of an advantage for a three way conversation.

3.2 Hand Held Radios

The hand held radios can be used in much the same way, by
selecting a common channel between two people to talk. A
common channel can be used as a call channel and a non-
use channel can then be selected for use once the other
person has been contacted. This ensures the line is free for
others to use.

Figure 7 Hand Held Radio with Battery Removed

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4 Inspection
The hand set for the Gai-Tronics type system must be
inspected to ensure the cable has not been pulled from the
hand piece from rough handling and that the door hinges and
catches on the outdoor enclosures are not damaged and may
be closed to protect the telephone unit. The free movement
of the channel selection knob must also be inspected.

The portable radios must be charged every night or have

spare batteries on charge ready for use as required. The unit
must be clean and dry, or corrosion will occur, especially the
presence of chemicals around the mud pit areas/chemical
storage areas.

Figure 8 Maintenance Required

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Basic Communications Systems

5 Maintenance
Little maintenance is required of the Gai-Tronics units if kept
clean and dry. The main problems that occur concern the
transmitters and receivers in the hand sets which suffer from
water and chemicals intrusion. The call buttons on the hand
sets are also prone to damage and the cable may be pulled
from the hand set which allows moisture penetration.

Providing the gasket is in good condition on the amplifier

boxes, water does not penetrate the unit and the door is kept
closed when not in use, these units are generally trouble
free. Some older units often present ongoing problems with
the hook switches whereby the hand set is hung for storage.

Figure 9 Drillers Station

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Basic Communication Systems

6 Spare Parts
There are several types of communication systems in use on
a given oil drilling rig to cater for the different environments
found onboard. The EX-d units are used for the zone 1
division areas and accommodation. Indoor and weather proof
units also exist for open and closed access areas. The
explosion proof units are enclosed in normal heavy cast
aluminium boxes with machined faces to provide a flame
path, providing a unique system. Many of the other units are
interchangeable except for the enclosures.

It is good practice and policy to ensure sufficient spare

enclosures of each type are stored onboard. In particular,
those of the outdoor enclosures, as these are subject to
damage in areas where high traffic volumes are found. The
amplifiers and hand sets can be interchanged between
enclosures in different locations, so one or two spares should
be kept to ensure the maintenance the system to a high
standard. It is a good idea to have several complete units
onboard for installation, as service personnel may not carry a
suitable unit upon arrival on the rig or platform.

Figure 10 Assortment of Spare Parts

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 A training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Communications Systems

7 Trouble Shooting
7.1 What if it Breaks Down

One of the principle problems that concerns older systems is

that if an individual unit develops a ground fault, it pulls
down the entire system and can not be rectified until the unit
is replaced. It is not unusual to test a functioning unit in
suspected fault locations to remove the faulty unit. The same
concept applies to the microphone and receiver units in the
hand sets. The same process applies to changing out of the
suspected faulty units and checking the cable/cord between
the hand set and the unit for cable damage if the faulty unit
can not be found.

Another common fault is that of the hook switches. Hook

switches are available in two types. The older type is a
mechanical switch and the later model is a proximity type
switch with no mechanical parts capable of switching when
the hand set is close to the hook. In regards to the
mechanical type hook switch, it is often a mechanical fault
whereby the switch fails to function or make sufficient
contact. The later model units often experience component
failure to the circuit board inside of the unit, which may not
pick up the receiver as it closes on the hook. Again, the
amplifier unit must be replaced to return the station to
service while the damaged unit is repaired.

If the push buttons are not lubricated on explosion proof type

enclosures, the units can become seized and not release
when the finger is removed. A discrepancy may occur within
the system if units are continually added to the original
system. This usually results in feed back on the system.
Normally there will be an adjustable resistor bank to enable
balancing of the system. The procedures for such are
detailed in the relevant manual.

Feedback can occur in high noise areas such as the rig floor
where high output speakers are located close to a hand set,
set to a high volume. Feedback may occur where the
speakers point towards the handset. Change the direction of
the speaker to correct the problem. There are adjustment
potentiometers in the amplifier which may be adjusted from
the rear to lower the receiver inputs. Care must be taken to
ensure these the volume is not muted. In some cases, the
speaker may require movement away from the handset to
divert the direct sound travelling into the receiver of the
handset. This will reduce the occurrence of feed back.

Specific details of such components are covered in the

relevant manuals found on the platform or rig.

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Basic Communication Systems

8 Questions
1. What would be the two most common forms of
communication to be found on Drilling facilities?

a) Telephone systems. b) Talkback systems.

c) Satellite systems. d) Portable radios. e) b & c

2. To operate the Gai-Tronic system, you push the

_______ button on the handpiece/station and release
the button after announcement.

3. Can a faulty handset control amplifier module be

swapped out with a unit used not so often?

a) Yes. b) No.

4. What would happen to your system if the control

power was interrupted?

a) System would not function. b) Only background music

would be heard. c) UPS power would take over.

5. Would you expect the talkback system to be supplied

from a UPS system?

a) Yes. b) No.

6. How many talkback stations can be accommodated

within a talkback system?

a) 10 b) 20 c) 100 d) Unlimited, depending on Mfg.

7. Where would a foot peddle paging switch be used on a

drilling rig?

a) Galley or Mess. b) Monkey Board. c) Non hands

free work areas.

8. Can headsets and microphones be a feature in a

talkback system?

a) Yes. b) No. c) Sometimes.

9. If a member of the rig crew was on the phone to you

using a talkback system, and he told you that you had
won lotto, would you believe him?

a) Yes b) No c) Only if he/she is the T/P

10. What type of speakers would you expect to find in a

hazardous area?

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Basic Communications Systems

9 Reference Material
The best reference material for any communication system is
the manufacturer’s service manuals.

These manuals cover all aspects of communication system

operations, from commissioning to trouble shooting.

The manufacturers can usually provide assistance where

required, via email, telephone or a technical support line.

9.1 Web Site

[Link]
[Link]/literature/indcomm/[Link]

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Basic Communication Systems

10 Work Place Assignments

1. Look for the one line schematic, showing you the rigs
communication system.

2. Find any accompanying OEM manuals that should be

available for your equipment.

3. With this in hand, look for all of the talkback stations

locations around your facility.

4. Pay special attention to the system, and stations

associated around the driller’s cabin and the areas used
most frequently.

5. Find out what communications exists for the derrick

operations, and whether these are patched into the
common paging system.

6. Find the location of the end of line balancing resistors,

via the one line communications schematic to assist you.

7. Find the location of the supply power to this system

and any other remote isolation switches.

8. If your system is provided from a UPS unit, find the

systems location and its associated battery supply.

9. Look for the source of AC supply to this UPS system,

and note the location of the associated feeder circuit
breaker.

10. Find what spare parts are available for your system.
Frequently use items such as coiled hand piece cords, ear
and mouth pieces and spare amplifier stations should be
the bare minimum.

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Basic Communications Systems

11 Glossary
Alert Tone Alert tone which may precede a voice
announcement from a paging zone. Alert tones are primarily
used in talkback paging systems in order to discourage
unannounced monitoring of zones.

All Call A feature of a zone paging system which allows the

user to a dial a specific code and by doing so, access all of
the speakers associated with that system. If the zone
paging system features a talkback capability, the talkback
signal is inhibited during all call access.

Ambient Noise Background noise in an area.

Amplifier An electronic device used to increase signal

power or amplitude.

Anti-Blast Control An automatic potentiometer. This device

monitors the ambient noise level and adjusts the audio
output of paging speakers or horns accordingly when
inserted between the one-way page control and the audio
input to the speakers. (Automatic Volume Control).

Attenuation The reduction in magnitude of any electrical

parameter of a signal, on passing along any transmission
path.

Audio Frequency Frequencies detected by the human ear,

usually between 20 Hz & 20,000 Hz.

Automatic Gain A device that holds the output volume of

an audio source constant, despite variations in the input
signal.

Bandwidth The range of signal frequencies that a circuit or

network will respond to or pass.

Battery Backup An alternate power source that is used in

the event of the loss of a system’s primary power source.

Centrally Amplified System An older type of public

address system which utilizes central amplifiers.

Combination Paging A paging system where a hands free

page control unit is used in conjunction with both talkback
and one-way speakers. (Mixed Paging).

Contact Closure A device, such as a relay or pushbutton

which provides a short circuit upon activation. Closures are
used to activate various features on page controls and to
activate certain controllers during page port access.

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Basic Communication Systems

Control Unit With respect to paging systems, a control unit

provides the interface to the telephone system and may also
provide various other features.

Crosstalk Undesired voice-band energy transfer from one

circuit or conductor to another (usually adjacent).

Dry Contact Closure A switchable set of contacts with no

potential difference between the two, or to any other
reference point.

Feedback The process of returning a fraction of the output

energy of an energy converting device, to the input. The
circuit that transmits the feedback signal to the input is
known as the ‘Beta’ circuit. This circuit contains the active
device which generates the output signal, known as the ‘mu’
circuit.

Frequency The rate in Hz (cycles per second) at which a

signal pattern is repeated.

Frequency Response A measure of the effectiveness with

which a circuit, device or system transmits the different
frequencies applied to such. The way in which an electronic
device (microphone, amp or speaker) responds to signals
having a varying frequency. This is a measurement of how
well an amplifier reproduces and amplifies a specified audible
range with equal amplitude or intensity.

Explosion Proof Enclosure Enclosures designed to

contain the equipment safely, used in zone 1 and zone 2
areas.

Ground An electrical connection to the earth or to a

common conductor, which is at a reference potential and
serves a reference point for all other potentials in the circuit.

Group Call The ability to page a specific combination of

zones within a multi-zone paging system.

Hertz (Hz) A unit of measurement used to indicate the

frequency of sound or an electrical waveform.

Hook Switch The rest the handset is placed on when not in

use; the phone will be switched on automatically when the
handset is removed.

Handset The receiver which contains the microphone or

mic, and the receiver in the ear piece.

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Impedance A measure of the response of an electric circuit

to an alternating current. The current is opposed by the
capacitance and inductance of the circuit in addition to the
resistance.

Loss Attenuation of a signal from any cause.

Outdoor Enclosure Fibreglass enclosure with latching door,

designed to ensure the outdoor telephone units are weather
proof.

PA Systems The Public Address system. This system is

used to broadcast an announcement to a wide audience over
a large area.

Parallel Connection The connection of system elements,

such that similar connection points are common.

Portable Radios Hand held portable radio communication

devices used to transmit and receive messages between two
or more individuals.

Potentiometer (Pot) A variable resistor used to make

adjustments in the system.

Stand Alone System A system that does not require the

support of subsequent system(s).

Talkback A type of paging system in which individuals

within the area can respond through the paging speakers of
horns.

UPS Uninterruptible Power Supply.

Voltage A measure of the electrical force that causes

current flow in a circuit.

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Electric Welding and Welding Distribution

Section 15
Electric Welding &
Welding Distribution

1 Equipment over view ................................................ 2

2 How Does It Work .................................................... 5
3 How Do I Operate It ................................................. 8
4 Inspection............................................................. 12
5 Maintenance.......................................................... 13
6 Spare Parts ........................................................... 16
7 Trouble Shooting ................................................... 17
8 Questions ............................................................. 19
9 Reference Material ................................................. 20
10 Work Place Assignments....................................... 21
11 Glossary ............................................................ 22

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Basic Electric Welding & Welding Distribution

1 Equipment over view

1.1 Foreword

It is not the intension of this section to explain in fine detail

how welders and associated equipment works but rather to
outline the different requirements for this sort of equipment
when used in drilling applications. Because diversity and the
specialised nature of welding machines any in depth
understanding of these machines should be further explored
using the on site OEM manuals.

Figure 1 Welder at Work

1.2 Specialised Welding Systems

With the various types of oil rigs that represent the drilling
industry, welding requirements can be approached in
different ways. This is from land rigs having mobile diesel
welders with long leads, to some specialised welding systems
such as pipe laying barges where there are many welding
machines in the production line. Accordingly there is a
reticulation system of welding outlets and leads to all of the
working locations.

1.3 Welding in Hazardous Zones

This above type of reticulation system is not suited to

hazardous zoned areas found on oil exploration rigs or oil and
gas production platforms. Generally the systems in place for
these facilities would entail Ex certified 60 amp receptacles
having their power supplied via MCCs which are supervised
by the rigs fire and gas alarm systems. In the event of any
gas indication the power to the receptacle would be tripped.

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Basic Electric Welding and Welding Distribution

1.4 Land Rigs

With regard to land rigs, normally a welders workshop is a

steel container with all his equipment and oxy/acetylene gas
supplies inside, this is where his work can be carried out in a
safe area. When work is required on the drilling rig or
structure a series of conditions are normally implemented.
The well should be shut in, the area tested for gas, and
permits issued and signed to allow the work to commence.
After these requirements have been met a diesel machine
will be relocated to the area for the duration of the welding
job.

1.5 MODU Rigs

In the case of offshore drilling rigs, the welder has a welding

workshop away from hazardous areas of the rig floor, mud
tanks, and mud pits. This workshop has electric arc welding
machines, oxy/acetylene gas cutting equipment, and a diesel
electric welding machine where the welder can safely
perform his duties. The same conditions as above applies
here in the case of welding around the rig floor and other
areas which may be hazardous. If required the drilling
operations will be shut in and the area around the welding
job gas tested. If this is found to be free of gas the welder
will be given a permit to weld. He can then commence
welding, and then remove his equipment back to the welders
shop when the job is completed and before the permit is
signed off.

1.6 Tenders Rigs for Jackets & Platforms

Other types of drilling rigs such as platform/jacket tender

units may have diesel electric machines which are moved
around as required, however most of the welding is
performed in a safe area away from drilling operations and
hazardous areas.

1.7 Production Platforms Rigs

On offshore production platforms all hot work is strictly

controlled and special pressurized humpies are constructed
around the job with personnel appointed to fire watch and
gas monitor the area. There are 60 amp outlets at each level
in convenient positions for welding machines to be plugged
into when the area has been declared clear of gas or
hydrocarbons, the welder is permitted to weld in that area
for repair, construction purposes or during production shut
downs after all of the hot work permit requirements are met.
See Section 1.3 Welding in hazardous areas.

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Basic Electric Welding & Welding Distribution

1.8 Pipe Laying Barges

Pipe laying barges have different requirements as there is

not the same level of hazardous conditions to contend with.
The welding machines are kept in one location, maybe fifteen
or twenty machines, and the welding cables from these units
run out to various work areas on the pipe deck. From here
the welders can plug in their hand pieces and carry out the
job of welding the pipe, before it is lowered into the sea bed
ready for the next length to be added to the pipeline.

1.9 Common Manufacturers

There are many welding machine manufacturers around the

World, and Lincoln would be one of the most popular, seen
on many Rigs and platforms around the World, along with
Miller, Hobart, Arcon, ESAB, and many more.

Figure 2 Assortment of Welding Machines

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Electric Welding and Welding Distribution

2 How Does It Work

2.1 Arc Welding Machines

The arc welder is an electrical machine capable of supplying

current of sufficient magnitude to provide satisfactory
welding heat at a safe voltage capable of sustaining the arc.

Figure 3 Transformer Type AC Stick Welder

2.1.1 AC Manual Metal-Arc Welders

General industry employs an AC transformer type machine
providing AC welding current for general purpose arc
welding. These are invariably based on a transformer which
is a static electrical machine which can convert AC power
from high voltage low amperage to low voltage high
amperage power. In a mechanical analogy it plays the role
of a gear box that converts high RPM engine power into
usable speeds. Some AC welders use two voltage ranges to
cover a wider range of work, just as two-speed gear boxes
are sometimes employed on electrical drills.

2.1.2 DC Arc Welders

When used in industry are either DC rotary generators driven
by an AC electric motor or alternatively use an AC
transformer with a rectifier attachment which is an electrical
"one-way flow valve" permitting the AC welding current to
only flow in one direction, thus achieving a DC effect. In the
field, rotary DC generators are driven by suitable diesel
engines. In addition, incorporated in the transformer design
or as a separate device attached to the arc welder is a means
of current control so that the correct amount of current can
be employed on the job.

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Basic Electric Welding & Welding Distribution

2.1.3 Mig Welders

MIG stands for Metal Inert Gas welding, many times called
Wire-feed.. Also referred as GMAW (Gas Metal Arc Welding).
The "Metal" refers to the wire which is what is used to start
the arc. It is shielded by inert gas and the feeding wire also
acts as the filler rod. A semi-automatic process, it is fairly
easy to learn and use.

Figure 4 Mig Welder

2.1.4 Tig Welders

TIG stands for Tungsten Inert Gas welding. Also called GTAW
(Gas Tungsten Arc Welding) and Heliarc which was Linde's
trade name for the TIG process when it was introduced many
years ago. The arc is started with a tungsten electrode
shielded by inert gas and filler rod is fed into the weld puddle
separately. A slower process than MIG, it produces a more
precise weld and can be used at lower amperages for thinner
metal and can be used on exotic metals. TIG does require
quite a bit more time than MIG to learn. It is similar in
technique to gas welding.

Figure 5 Inverter AC/DC Tig Welder

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Basic Electric Welding and Welding Distribution

2.1.5 Duty Cycle

The amount of time a machine can be used at a particular
output. Expressed as a percentage of a ten minute cycle, a
150 amp machine with a 30% duty cycle set at maximum will
allow 3 minutes of use for every ten and a 60% duty cycle
would allow 6 minutes of use for every ten. The duty cycle
increases as the power setting decreases so if the 150 amp
machine were to be used on a 30 amp setting the duty cycle
might be 100% allowing it to be used 10 minutes out of
every ten.

Keep in mind, however, that the actual total time a machine

can be used continuously is not determined by a timer, but
typically by a thermostat within the machine which will shut
it off if the machine is too hot and needs to cool down before
it does more work. Therefore, even a 30% machine can be
used more than ten minutes at a stretch. Factors affecting
duty cycle include whether or not the machine has an
internal fan and ambient temperature of the work area.

Table 1 Percentage Duty Cycle Table

[Link]
[Link]/[Link]#mig
[Link]

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Basic Electric Welding & Welding Distribution

3 How Do I Operate It
The most common welding processes used for fabricating
metals are Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW or Stick
electrode), Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW or MIG, a wire
welding process), Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW, also a wire
welding process), and Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW or
TIG).

Note that MIG and flux cored welding can be performed by

the same machine, and that TIG machines can usually Stick
weld, too.

3.1 Process Descriptions

3.1.1 Stick Welding

CC (constant current) stick welding is the most common
choice for field work. Electrode (welding rod) diameters most
commonly used are 3/32", 1/8" and 5/32". The simplest
equipment will handle a wide variety of construction and
repair applications. Output is measured in amps, and up to
200 amps is sufficient for the electrode sizes mentioned.
Most equipment is DC (direct current) output for best arc
stability. A 200-amp welder is usually able to get the job
done.

Figure 6 Pre-heating Pipe Welding

3.1.2 Pipe Welding

Pipe welding is most often done with stick electrodes. Look
for equipment which specifies it will pipe weld, meaning that
suitable arc characteristics are specifically provided for this
process. Electrode diameters are typically 5/32" and 3/16",
and 200 amps is sufficient for this process.

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Basic Electric Welding and Welding Distribution

3.1.3 Arc Gouging

Arc Gouging is a process for removing metal. It is most
commonly done in the stick mode. An arc is used with a
carbon rod to melt metal and compressed air blows the
molten metal away. Gouging is used to remove bad welds
and to repair cracks.

Most operators use equipment with 400 to 600 amps for

higher productivity with 5/16" or 3/8" diameter carbon rods.
However, smaller rods can be used with lower amperage. For
example, a 5/32" carbon rod can be used with 150 amps.
Usually a separate compressor supplies the air. A few
engine-driven welders are manufactured with built-in
compressors.

3.1.4 MIG Welding

CV (constant voltage) wire welding requires a wire feeder.
Wire welding's main benefit is greater productivity: more
weld metal can be deposited than for stick during the same
amount of time. Although wire welding is much less common
compared to the above processes, the application is growing.
The engine-driven welder must have a CV-wire capability.
Since most engine-driven welder work is outdoors, self-
shielded flux-cored wire (which requires no shielding gas) is
highly recommended to keep the process simple. When
welding under windy conditions, the shielding gas associated
with gas-shielded processes (solid wire or gas-shielded flux-
cored wire) may be blown away, resulting in poor quality
welds. Output is measured in Volts and Amps. Wire
diameters are typically .035" and .045", although 5/64" is
often used for higher productivity. A welder with 30 volts and
300 amps is usually sufficient for many applications up to
5/64" wire.

3.1.5 TIG Welding

A slower, but more precise type of welding well-suited for
thin materials and unusual alloys. A TIG torch and shielding
gas are required. If welding on aluminium, an AC weld output
is required from the engine-driven welder and a high-
frequency generator is attached to start and sustain the arc.
Or, an AC TIG welder can often be powered from the engine-
driven welder's AC generator, if at least 8,000 watts is
available. Most TIG welding is done below 100 amps.

Plasma Cutting - a metal cutting process which utilizes an arc

and compressed air. The engine-driven welder's AC
generator can often supply power to a plasma cutter. At least
8,000 watts of power is recommended.

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Basic Electric Welding & Welding Distribution

3.1.6 Diesel Driven Welders

Diesel driven welding machines are a common feature in and
around most industrialised facilities. These include land rigs
and pipe laying barges where you will find a small four
cylinder diesel engine driving a DC generator. The current
controls are mounted on the machines and are easily
adjustable to suit the thickness of the metal being welded.
The engines are controlled by a governor which keeps the
generator at constant speed during the welding operation. A
spark arrester may also be required in oil & Gas service
areas.

Figure 7 Key Controls for Diesel Welder

Diesel Engine Driven Welder Manual Processes

For demanding jobs that call for high amperage capabilities,
the SAE-400 offers 400 amps for DC stick welding and 3,000
watts of AC power. Designed especially for pipeline welders
and field welders, the SAE-400 is powered by a heavy duty
Perkins industrial diesel engine, which offers low
maintenance and long life for hassle-free operation. Add CV
wire welding with the optional CV Adapter.

Rugged Construction: Withstands rough field handling,

protecting internal parts.

Dual Continuous Output Control: Select either a soft

"buttery" arc or snappy "digging" arc for fast, high-quality
welding.
High Duty Cycle Welding Output: 100% duty cycle at 400
amps for demanding applications. Also rated at 500 amps.

Industrial Diesel Engine: Perkins 4-cylinder, water-cooled

industrial diesel engine offers low maintenance and long life.

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Electric Welding and Welding Distribution

Performance: 400 amp rated output DC arc welding power

source with outstanding characteristics for pipe, construction
and maintenance stick welding. Maximum output575 amp.
Dual continuous output control. Select either a soft “buttery”
arc or a snappy “digging” arc for fast, high-quality welding.

Arc Gouging: With up to a 3/8" carbon. Scratch start DC

TIG welding. (See TIG module in recommended options
section for high frequency starting.)

Delivers: 3,000 watts of 115V/230V AC power for a grinder,

lights or other power tools.

Figure 8 Diesel Driven Welder on Site

Features

• Polarity switch for selecting DC+, DC- welding output.

• Pressure lubrication system with replaceable filter

assures

• lubrication to all critical areas of the engine.

• Engine gauges indicate oil pressure, temperature and

battery charging amps.

• All day welding with 22.5 gallon fuel capacity. Lead

plated tank resists corrosion. Pre-filter water
separator and a filter in the fuel line help keep the
fuel clean.

• Pushbutton starting is powered by two 12V batteries.

• Glow Plugs for starting the engine at low ambient

temperatures, 32º F (0º C) to -5º F (-21º C).

• Combination muffler/spark arrestor is standard on the

machine.

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Electric Welding & Welding Distribution

4 Inspection
• The most important thing to watch is the condition of
the welding leads to make sure that they do not
ground out between the welding machine and the job
to be welded, particularly when run across steel
decks, so that there is a constant current flow at the
job to ensure a constant weld quality will be
maintained.

• Another point is to check the current controls to make

sure that they are linier across their range. The
current control rheostat or variac can be prone to
have bad surface contact between the pot and the
brush wiper assembly so a check in this area is often
warranted.

• Check all the connections on the work and

earth/ground cables to make sure there are no loose
or burnt connections. Pay special attention to the
twist and lock connectors which can cause high
resistance terminations in the circuit from the
machine and back to the machine via the earth cable.

• Inspect the earthing/ground clamp to make sure the

cable connection is good. Also check the welders hand
piece to make sure the connection sound and the jaws
for holding the rod are not too badly burnt to make
good contact.

• Check on the condition of any cooling fans in the

system to make sure they are in good running
condition. This will allow the machine to operate
within its temperature range and not become over
heated.

• Ensure the movement of the current control

mechanism on the three phase machines is servicable
so that it can be wound up and down without damage
to the system.

• The machines should be Meggered tested frequently

to insure there are no ground faults that would cause
them to become a safety hazard to the operators if
the transformer should develop a fault during normal
operations.

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Basic Electric Welding and Welding Distribution

5 Maintenance
• The main components requiring maintenance
will generally be the welding leads which must
be kept in good condition. This is to prevent
leakage or arcing to ground of the work lead
between the machine and the job and also to
ensure that no hot spots occur because of bad
connections. These problems if not rectified
quickly can lead to all sorts of hazards. This is
even more urgent if the work is being carried
out on wet steel decks in wet conditions where
personnel safety is a concern.

Figure 9 Damaged Welding Lead

• On diesel electric machines apart from the

obvious maintenance required for the diesel
engine, such as the checking of oil and water
levels each day to prevent engine failure, the
normal electrical maintenance comes down to
care of the work and ground lead connections
at the machine to prevent damage to the
threads or the studs and hand nuts.

• There should also be a check on the condition

of any quick disconnects used to join leads
together which can be damaged by arcing
during operations and create a high resistance
contact situation between male and female
halves of the these twist lock connections.

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Basic Electric Welding & Welding Distribution

• Also the earth/ground clamp should be

checked to make sure the clamping faces are
in good condition and the clamp spring has still
got plenty of tension so that it clamps on the
work piece well enough to ensure a good
connection. The welders hand piece should be
checked to ensure the contacts/clamp that are
used to hold onto the rod are in good condition
and hold the rod firmly to prevent it moving
when the clamp is tightened.

Figure 10 Check Lead Connections

• It is a good idea to check the condition of the

switches and welding controls occasionally to
make sure they are in good working condition.
Make sure that the switches operate freely and
do not stick or refuse to function as designed.
Also the current control rheostats or variacs
should be checked periodically to ensure the
pot surface is not damaged and the wiper arm
and brush are making good contact with the
track on the rheostat or variac.

• Incorporated within diesel welders are DC

generators which have commutator brushes
which seldom need replacement but should be
checked periodically for an assessment of their
condition before major operations commence.
On some operations such as pipe laying barges
you may find the DC generators of the type
you would normally find in a diesel electric
welders, being driven by a three phase AC
motor instead of a diesel engine, known in
some cases as “Bullet Welders" because of
their shape.

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• Checks on three phase electric arc welding

machines are required if they are fitted with
cooling fans, these should be checked
periodically to ensure the bearing are in good
condition and do not require lubrication. Also
check that the current adjustment spindle
which will raise or lower the core of the coils to
adjust the welding current is free and does not
require lubrication.

• On the front of these three phase machines as

with the diesel electric machines, the studs for
the earth/ground and the output/work
connections and their hand nuts should be free
of thread damage so they can be tightened to
make good contact with the lugs on the ends
of the cables. All quick disconnects need to be
checked for arc damage which may cause a
bad contact to be made in the connection
causing a high resistance joint and therefore
create welding problems.

• If the machines are of the MIG or wire feed

type, the cooling should be checked to ensure
it is in good working order, and the wire feed
system checked for correct operation. In
particular inspect the trigger switch in the hand
piece and the contacts in the switch to ensure
constant operation. The tip in the hand piece
should also be checked for condition to ensure
smooth current transfer while welding,
between the tip and the wire.

• The tip or trigger switch should be replaced if

there is doubt about their condition or
reliability. The tip should be free of burnt
material or spatter, and there should only be a
couple of thousands of an inch clearance
between the tip and the wire. If this is not the
case, the tip should be replaced to maintain
good contact between the tip and the wire.

• It is always good policy to check the gland and

cable entry occasionally to make sure the
gland and cable are in good condition to
ensure there is no entry of water into the
junction box or enclosure. Many of these
fixtures are aluminium from Crouse Hinds or
Appleton, and can corrode in salt conditions,
where the locking rings or moving parts can
seize, so these parts should be kept lubricated
to ensure they are free moving.

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6 Spare Parts
• Welding spare parts are normally under the control of
the welders, it is considered most of these are
consumables, and normally the welder will order
spare cable, cable connectors, and possibly lugs for
the cable with his other consumables such as the
hand pieces, helmets, lenses and welding rods.

• Regarding the electricians on hand spares, he will

need to keep in stock items such as new connection
studs, hand nuts, cable lugs for the output/work leads
and earth/ground leads. There should also be new
rheostats or variacs for current adjustment, new
commutator brushes for DC generators on the diesel
electric units or “Bullet Welders".

• You will need spare switches to replace any switches

on these units which might fail, also there should be
spare printed circuit boards that may fail due to
component failure kept in stock. These are all
important to prevent the long term loss of use of the
machine concerned.

Figure 11 Assorted Spare Parts

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Electric Welding and Welding Distribution

7 Trouble Shooting
7.1 What if it Breaks Down

In general welding machines tend to be very reliable due in

part to the fact they have few moving parts, but some
failures are due to non moving parts in more complicated
machines with component failure on printed circuit boards,
which in general can only be solved quickly by the
replacement of that circuit board.

The usual starting point for trouble shooting is to test for

voltage between the work and earth/ground connections at
the machine to be sure there is a voltage output from the
machine, which should be 40 to 80 volts, where 80 volts is
the maximum acceptable in Australia, and the current will be
the current set by adjustment when setting up the job.

This is to be sure the fault is not just a case of a poor

earth/ground connection at the work piece or in the case of
long leads with connectors along the way. The quick way to
check this is to have a short work lead and ground lead so
that you can strike an arc at the machine to prove it is
operational, and then go looking for bad connections in the
long leads to the job in hand. This can be done by
disconnecting connectors along the way and connecting the
hand piece with a short length of work lead, and striking an
arc to prove the circuit is good to that point.

In the case of not being able to adjust the current or

fluctuation in the current or in some cases no output at all, it
may be found to be the rheostat or variac on a diesel
machine, where the wiper brush is not making contact with
the rheostat coil or intermittent contact with the coil.

7.1.1 DC Machines
Loss of output from the DC generator may in some cases be
found to be due to brush wear, which may be because the
brushes have become too short and no longer have good
contact with the commutator and therefore no output from
the generator. In this case there will be a lot of sparking at
the commutator when the welder tries to weld, and this can
be solved with brush replacement if the commutator is in
good condition.

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7.1.2 MIG Machines

With wire feed machines such as MIG machines, there can be
a problem with the wire feed that is causing the failure of the
machine to weld fully or partially. The machine should be
checked to see if it is correctly adjusted for operation, with
the correct wire speed and correct current adjustment.

Or if there is a problem with the flow of gas of the shielding

gas supply to the hand piece tip, which is required to operate
correctly in conjunction with wire feed and current flow to
protect the arc. In the case of the wire feed it can be several
things if there is ample wire in the machine, it will stop
feeding if the trigger switch has failed to operate, and
normally a sign of this is that the relay or contactor to supply
the feed motor or gas cannot be heard operating when you
press the trigger on the hand piece. This can be as simple as
dirty contacts in the switch, which can normally be stripped
and the contacts cleaned to solve the problem, or the switch
replaced if they are too badly pitted.

Figure 12 Potential Problem Area

Another problem can be the wire being welded at the tip of

the hand piece, in which case the feed contactor will be
starting the motor and trying to push the wire but it cannot
because the wire is welded. The tip will need to be cleared
and cleaned with tip cleaners or replaced if too badly
damaged and it keeps welding at the same point. If the gas
fails to flow, and there is gas in the bottle, then it will be a
case of the gas solenoid not opening to allow the flow of gas,
which again will be controlled by the trigger in the hand piece
and may involve contacts in one of the relays or contactors in
the unit being used to open the solenoid to allow the gas to
flow to the hand piece. There is also the chance that the
regulator on the gas bottle may be causing the problem if it
has had the settings changed, or has failed, which is very
rare.

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Basic Electric Welding and Welding Distribution

8 Questions
1 Why are portable welding machines used on drilling
operations?

a) Because they can be removed when the welding work

is complete. b) Because the work leads are too short to
work from where they were. c) Because they can be
removed from hazardous areas on the completion of
welding repairs.

2 What is the favourite choice of portable welding machine

for use on oil rigs?

a) Diesel Electric Welder. b) Three Phase Arc Welder. c)

MIG Welder.

3 Which of the machines from question 2 would not be the

choice for production platforms?

a) Diesel Electric Welder. b) Three Phase Arc Welder. c)

MIG Welder.

4 What is the usual type of welding machine used on

production platforms?

a) Diesel Electric Welder. b) Three Phase Arc Welder. c)

MIG Welder.

5 With a diesel/electric welding machine what are the

items to be checked if the machine does not work?

a) Current control rheostat/variac. b) Brushes and

commutator. c) Output

6 What is the normal method of power supply for welding

machines on production platforms?

a) Diesel Fuel. b) Single Phase Supply. c) Three Phase

Supply.

7 Where would one find AC/DC type welding machines in

the offshore industry?

a) Oil Rigs. b) Production platforms. c) Pipe Laying

Barges.

8 The AC/DC machines are usually very reliable, what is

their normal weak point?

a) Electric Motor. b) Voltage Control. c) Commutator

Brushes.

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9 Reference Material
The best form of information for the welding machines on the
rig or platform is in the manufacturer’s instruction and
maintenance manuals which will give you all the information
on the machines that you should need. Also there will be a
list of spare parts that you will require to maintain them in
good working order.

They will also recommend the materials and shielding gas

suitable for that particular machine, and the current ratings
recommended for the best results per thickness of steel or
aluminium. Other information can be gleaned from the
publications of the manufacturers of the consumables used
such as rods, wire, and shielding gas, who make
recommendations for the best results from their products.

9.1 Web Sites

Arc Welding Machines

[Link]

Mig Welders

[Link]

Tig Welders

[Link]

Duty Cycle

[Link]

Process Descriptions

[Link]
[Link]

[Link]

Glossary

[Link]
124

Example of Lincoln Welder SAE-400

[Link]
[Link]

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 A Training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Electric Welding and Welding Distribution

10 Assignments
1. Check and see what type of welding machines you
have on your rig or platform.

2. Check the stores to see what spare parts there are in

stock for the machines that are on that rig.

3. Check to see what the general condition of the

welding machines is like and if there is any
maintenance records for these machines.

4. If there is maintenance records for the welding

machines check to see when they were last insulation
tested.

5. If there are DC machines used, check the length and

condition of the brushes, and the condition of the
commutator.

6. If there are DC machines used, check the condition of

the variac or rheostat resistor for current adjustment
and the brush on the wiper arm of the variac.

7. With the normal three phase arc welding machines

check the condition of the current adjustment handle
and the threads of the screwed rod that raises or
lowers the core for this adjustment.

8. With all welders check the condition of the terminal

studs and plastic hand nuts where the leads connect
to the machine. These should be checked for arc
damage to make sure they can be tightened by hand
so that the work and earth/ground cable is tight and
not loose on the terminals.

9. Listen to the cooling fans on welding machines that

are fan cooled for bearing noise or possible fan blade
damage, as the failure of these fans can lead to
problems with the welder if it overheats.

10. The Welder should take care of the consumables

which will include the welding cable, hand piece, earth
clamp, cable connectors, and in the case of MIG or
TIG machines, the equipment for the inert or semi
inert gas supply, such as hoses and regulators, and
the supply of spools of welding wire.

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11 Glossary
Alternating Current (AC) An electrical current that
reverses its direction at regular intervals, such as 60 cycles
alternating current (AC), or 60 hertz.

Amperage The measurement of the amount of electricity

flowing past a given point in a conductor per second. Current
is another name for amperage.

Arc The physical gap between the end of the electrode and
the base metal. The physical gap causes heat due to
resistance of current flow and arc rays.

Constant-Current (CC) Welding Machine These welding

machines have limited maximum short circuit current. They
have a negative volt-amp curve and are often referred to as
“droopers”. The voltage will change with different arc lengths
while only slightly varying the amperage, thus the name
constant current or variable voltage.

Constant-Voltage (CV), Constant-Potential (CP)

Welding Machine “Potential” and “voltage” are basically
the same in meaning. This type of welding machine output
maintains a relatively stable, consistent voltage regardless of
the amperage output. It results in a relatively flat volt-amp
curve as opposed to the drooping volt-amp curve of a typical
Stick (SMAW) welding machine.

Current Another name for amperage. The amount of

electricity flowing past a point in a conductor every second.

CFM (Cubic Feet per Minute) — A standard volumetric

measurement of gas flow.

Direct Current (DC) Flows in one direction and does not

reverse its direction of flow as does alternating current.

Direct Current Electrode Negative (DCEN) The specific

direction of current flow through a welding circuit when the
electrode lead is connected to the negative terminal and the
work lead is connected to the positive terminal of a DC
welding machine. Also called direct current, straight polarity
(DCSP).

Direct Current Electrode Positive (DCEP) The specific

direction of current flow through a welding circuit when the
electrode lead is connected to a positive terminal and the
work lead is connected to a negative terminal to a DC
welding machine. Also called direct current, reverse polarity
(DCRP).

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Duty Cycle The number of minutes out of a 10-minute

time period an arc welding machine can be operated at
maximum rated output. An example would be 60% duty
cycle at 300 amps. This would mean that at 300 amps the
welding machine can be used for 6 minutes and then must
be allowed to cool with the fan motor running for 4 minutes.
(Some manufacturers outside the U.S. rate machines on a 5-
minute cycle).

Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) An arc welding process

which melts and joins metals by heating them with an arc
between a continuous, consumable electrode wire and the
work. Shielding is obtained from a flux contained within the
electrode core. Depending upon the type of flux cored wire,
added shielding may or may not be provided from externally
supplied gas or gas mixture. Consumables: contact tips, flux
cored wire, shielding gas (if required, depends on wire type)

Ground Connection A safety connection from a welding

machine frame to the earth. Often used for grounding an
engine-driven welding machine where a cable is connected
from a ground stud on the welding machine to a metal stake
placed in the ground. See Workpiece Connection for the
difference between work connection and ground connection.

Ground Lead When referring to the connection from the

welding machine to the work, see preferred term Workpiece
Lead.

Hertz (Hz) Hertz is often referred to as “cycles per

second”. In the United States, the frequency or directional
change of alternating current is usually 60 hertz.

High Frequency Covers the entire frequency spectrum

above 50,000 Hz. Used in TIG welding for arc ignition and
stabilization.

kVA Kilovolt-amperes. The total volts times amps divided

by 1,000, demanded by a welding power source from the

kW Kilowatts. Primary kW is the actual power used by the

power source when it is producing its rated output.
Secondary kW is the actual power output of the welding
power source. Kilowatts are found by taking volts times amps
divided by 1,000 and taking into account any power factor.

MIG (GMAW or Gas Metal Arc Welding) An arc welding

process which joins metals by heating them with an arc. The
arc is between a continuously fed filler metal (consumable)
electrode and the work piece.

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Plasma Arc Cutting An arc cutting process which severs

metal by using a constricted arc to melt a small area of the
work. This process can cut all metals that conduct electricity.
Consumables: torch consumables, gas or compressed air
supply

Pounds per Square Inch (psi) A measurement equal to a

mass or weight applied to one square inch of surface area.

Power Efficiency How well an electrical machine uses the

incoming electrical power.

Primary Power Often referred to as the input line voltage

and amperage available to the welding machine from the
shop’s main power line. Often expressed in watts or kilowatts
(kW), primary input power is AC and may be single-phase or
three-phase. Welding machines with the capability of
accepting more than one primary input voltage and
amperage must be properly connected for the incoming
primary power being used.

Rated Load The amperage and voltage the power source is

designed to produce for a given specific duty cycle period.
For example, 300 amps, 32 load volts, at 60% duty cycle.

Shielding Gas Protective gas used to prevent atmospheric

contamination of the weld pool. Usually a mixed gas or CO2.

Single-Phase Circuit An electrical circuit producing only

one alternating cycle within a 360 degree time span.

Spatter The metal particles blown away from the welding

arc. These particles do not become part of the completed
weld.

Spot Welding Usually made on materials having some type

of overlapping joint design. Can refer to resistance, MIG or
TIG spot welding. Resistance spot welds are made from
electrodes on both sides of the joint, while TIG and MIG
spots are made from one side only.

Stick Welding (SMAW or Shielded Metal Arc) An arc

welding process which melts and joins metals by heating
them with an arc, between a covered metal electrode and the
work. Shielding gas is obtained from the electrode outer
coating, often called flux. Filler metal is primarily obtained
from the electrode core. An AC/DC welder is recommended
for Stick. For most applications, DC reverse polarity welding
offers advantages over AC, including easier starts and out-of-
position welding, smoother arc and fewer arc outages and
sticking. Consumables: stick electrodes.

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TIG Welding (GTAW or Gas Tungsten Arc) Often called

TIG welding (Tungsten Inert Gas), this welding process joins
metals by heating them with a tungsten electrode which
should not become part of the completed weld. Filler metal is
sometimes used and argon inert gas or inert gas mixtures
are used for shielding. Consumables: tungsten electrode,
filler metal, shielding gas

Torch A device used in the TIG (GTAW) process to control

the position of the electrode, to transfer current to the arc,
and to direct the flow of shielding gas.

Tungsten Rare metallic element with extremely high

melting point (3410° C). Used in manufacturing TIG
electrodes.

Voltage The pressure or force that pushes the electrons

through a conductor. Voltage does not flow, but causes
amperage or current to flow. Voltage is sometimes termed
electromotive force (EMF) or difference in potential.

Volt-Amp Curve Graph that shows the output

characteristics of a welding power source. Shows voltage and
amperage capabilities of a specific machine.

Weld Metal The electrode and base metal that was melted
while welding was taking place. This forms the welding bead.

Weld Transfer Method by which metal is transferred from

the wire to the molten puddle. There are several methods
used in MIG; they include: short circuit transfer, spray arc
transfer, globular transfer, buried arc transfer, and pulsed
arc transfer.

Wire Feed Speed Expressed in in/min or mm/s, and refers

to the speed and amount of filler metal fed into a weld.
Generally speaking the higher the wire feed speed, the
higher the amperage.

Workpiece Connection A means to fasten the work lead

(work cable) to the work (metal to be welded on). Also, the
point at which this connection is made. One type of work
connection is made with an adjustable clamp.

Workpiece Lead The conductor cable or electrical

conductor between the arc welding machine and the work.

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 A Training Corse for Rig Electricians
Basic Earthing & Earth Bonding

Section 16
Earthing and Earth
Bonding

1 Equipment Overview ................................................ 2

2 How Does It Work .................................................... 7
3 How Do I Operate It ................................................. 9
4 Inspection............................................................. 11
5 Maintenance.......................................................... 13
6 Spare Parts ........................................................... 14
7 Trouble Shooting ................................................... 15
8 Questions ............................................................. 17
9 Reference Material ................................................. 18
10 Work Place Assignments ......................................... 19
11 Glossary............................................................... 20

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A training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Earthing & Earth Bonding

1 Equipment Overview
1.1 Earthing System

In electricity supply systems, an earthing system defines the

electrical potential of the conductors relative to that of the
Earth's conductive surface. The choice of earthing system
has implications for the safety and electromagnetic
compatibility of the power supply. Note that regulations for
earthing (grounding) systems vary considerably between
different countries.

Figure 1 Grounding Fundamentals

A protective earth (PE) connection ensures that all exposed

conductive surfaces are at the same electrical potential as
the surface of the Earth, to avoid the risk of electrical shock
if a person touches a device in which an insulation fault has
occurred. It ensures that in the case of an insulation fault (a
"short circuit"), a very high current flows, which will trigger
an over current protection device (fuse, circuit breaker) that
disconnects the power supply.

Earthing is the system of connections to the general mass of

earth. Earthing systems are usually installed for one or more
of the following purposes:

• As part of implementation of protective earthing of

the power distribution system.

• For conducting lightning discharge currents to earth.

• As part of control power supply which is referenced to

ground.

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 A Training Corse for Rig Electricians
Basic Earthing & Earth Bonding

1.2 Protective Earthing of the power Distribution

System

Protective earthing of the power distribution system

• To safeguard against the possibility of danger to

human life.

• to maintain the proper working condition of the

electrical distribution system

1.3 Power Distribution System Earth

Associated with the power distribution system, the earth or

ground connection is essential for a return path back to the
generator or transformer supplying the systems power
requirements. In the event of a failure in the insulation or a
short to ground in the system, it is critical for the safe
operation of the system that this fault current operates
protection devices.

1.4 Control System Earth

Electronic Circuit ground versus earth

In an electrical circuit operating at signal voltages (usually
less than 50 V or so), a common return path that is the zero
voltage reference level for the equipment or system. Voltage
is a differential quantity, which appears between two points
having some electrical potential. In order to deal only with a
voltage (an electrical potential) of a single point, the second
point has to be connected to a reference point (ground)
having usually zero voltage. This signal ground may or may
not actually be connected to a power ground. A system
where the system ground is not actually connected to earth
is often referred to as a floating ground.

1.5 Equipotential Bonding Earth

Isolated earth electrodes may develop significant potential

differences under influence of high currents, such as might
be experience in power distribution fault conditions, or
particularly during lightning discharge. Where these
electrodes connect to different parts of an installation, the
potential difference may inject currents that are disruptive or
damaging. For this reason, earth electrodes are commonly
bonded by low impedance (low resistance, low inductance)
conductors that will withstand the extreme currents that may
flow for a short period.

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Basic Earthing & Earth Bonding

1.6 Fault Current

This is a current which results from the loss of insulation

between conductors or between a conductor and ground.

1.7 Cable Tray Earth

In the case of cable tray, every joint should have an earthing

or ground cable installed across each joint and bolted via
cable lugs to the cable tray each side of that joint to ensure a
good earth/ground connection without relying on the fish
plates and bolts that join the cable tray together at the joint
for earth continuity.

Figure 2 Cable Tray Earth Bonding

1.8 Catenary Earth

With cables that are run on a catenary, where the steel

catenary wire is being used as an earth or ground path, this
will need to be tested to ensure it is down to the same
potential as ground, or is grounded. If the catenary is part of
another cable run such as cable tray, a separate earth or
ground cable may have to be installed to continue the cable
tray continuity.

1.9 Screwed Conduit Earth

Screwed conduit in its self should be a good earth/ground

conductor, but at any point at which there is a break caused
by such things as plastic bushings or plastic flexible conduit
where the earth path is not continuous, this will need to be
bridged with cable and lugs or clamps to ensure continuity of
the earth system around the insulated points.

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 A Training Corse for Rig Electricians
Basic Earthing & Earth Bonding

The picture below shows the normal method used for

earthing or grounding a land rig, with cable used to link all
the units together with bolts welded to the steel structures.
The yellow and green earth cable is lugged to suit the bolts
and secured with nuts, spring and plain washers are used to
secure the cable to the bolts. Several earth stakes will be
driven into the ground to achieve a good earth or ground at
various points around the rig, including the main earthing
point at the generator house for the earth return.

Figure 3 Land Rig Earth Stake Installed

1.10 Electrical Equipment Earthing

It is important that all electrical equipment is securely

Earthed. This includes all parts that may be separated by
gaskets flanges valves or steel frames. Any part where a
potential difference will be created if a fault occurs will need
a bonding cable or strap attached to carry any fault current.
All these points will need to be bridged with cable and
terminated correctly either side of the joint to ensure that
the fault current will not cause an arc or spark across the
gap, such as the mounting feet of the motor to the deck or
mounting frame.

The same applies to motorised valves which are mounted in

flanged pipes, where an earth/ground cable should be run
from the motor to ground to continue the earthing path back
to a bolt welded on the deck to ensure a good earthing or
grounding path back to the source of power. The Bonding of
panel doors on switch gear or MCCs, which have electrical
equipment mounted on them such, as push buttons or lights,
where if there is a fault, the door could become alive is also
essential.

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A training Course for Rig Electricians
Basic Earthing & Earth Bonding

If these basic principles are not adhered to this oversight can

become a hazard to the operators of the equipment, and in
this case the Mcc door which requires an earthing strap or
cable from the door to the frame it cannot be guaranteed
that hinges will ground the fault current, and protect the
person opening the door.

Figure 4 Earth Bonding of Structure & Generator

In fact any equipment which has electrical equipment

installed in or on it must have a clear path to ground in the
case of a fault occurring so that no part of it becomes alive.
This is done so that it does not become a danger to any
personnel that are likely to come into contact with it in the
course of their normal daily duties. It is also important in the
case of hazardous locations, where an arc or spark likely to
cause an explosion in areas affected by hydrocarbon gases.

Figure 5 Earth Bonding of Derrick

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 A Training Corse for Rig Electricians
Basic Earthing & Earth Bonding

2 How Does It Work

2.1 Power Generation Earthing

With power generation there always needs to be an

earth/ground return path back to the generator, and this can
be done in one or two different ways to ensure the safety of
the installation and for the users of the system.

2.2 Star Wound Generator Earthing

In the case of a star or Y wound generator, the star point

becomes the neutral or return path. This Star point is tied to
earth or ground to make sure there is no potential difference
between neutral and ground. This is done so that personnel
do not get electric shocks from the neutral, in some systems
which are not tied to ground the neutral will be the same
voltage as the phase voltage. The connection can be made
also at the distribution board away from the generator where
there is an earth or ground wire with a confirmed earth value
of zero resistance to ground.

Figure 6 Earthing System

This can be an earth stake in the ground in the case of a land

rig, or in the case of a house the copper water supply pipe to
the house as well as the earth stake providing the water pipe
is not plastic. Or in the case of an offshore oil rig, a steel lug
welded to the deck to which the earth or ground cable from
the distribution panel is connected which has a return path
through the steel structure to the supply source.

This type of system will have a cable connection made in the

distribution panel between the earth/ground connection
terminal block and the neutral connection terminal block to
ground the neutrals at this point. This is to ensure the
neutral does not float above ground, where it could give
someone working on the system an electric shock if they
came in contact with the neutral in the field, such as when
they are repairing a light fixture.

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Basic Earthing & Earth Bonding

2.3 Delta Wound Generator Configuration

On larger systems the power may be generated in the "delta"

configuration to supply a "delta - Y" step down transformer,
from which the power will be distributed in the same manor
as above. This system is earthed by grounding the "star
point" at the transformer to be sure that the neutral is the
same potential as the earth or ground. The system will also
be connected between earth and neutral terminal blocks at
the distribution panel for safety, so that the neutrals will
remain grounded even if the neutral connection is lost
between the generator or transformer and the distribution
panel.

Figure 7 Transformer Star Point Earthing

2.4 Principles of Earth Bonding

The principle to earth bonding is to ensure that all parts that

are associated with an electrical piece of equipment have a
low resistance path back to the power source. This includes
equipment such as switch boards, MCC’s, motors, cable tray,
catenary wires, conduits etc. These all need to be bonded
together at their exterior casings to a zero resistance value.
This has to be in common with the ground on the generator
or transformer to create a common continuous earth
throughout the system so that any ground faults are
grounded to this main earth.

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3 How Do I Operate It
3.1 General Statement Regarding Earthing

How do I operate it is not really a category that applies to

Earthing. A more appropriate phase would be how do I
assess that the earthing is satisfactory.

3.2 Supply Cable Earth Conductor

It is necessary that all electrical equipment is grounded for

the safety of the equipment and the personnel. This is done
whenever new equipment is installed, or old replaced, and
attention is paid to make sure that it is earthed or grounded.
This is normally achieved with a cabled earth connection
back to the motor starter (Mcc) via the supply cable, which is
a direct earth link back to the power source it is supplied
from.

Figure 8 Earth Bonding of Equipment

3.3 Bonding Earth Wire

The equipment is earth bonded to the ground, which in the

case of an offshore operation is the steel deck. So where
pieces of equipment are mounted on several steel structures
one on top of the other, each of these structures need to be
bonded to the next. So there will be bolts or studs welded to
each piece of the structure, and a short length of cable with
lugs on each end to fit these bolts or studs so that every
section can be joined by these lengths of cable to make the
earthing continuous down to the steel deck.

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3.4 Bonding Integrity

The sound condition of the earth bonding connections are

essential. If the insulation of a motor on a piece of
equipment should fail causing its frame to become alive with
mains supply current, the low resistance path through the
motor its mounting feet and bolts will reach the deck. This
can be impeded by corrosion, rust or loose bolts causing high
resistance joints that must be avoided. This integrity issue
applies to all forms of bonding regardless of what equipment
is being discussed.

Figure 9 Earthing of Cable Glands

3.5 Continuous Bonding Compliance

With the installation of new cable tray or the repair of old

sections that have been damaged, these must be bonded
together by small sections of lugged cable jumpers being
connected across the joints where the sections of cable tray
join together. This is to ensure that there is a continuity of
the earth or grounding across the joint and the earth is not
lost by poor face to face contact of the fish plates, cable tray,
and bolts.

This will ensure that any cable insulation failure or cable

damage on a section of cable tray will travel to ground via
the cable tray earth bonding, instead of a section of cable
tray being isolated from the system, becoming alive, and
dangerous to the installation and personnel. If a damaged
cable shorts to ground on the tray it should trip the breaker
for the circuit of that cable, and remove the supply from the
circuit making it safe.

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4 Inspection
4.1 Earthing Compliance Checks

Inspection of earthing will mainly be a case of checking earth

bonding of cable trays, electric motor drives, and any
permanent electrical equipment, to make sure the earthing
straps are still connected on all these items. Replace any
broken or damaged ones to return the system to its fully
operational condition so there are no breaks in the earthing
system to ground. Also a check should be made of the
earthing connections for corrosion or deterioration between
the lugs and the steel or aluminium they are fixed to.

Figure 10 Suspect Earth Cable & Connection

4.2 Earthing Checks on replaced Equipment

Careful examination of the earthing system on any

equipment that has been replaced or repaired is essential.
This is to ensure that all earthing cables and bonding straps
have been reconnected as originally intended when
compared to the as build schematics. Most preventative
maintenance systems have a periodic check of equipment
earths and may include five yearly ductor tests across all
earth connections to verify their continuity.

4.3 Earthing of Switchboards and MCC’s

Switchboards and MCCs should be inspected to ensure that

there are earthing cables or straps on all removable panels or
doors. This is to ensure that all opening or removable parts
are grounded back to the frame of the cabinet, so that they
cannot become alive if there is a fault with equipment on the
doors or panels.

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Some switchboards and MCCs are mounted on rubber

mounts to prevent damage from vibration, in this case it is a
good idea to make sure that the panel is grounded via an
earthing cable or strap at the base, this is normally where
the earth bus-bar will be found.

Figure 11 Dangerous Earthing Connection

Figure 12 No Earth Connection

The photo’s above Illustrates the need for regular

inspections. In Figure 11 the poor connection would result in
the possibility of live equipment should a fault occur. The
same would apply to the motor in figure 12 as the earth
cable has either broken or has not been reconnected after
maintenance.

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5 Maintenance
5.1 Earthing Survey

In general the maintenance required is one of inspecting the

earthing system for broken or damaged earth bonding cables
or straps and replacing them if required. A check should be
made for corrosion damage of the cables or terminations
where it will be necessary to change damaged earthing
cables, lugs, or securing bolts to maintain the earth/ground
link for earth continuity. As mentioned in section 4.1 Most
preventative maintenance systems have a periodic check of
equipment earths and may include five yearly ductor tests
across all earth connections to verify their continuity.

In the case of land rigs where the moves are frequent, some
of the welded on bolts for earthing may need to be replaced
on a regular basis due to damaged threads. Also the copper
coated earth stakes may need to be replaced frequently if
they become damaged or cannot be recovered for reuse on
the next location. Any broken earth cables or straps on
switch board or MCC doors should be replaced to ensure the
door cannot become alive in the event of a fault in the panel
or switchgear.

Figure 13 Earth Bonding the Derrick to the Sub-Base

As you can see in this picture, this cable gives a positive

earth link between the stationary and telescoping section of
the derrick, to provide unbroken grounding to the upper
section of the mast.

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6 Spare Parts
6.1 Assorted Earth Cable

The only spares one can keep for this system is cable of the
required sizes, which on a land rig will be some fairly long
runs from structure to structure to keep all the rig tied down
to a common earth.

6.2 Earth Stakes & terminators

Also a stock of earth stakes and terminators are always

required, and in some locations where a good earth is hard
to find due to very dry ground, you may require earth stakes
that can be extended by screwing them together with
connectors or couplings until the rods reach the water table
or damp ground.

6.3 Assorted Cable lugs

Also a selection of cable lugs will be required to suit the

various sizes of cable used of which there should be only two
or three for all the different earthing connections around the
rig.

6.4 Tools & Test Equipment

Wire Brushes, Cable cutters, Suitable cable crimpers, Multi-

meter, Megger and Ductor tester

Figure 14 Selection of Earth Bars & Connectors

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7 Trouble Shooting
7.1 What if it Breaks Down

Generally the break down of any earthing system will have

no effect on the running of the associated equipment.
However a dangerous condition will be created if the earthing
system is not integral. Any component that is capable of
transmitting electric current and is not bonded to the
earthing system has the potential to become alive.

7.2 Use of Test Equipment

The common methods of fault finding is with test instruments

such as, Megger, Multi-meter or Ductor tester. These are
used to test the insulation resistance between the active
parts of isolated equipment or the continuity between various
earth points.

Figure 15 Earthing Test Equipment

7.3 Land Based Rigs

When the ground is damp it should be easy to get good earth

continuity readings, but in some very dry desert areas it can
be very hard to get a good earth reading even at a moderate
depth. In this case more earth rods may need to be driven
into the ground to achieve a better reading. This is achieved
by creating an earth mat made up of many rods covering the
whole drilling area, and then joining them all together as a
common earth.

7.4 Offshore Rigs

In regard to offshore drilling facilities it is easier to get good

earth continuity due to everything being on a common steel
base. High resistance connections should not be too hard to
find with a megger, ohm meter or preferably a ductor tester
with a systematic point to point continuity test to locate a
problem.

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Again the picture below shows a very poor standard of earth

protection where the cable is too small to cope with the full
fault current of the equipment. Also it appears that it is not
attached to an earth stake.

Figure 16 Poor Standard of Earth Protection

This is an example of a wasted earth stake, because the

stake has been driven into the ground, but the earth cable,
which is in very good condition, has not been clamped to the
stake to give a good ground connection to the system, it
appears the remains of the clamp is laying in the mud.

The ground resistance can be tested by taking resistance

readings between two stakes in the system to achieve the
lowest reading possible with a Megger insulation tester.

Figure 17 Example of Tests Between Earth Stakes

Once a good ground of zero meg ohms has been achieved,

everything can be tied to that. The most important earth
stake will be at the point of generation, where the “star point
is tied to ground for the earth return of the system.

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Basic Earthing & Earth Bonding

8 Questions
1. Why does the rig equipment need to be earthed?
a) For the safety of personnel who may come in
contact with faulty electrical equipment.
b) To prevent explosions in hazardous areas.
c) To reduce the fire hazard on oil rigs.

2. What are the implications of no earthing in hazardous

areas?
a) Failure to trip circuit breakers when a fault arises
in electrical equipment.
b) The risk of explosion and fire in areas of
hydrocarbon gases.
c) A risk of death or personnel injury due to
explosion in areas of high gas concentrations.

3. With an electric motor mounted on a base, mounted

on the deck, or mounted on some other item of
equipment, what process should be followed as far as
earthing is concerned.
a) Rely on the earth wire in the supply cable to the
motor for grounding that motor.
b) Rely on the bolt down connections steel to steel for
earth continuity to ground as long as the steel is
clean.
c) Bridge each join in the mounting process with a
copper cable to ensure earth continuity from the
motor casing to ground or deck of the vessel.

4. On cable tray runs carrying high current cables, what

should be done to ensure good earthing of the
system.
a) Make sure the paint is removed between the cable
tray and the brackets to ensure a good earth.
b) Make sure the bolts are tight on all the fish plates
and the fish plates and cable tray are clean on
assembly.
c) Bridge every fish plate joint with a copper earthing
cable link to ensure earth continuity.

5. With earth stakes on land rigs what is required to

provide good earthing.
a) Drive an earth stake into the ground and connect
all earth cables.
b) Drive in several stakes at various locations around
the rig to water table depth to provide an earth mat
for the rig.
c) Rely on cable connections for earthing the
equipment.

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9 Reference Material
With this particular subject it would be best to refer to the
local electrical codes for the standard of earthing required in
any country or state, and the size of cable, but there is
always a basic standard to ensure the safety of the personnel
on the rig, to prevent injury or death.

For the Australian region a good reference point is the

AS/NZS 3000 Wiring rules which will lay down the standard
required for any wiring installation.

When it comes to offshore rigs many of these are built to

American NEC standards which may differ from those of the
counties they are working in but this is normally accepted for
the short time they will be there.

9.1 Technical Standards

AS NZS 3000-2000 Electrical installations

AS 1768-1991 Lightning protection

API RP2003 American Petroleum Institute: Protection

Against Ignitions Arising out of Static, Lighting, and Stray
Current.

ATEX 137 European Directive covering work places with

Potentially Explosive Atmospheres.

ATEX 95 European Directive covering equipment used in

potentially explosive atmospheres.

BS5958 British Standard Code of practice for control of

undesirable static electricity.

9.2 Web Sites

[Link]
[Link]/nginc2006/resources/[Link]

[Link]
nts/Issue16/2005_16_autumn_wiring_matters_earthing_you
r_questions_answered.pdf

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

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10 Work Place Assignments

1. Check that all equipment has a clear earth return path
to the generating source.

2. Check that all motors or electrical powered items have

unbroken earth links from their mountings to ground.

3. Ensure that anything that is supplied with an electric

supply has both earthing via its supply and by earth
bonding to make sure it cannot rise above zero
potential.

4. On a land rig, ensure that all the individual units are

connected together with earth cable large enough to
carry a fault load should it occur.

5. With a land rig ensure there are enough earth stakes

driven into the ground to provide a good earth (Zero
Megger Reading), to provide an earth mat for the
whole rig.

6. Check the resistance between earth stakes to make

sure that there is an earth or Zero Megger reading.

7. If the rig is on very dry ground ie desert, test between

two earth stakes to see if there is a ground or
whether the stakes need to be driven deeper in to the
ground to find a ground in more moist soil at a
greater depth.

8. Check all the ground connection studs or bolts welded

to the individual units or the deck to make sure the
threads are good enough to be able to tighten the
nuts to get a good earth contact from the lugs on the
grounding cables.

9. Check that all the lugs on ground cables are the

correct size for the cable being used. They have been
crimped on to the cables with the correct crimping
tool. That the cables are not loose in the lugs, and are
making good contact with the steel or aluminium. Also
that there is no corrosion in the terminations

10. Check that all earth cables connected to the earth

stakes are firmly fixed to the earth stakes, and
making good contact, and thereby a good earth.

11. Ensure there is enough cable and lugs of the correct

size in stock on the rig to maintain the earthing
system at all times.

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11 Glossary
Anti-Static Incapable of retaining a significant electrostatic
charge.

Bonding The process of connecting two or more conductive

objects together by means of a conductor so that they are at
the same electrical potential, but not necessarily at the same
potential as the earth.

Bonding Reels (or static discharge reels) Used for

connecting conductive objects to an earthing or grounding
point.

Capacitance The amount of charge stored on a specified

body or material to raise the potential difference by 1 volt.

Conductive The ability to allow the flow of an electric

charge.

Conductor A material or object that allows an electric

charge to flow easily through it.

Ductor An test instrument that can measure very low

resistance

Ductor Test A dc milli-ohm resistance measuring test,

normally used to measure circuit-breaker and tap-changer
contact resistance. The test is carried out by injecting a high
current and measuring the voltage across the device. (Ductor
is a proprietary name. Other makes of test set are also
used.)

Earthing The process of bonding one or more conductive

objects to the ground, so that all objects are at zero (0)
electrical potential. (also known as Grounding)

Earth Bonding This is a term used to indicate that all the

metal conductive parts of an installation have been bonded
together by cable connection to have a common reading to
ground of “Zero” with an ‘insulation Tester” or “Megger”. In
the case of a land rig, all the major units have to be
connected together with green and yellow earth cable to
make sure all the units are of the same potential at zero Meg
Ohms. Also there will have to be earth stakes driven into the
ground at several points close to the major items of
equipment to ensure the system has a good earth. This is
referred to as an earth mat, when all the equipment is down
to a common ground, and one of the most important earth
stakes will be the one connecting the generator skid to
ground, which is the “star point” or neutral connection for the
system.

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Earth Cable Earth cable needs to be of sufficient cross

section to be able to cope with major fault currents in the
system they are designed for so that they do not blow like
fuse wire if they have to do their job in the event of a major
failure.

Earth Stake These are usually steel rods approximately

20mm in diameter, about 1 metre long and come in sets of
10, with a screw on pointed section which can be screwed
onto the first section so that it can be driven into the ground.
They are normally copper plated so that they do not corrode
and will provide better conductivity to the ground, and they
are screw threaded at each end so that they can be joined
with a barrel type connector. The connector can be screwed
on to the stake just driven into the ground, and the next rod
screwed into that and driven down further, until a good earth
is achieved or the stakes cannot be driven further. A
protective cap may be provided to prevent thread damage
while the rods are being driven. A clamp will be provided to
clamp the earth cable to the earth stake.

Earthing Systems With ground verification indicators often

interlocked with the product transfer system.

Earth Testing This is the proving of the earth situation on

a new location with a land rig, which can be as simple as
measuring the ground resistance between the two stakes
that have been driven into the ground. This can be done at
the location of two pieces of equipment to see if the earth
stakes have a zero reading on the Megger between them to
ensure you have a good ground.

Electrostatic Static electricity.

Fault Current A current which results from the loss of

insulation between conductors or between a conductor and
ground.

Grounding Term used for "Earthing" as above.

Leakage Resistance The resistance (expressed in Ohms)

between an object and the earth (ground).

Non Conductive The ability to resist the flow of an electric

charge.

Non Conductor A material or object that resists the flow of

an electric charge through it.

Retractable Bonding Cables Cables with an inherent

capability to retract when not in use.

Retractable Grounding Assembly Used for connecting

conductive objects to an earthing or grounding point.

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Self Testing Clamps Intrinsically Safe Bonding Clamps with

ability to monitor resistance between conductive object and
earth (ground) and provide verification of acceptable
condition.

Static Dissipative Capable of dissipating a static electric

charge at an acceptable rate.

Static Earth Monitoring The process of monitoring the

resistance to earth (ground).

Static Earthing Clamps Special purpose clamps designed

to enable temporary or semi-permanent connection onto
movable conductive objects.

Static Earthing Systems Control systems using explosion

protection and intrinsically safe techniques to monitor
acceptable resistance to earth (ground) and provide
verification and interlocks.

Static Protection Protection against the build up of static

electricity.

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Basic Hazardous Areas

Section 17
Hazardous Areas

1 Equipment Overview ................................................ 2

2 How Does It Work .................................................... 9
3 How Do I Operate It ............................................... 16
4 Inspection............................................................. 19
5 Maintenance.......................................................... 21
6 Spare Parts ........................................................... 22
7 Trouble Shooting ................................................... 23
8 Questions ............................................................. 24
9 Reference Material ................................................. 25
10 Wok Place Assignments........................................... 26
11 Glossary ............................................................... 27

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A Training Course for Rig Electricians
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1 Equipment Overview
1.1 Hazardous Areas

Hazardous areas are typically found in large facilities such as

oil production platforms, chemical processing plants,
refineries, storage tanks, ships, grain silos, warehouses and
other similar facilities which have the risk of explosion or fire
due to explosive mixtures of vapours or dusts. These hazards
can occur anywhere there is a build up of explosive mixtures
of dust and air, or gas and air. When a source of ignition is
added such as a spark or flame, along with the right
concentration, an explosion will result. All of these conditions
can occur in the holds on grain ships while being loaded, oil
and gas refineries during operations and offshore, on oil and
gas platforms during production or drilling activities.

1.2 Hazardous Zone Schematic

Hazardous zones need to be defined in industries such as the

marine, mining, agriculture, petrochemical and oil & gas to
mention a few, where special precautions need to be taken to
prevent the possibility of serous damage to equipment and
injury to personnel.

All oil exploration rigs will have a hazardous zone plan which
will have been designed during its construction. This drawing
is normally kept in the Toolpusher’s or Manager’s office. It
will graphically show all of the hazardous areas around the
rig. Of special interest will be the area around the Rig floor
(Zone1 or Class1/Division1 and Zone2 or Class1/ Division2
areas) to make the crew aware of the most hazardous areas
where gas concentrations can occur at any time. All other
areas will also be covered and marked according to their
hazardous rating.

1.3 Classification

Hazardous areas are classified under certain criteria. One is

the probability of a flammable or explosive mixture being
present in that area. The other is the type of flammable
material being present. Hence classification entails specifying
the area (Area Classification) as well as the material
(Flammable Material Classification). A third factor which
needs to be considered is temperature. It is also very
important therefore that (Temperature Classification) will
also need to be carried out. All certified equipment is
required by regulatory bodies to display an identification
plate which shows the Area, Material and Temperature
classification for which it can be installed safely, i.e. without
the risk of causing an explosion.

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1.4 Classifications International Comparisons

Industrial facilities are divided into Zones (European and IEC

method) or Divisions (North American method) according to
the likelihood of a potentially explosive atmosphere being
present.

Note : North American legislation now allows Zones to be

used to classify areas, where this practice is used it follows
the IEC Zone method.

European &
Release Source IEC North American
Classification Classification

Continuous
Continuous or Zone 0 (gases) Class I Division 1
Frequent during (gases)
normal operation Zone 20 (dusts) Class II Division 1
(dusts)

Primary
Periodical or Zone 1 (gases) Class I Division 1
occasional during (gases)
normal operation Zone 21 (dusts) Class II Division 1
(dusts)

Secondary
Not expected to Zone 2 (gases) Class I Division 2
occur during (gases)
normal operation Zone 22 (dusts) Class II Division 2
(dusts)

The following information refers to the requirements of

Australian Standards and is only intended to provide a quick
guide for some of the most common aspects of hazardous
area classification in gas zones 0, 1 & 2.

Australia Standards reference for classification of hazardous

areas:

• Gas - AS 2430.1

• Dust - AS/NZS 61241.3

Classification eg. Class 1 Zone 1 Group IIA Temp Class T2

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1.5 Class

Class Hazmat. Comments Australia & IEC

I Gases Flammable explosive
gas mixture Zones 0, 1 & 2
II Dust Combustible dusts Zones 20, 21& 22

1.6 Zone

Release Source Description Zone Comment

Continuous Flammable 0 Normally

Continuous or atmosphere is Hazardous
Frequent during continuously
normal operation present or
present for
long periods

Primary Flammable 1 Normally

Periodical or atmosphere is Hazardous
occasional during likely to occur
normal operation in normal
operation

Secondary Flammable 2 Not normally

Not expected to atmosphere is Hazardous
occur during not likely to except under
normal operation occur in normal abnormal
operations but conditions
may for short
periods

Not Applicable Flammable Safe Non

To this area atmosphere is Hazardous
never present Area

Other factors which need to be taken into account for zone

classification maybe factors resulting in gases being present
for longer periods of time and in larger quantities. Factors
that need to be taken into consideration are as follows:

• Specific gravity of the gas relative to air (heavier or

lighter than air).

• Pressure of the release gas, which may affect the

density of gas in some areas.

• Insufficient adequate natural ventilation, caused by

barriers or walls, wind velocity, etc may a detrimental
effect on the dispersal of gases.

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• Confined spaces, drains, and bunds may contain

heavier than air gases, while temp habitats, roofs,
and covers may contain lighter than air gases.

• Equipment failure, inadequate maintenance, or

damage may alter the normal class of release.

• Alterations to the process conditions may alter the

normal class of release.

1.7 Group

Group Gas Industry Comments

I Methane Coal mining Basic Hydrocarbon
A Propane Hydrocarbon
II B Ethylene All other industries Organic compound
C Hydrogen Lightest element

1.8 Temp Classification

Hazardous area apparatus is classified according to the maximum

surface temperature produced under fault conditions at an ambient
temperature of 40°C (or as otherwise specified).

Temp Class Max. Surface - Min. Ignition Temp.

T1 450° C
T2 300° C
T3 200° C
T4 135° C
T5 100° C
T6 85° C
Note. Equipment must have an equal or higher temperature
class than the classification for the hazardous area.

Eg. A pressure switch certified as Temp Class T3 can be

used in areas classified as T3-T6 but not in T2 or T3.

1.9 Compliance

All equipment installed within the zones marked on the

zoning plan must comply with that zone classification. So, if
the area is classed Zone1-Class1 Division1, only Zone1-
Class1 Division1 equipment can be installed in that zone. It is
a mandatory requirement that all electrical equipment
installed in the Zone1-Class1 Division1 area must be certified
for use in that zone.

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1.10 Certification ID

All hazardous area equipment should display the label of

certification to prove it is explosion-proof, therefore if this
label is missing it can no longer qualify as being explosion-
proof. Documentation to confirm the certification of this
equipment has to also be kept on site. A certificate of
compliance is issued by an approved testing authority.
Exhaustive tests are carried out on samples of EX equipment
which complies with the design and manufacturing
requirements for hazardous areas.

1.11 Hazardous Area Approvals and Standards

1.11.1 North America

To confirm compliance to all national standards both
countries require an additional indication on products tested
and approved. As an example CSA approved products to USA
standards must add NRTL/C to the CSA symbol. In Canada
UL must add a small c to its label to indicate compliance to
all Canadian standards.

United States of America: NEC (National Electric Code)

Approved Testing Authorities

CSA (Canadian Standards Association

ETL (Testing Laboratories Incorporated)

FM (Factory Mutual Research Corporation) MET.

UL (Underwriters Laboratories Inc.).

United States Testing Co. Inc.

Canada: CEC (Canadian Electric Code)

Approved Testing Authorities

CSA (Canadian Standards Association)

ETL (Testing Laboratories Incorporated)

UL (Underwriters Laboratories Inc.)

ULC (Underwriters’ Laboratories of Canada)

Europe: (European Community) IEC / CENLEC

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Approved Testing Authorities

Each member country of the EC has either government or

third party laboratories that test and approve products to IEC
and or CENELEC standards.

ATEX Directives (ATEX stands for atmosphere explosive)

These are important because, unlike the previous European

directives concerning hazardous areas, they are New
Approach Directives and are thus mandatory rather than
advisory. There are two ATEX (European) directives, one
concerning equipment and protective systems for use in
potentially explosive atmospheres and one concerning the
safety and health of workers potentially at risk from exposure
to explosive atmospheres.

The ATEX Directive (1999/92/EC) concerning the minimum

requirements for improving the safety and health protection
of workers potentially at risk from exposure to explosive
atmospheres is of concern to those operating plant or sites
which involve hazardous areas.

Other Countries: In the world have adopted the

following standards:

CEC / NEC (North American)

IEC / CENLEC/BASEEFA to British wiring methods (B.S.I.)

IEC / CENELEC to German wiring methods (VDE)

IEC/CENELEC/SIRA/LCIE to French wiring methods (NFC)

RIIS Japan

GOST Russian Federation (closely follow CENELEC practice)

SAA (Australia) AS3000 - AS2381, AS2380 and others

1.11.2 Glossary of Authorities

To gain a more detailed description of Hazardous area
requirements please consult the standards that are
relevant in your country.

IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) has set

broad standards for equipment and classification of areas.

Note. Area classifications used by IEC are not directly

compatible with current CEC / NEC area classification.

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CENELEC is an organisation that uses IEC standards as a

base and harmonizes them with all member countries
standards. The CENLEC mark is accepted in all EC countries.
All countries with in the EC also have governing bodies that
set additional standards for products and wiring methods.

NEC North America (National Electric Code)

CEC Canada ( Canadian Electric Code )

CSA One-Stop North American Certification. CSA is now

accredited by OSHA as an NRTL. To test and approve
products for use in the workplace. These approvals
are mandatory throughout the U.S.

OSHA Occupational Safety & Health Administration)

NRTL (Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratory)

1.12 Manufacturer’s

There are numerous manufacturers of explosion-proof

equipment for use in the oil & gas petrochemical and many
other industries around the World. American and European
companies have manufactured and certified this equipment
for their use in these hazardous areas.

Among the most common manufacturers would be;

• Crouse-Hinds and Appleton which are

manufactured by the same company Cooper
Industries. Also included would be the manufacturers
of hazardous location starters and switchgear such as
Square D, and Allen Bradley who have been long
established in the oil exploration industry.

There are several other well known electrical manufacturers

for the oil and gas industry of hazardous area equipment:

• Killark, Pauluhn, Hubbell (Victor), ABB, Stahl,

Pierlite, Safe Air Technology, Scientific Systems,
Marc Climatic Controls, Siemens, Rigalite,
Telemecanique.

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2 How Does It Work

2.1 Principle of Explosion Protection techniques

To make equipment safe to use in hazardous areas various

protection techniques are employed. There are five basic
methods that these techniques rely on.

• Explosion Containment: If an internal explosion

occurs the equipment is designed to contain the
explosion and prevent the ignition of the outside
atmosphere.

o Flameproof (EXd)

• Exclusion: By using sealed or pressurized enclosures

the equipment is designed to prevent flammable gas
coming into contact with an ignition source.

o Encapsulation (EXm) Non sparking (EXn)

Oil immersion (EXo) Pressurisation (EXp)
Sand filled (EXq)

• Energy Limitation: The designed equipment will not

allow enough energy for a spark to ignite flammable
gas.

o Intrinsic Safety (EXia/EXib) Non sparking (EXn)

• Dilution: This method uses the dilution of any

flammable gas to below the LEL level either internally
or externally.

o Ventilation (EXv)

• Avoidance: Under normal or fault conditions this

method prevents an ignition source, spark or hot
surface from being created.

o Increased Safety (EXe) Non sparking (EXn)

2.1.1 Flameproof (EXd)

Flameproof equipment is identified with letters EXd. It is one
of the oldest techniques used for making electrical equipment
safe to use in hazardous areas.

Basis of this technique: This can be described as a

technique that enables a device to be able to withstand an
internal explosion with out igniting the external surrounding
atmosphere.

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How it Works: The substantial construction of the device

along with the specially designed flame path allows the
internal pressure created by an explosion to escape to
atmosphere, but at the same time cooling the flame created
to such a level as not to contain enough heat to ignite
external gases.

Figure 1 EXd Enclosures

Typical Equipment: light fittings, junction boxes,

enclosures, instrumentation, switch gear, AC motors, air
conditioners etc.

2.1.2 Increased Safety (EXe)

Increased safety equipment is identified with letters EXe. It is
one of the newest techniques used for making electrical
equipment safe to use in hazardous areas.

Basis of this technique: This can be described as a

technique that ensures that a device cannot arc or spark in
normal operation. Varies methods are used in its design and
manufacture to reduce the likelihood of the equipment
causing ignition to an acceptable level.

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How it Works: By De-rating components, increasing

clearances and creep age distances, assigning max. power
dissipations, including min. IP ratings, inside components to
be EXe approved, Protection devices for motors to disconnect
before exceeding max. allowable temp.

Figure 2 EXe Stop - Start Stations

Typical Equipment: light fittings, junction boxes,

enclosures, instrumentation, switch gear, AC motors, etc.

2.1.3 Pressurisation (EXp)

Pressurised equipment is identified with letters EXp. It is a
techniques where a positive pressure is applied to a motor or
enclosure/panel thereby making non hazardous electrical
equipment within safe to use in hazardous areas.

Basis of this technique: This can be described as a

technique that prevents an external flammable atmosphere
from entering an EXp certified piece of equipment because
the internal pressure exceeds the external.

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How it Works: By applying a reliable continuous flow of air

or inert gas to a level exceeding the outside atmospheric
pressure. Included in this certification must be a automatic
electrical supply disconnection ability to the equipment and
or initiate an alarm function.

Figure 3 Drillers Control Console

Typical Equipment: DC motors, control panels, enclosures,

field equipment rooms, plant rooms, etc.

2.1.4 Non sparking (EXn)

Non sparking equipment is identified with letters EXn. It is a
technique that was developed approx 30 years ago by the
British. It was concluded that normal industrial equipment
could be modified to be used in areas that flammable
atmospheres were only likely to occur under abnormal
conditions such as Zone 2. areas.

Basis of this technique: This can be described as a

technique that makes the equipment incapable of igniting the
surrounding atmosphere under normal operation.

Be Aware that because the technique is described as non

sparking it can allow a arcs, sparks and hot surfaces during
operation provided they are protected by other methods.
Eg. Energy limited circuits, restricted breathing enclosure,
non-incentive components, enclosed break devices,
hermetically sealed devices.

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How it Works: Well engineered industrial equipment which

are designed with extra measures to reduce the possibility of
arcs or sparks, and high temperatures developing in a
abnormal flammable atmosphere.

Figure 4 EXn Motor

Typical Equipment: AC motors, light fittings, enclosures

etc.

2.1.5 Special Protection EXs

[Link]
tm

This method, being special, has no definite rules. In effect it

is any method which can be shown to be safe in use. Much of
the apparatus having 's' protection was designed with
encapsulation and this has been superseded by EN 50028. In
addition, the s coding is used when apparatus has been
assessed to one of the individual parts of the CENELEC series
but does not exactly comply with it. EXs protection has been
commonly used for Zone 0 and Zone 1 applications and its
use was contained in BS 5345, the previous UK code of
practice. The introduction of the ATEX directive removes the
need for the continuing use of the 's' coding.

2.1.6 Intrinsic Safety (EXia/EXib)

Intrinsically equipment is identified with letters EXi. It is one
of the oldest techniques used for making electrical equipment
safe to use in hazardous areas. It was developed after
exposed low voltage signal wiring caused fatal explosions in
underground mines. Even though the voltage and current
was low, there was enough energy to cause a spark if an
accidental short occurred.

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Basis of this technique: This can be described as a

technique that makes the equipment incapable of igniting the
surrounding atmosphere because the arc or spark does not
contain sufficient energy.

How it Works: Equipment is designed that removes the

potential for ignition by an arc or spark by energy limitation.
This has been achieved by determining the ignition curves for
flammable gases and designing circuits that limit the energy
available to a level below the relevant flammable gas groups
ignition point.

To limit the available energy coming from a safe area an I.S.

Barrier is used to supply the I.S. field equipment that resides
in a hazardous area. This is achieved by using electronic
components in the form of fuses resistors and zener diodes.

Figure 5 Zener Barriers

It must be mentioned that this technique is designed to be a

matched system which also includes the capacitance and
inductance of the connecting cable along with the selected
barrier. Note Caution; a zener barrier can only be used with
intrinsically safe field equipment. Non I.S. equipment may be
capable of storing enough energy to cause ignition to a
flammable atmosphere.

EXia: Intrinsic safety which is two fault tolerant

EXib: Intrinsic safety which is two fault tolerant

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Figure 6 Selection of Intrinsically Safe Devices

Typical Equipment: Instrumentation, transmitters,

encoders. Proximity switches, Man machine interfaces, etc.

2.1.7 Other Methods

Other methods that can be used, such as oil immersion,
encapsulation and filling with sand or powder, are only suited
to a limited range of applications - in particular, those where
maintenance is not likely to be required.

Encapsulation: (EXm)

Oil immersion: (EXo)

Sand filled: (EXq)

2.1.8 Chart of Techniques & Zones

Symbol Protection Technique Applicable Zones

EXd Flameproof 1&2

EXe Increased safety 1&2
EXp Purge pressurisation 1&2
EXn Non sparking 2
EXm Encapsulation 1&2
EXo Oil immersion 1&2
EXq Sand/powder filled 1&2
EXs Special protection 1&2
Intrinsic safety two fault
EXia tolerant 0, 1 & 2
Intrinsic safety one fault
EXib tolerant 1&2

Table 1 Chart of Protection Techniques

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3 How Do I Operate It
It is impossible to cover the operation of every piece of
hazardous equipment that is found on Drilling rigs however a
small selection has been included for discussion.

3.1 Drillers Console

Control panels on the driller’s console are purged with clean

dry air. The air is supplied at a minimum pressure of 25 Pa or
0.1”of water, and a normally constant 125Pa or 0.5” of
water. This constant flow is to maintain a positive pressure in
the panels to exclude any gas. This air is supplied from a
source free of gas such as the rig air supply. This is then
reduced down to the required pressure by the use of an air
regulator from 120 PSI to approximately 5 PSI and put
through a filter drier from the main rig air supply system.

All the terminations for the drilling instrumentation cables at

the drillers console are normally terminated in large
explosion-proof junction boxes inside the panels with
screwed entry covers or lids. Sometimes these covers will be
provided with “O” rings to prevent the entry of water. In
many cases the interconnections between pieces of
equipment are done with the use of screwed conduit and
explosion-proof junction boxes with screwed lids.

3.2 Elmagco Brake

Because of the proximity of the Elmagco brake to the rotary

table and thus the bell nipple, all the equipment on the
Elmagco brake such as the flow switches, alarm system and
temperature sensor are all required to be explosion-proof.
This in some cases can be the older type Elmagco control
box, which will consist of an explosion-proof bolted enclosure
mounted near the brake or in the Dog House on the rig floor.

3.3 Mud Tanks/Pits

When it comes to the mud tanks/pits, because the flow is

over the shale shakers and then into the mud tanks/pits,
some gas may be carried with the mud from the flow line.
The equipment on the mud tanks is required to be explosion-
proof, including the agitator motors which are normally TEFC
motors, and any lighting and power receptacles that may be
at tank top level.

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3.4 Koomey Unit

There are other specialized pieces of equipment such as the

Koomey BOP control unit which are designed as explosion-
proof systems. These may be far removed from the rig floor
on many rigs, and it may seem that there is no reason for
these to be explosion-proof as they are located outside a
hazardous area. But these units are essential to well control
in the event of serious problems arising in the well therefore
they are built to the highest standard.

The accumulator or “Koomey” unit can be controlled from the

rig floor, or a remote control panel located well away from
the rig floor or well head. The Koomey is used to control the
BOP (Blow Out Preventor) which will control the well during a
blow out event. This system is vital, and must be able to be
operated at all times and in all conditions during the drilling
operation. It is therefore understandable that this system
should not be made inoperable during drilling operations
without the permission of the Tool pusher and oil company
representative,(Company Man) or without notifying the driller
at all times.

3.5 Lighting in Hazardous Areas

The type of fluorescent light fixtures which have quarts glass

tubes as lenses will require the screwed end caps to be
removed to replace the tubes. This is carried out after the
power is isolated from the fixture for safety. All of these light
fittings will have labels on them to certify that they are EXd
or explosion-proof. The light fixtures which are normally
mounted on poles above the mud tanks or pits can be the
same type as the derrick lights that will be vapour proof
fixtures which are generally of the EXe type. These are
designed with a switch mechanism which turns off the light
when the cover is opened.

3.6 Rigs Portable equipment

With plug in items such as portable light fixtures, these use

explosion-proof plugs and receptacles found on the rig floor
and derrick. They are turned off at these receptacles by the
action of removing the plug. It should not be possible to
remove the plug while the supply is still on, because the plug
will have to be turned before it can be removed, in doing so
this will turn off the power to the plug.

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3.7 Service Company Portable equipment

Any equipment introduced to the rig floor such as temporary

equipment for casing or logging crews should all be
explosion-proof, and have plugs to fit the rig floor explosion-
proof outlets to maintain the integrity of the rig floor. There
should never be non explosion-proof equipment allowed on
to the rig floor if the well is active, such as extension cords or
drilling machines or any equipment that might cause a spark
or flame.

Quite often when these service crews arrive with their

equipment they do not have the correct plugs, so the rig will
have to supply these plugs for their portable equipment to
suit the rigs receptacles. Some of the other equipment used
may be hydraulic units driven by small diesel engines, which
will be place near the rig floor to power tubing tools. These
may have electric control panels associated with them.

The only time such equipment is normally allowed on the rig

floor is if the well is shut in, and the drill floor has been gas
tested with a certified gas detector. Then permission has
been sort from the Tool pusher and company representative
to say the rig floor is gas free and safe for the use of non
explosion-proof equipment on the rig floor. Most companies
will have their own procedures to follow in these cases so it is
important for you to familiarise yourself with them.

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4 Inspection
4.1 Frequent Inspections

Refer to AS2381.6 for the Chart which summarises

procedures.

To ensure that the hazardous equipment is maintained in

satisfactory condition inspections need to be carried out.
Generally these inspections should not exceed three years
however after sampling previous visual or close inspection
problems found there may be a need for a more detailed
inspection to be carried out more frequently. These may be
part of your programmed maintenance system or may
require your intervention to ensure that these are carried
out.

These inspections should be carried out on all certified

electrical equipment used in hazardous areas on a regular
basis. The frequency of these inspections and the type is
determined by several factors:

• OEM recommendations

• Corrosive atmospheres eg. Salt Air

• Previous inspection findings

• High risk of mechanical damage

• Mechanical vibration that may be present

• History of equipment requiring extra maintenance

4.2 Following Inspection

A detailed inspection should be carried out after any

maintenance, modification or repair work to a piece of
equipment to ensure that no damage or change in suitability
or compliance of the equipment has occurred.

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4.3 Types of Inspection

These can be categorised as visual, close, and detailed.

Visual: This is an inspection that requires no tools and is

an observation of the integrity of the EX equipment.

Check that all the associated parts have certification stamped

or plated on them.

• Check that all securing bolts or screws are present.

• Check for unplugged cable entries.

• Check that IP washers are fitted.

• Check that cable gland is EX rated and the correct

size.

Close: This category is the same as the above with the

exception that it may identify defects that are only obvious
when access tools are used; eg. housing bolts or screws are
loose.

Detailed: As the name implies this is a full EX inspection

and may involve the isolation and disassembly of the
equipment for a more detailed inspection of all internal
components. It may also include using test equipment for
recording values and readings.

• Checks for that are the same for visual and close.

• Checks that can only be made with equipment

opened.

4.4 Record keeping

A record of all hazardous equipment inspections repairs and

maintenance should be kept on site. You may find that there
is provision within your company’s preventative maintenance
system to record all of these results.

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5 Maintenance
5.1 General Description

Australian Standard AS2381 & AS1076.

The regular maintenance of certified equipment that can be

used in a hazardous area is to ensure that the equipment
operates as designed and that the safety features are fully
functional.

Typically all facilities engaged in oil & gas, drilling, refining,

petrochemical and other industrial processing will contain
areas which can have potentially explosive or hazardous
atmospheres. The electrical systems used in these areas
must be designed to ensure that they work safely at all
times. Electricians working on these systems need to know
about hazardous area classification, temperature and
flammable material classification, different techniques of
explosion protection, certification, testing and maintenance.

5.2 Explanation of Maintenance Procedures

Maintenance: This is performed to ensure the certified

equipment meets the design function and it not in any way
deficient because of deterioration of any of its parts or
components. (Can be carried out by qualified personnel)

Repair: This is the service required to restore the certified

equipment to its original condition and therefore making it
compliant with its relevant standard. (Can be carried out by
qualified personnel)

Overhaul: This is when a piece of equipment is broken

down into its individual components for examination for
repair or replacement. After reassembly the EX equipment is
tested in accordance to the requirements of the appropriate
standard. (Requires an authorised testing station)

Modification: Alterations that could effect the design

characteristics of the equipment and therefore effecting the
protection and certification. (Not allowed under most
circumstances)

Replacement: Damaged, worn, or broken parts are

replaced with identical parts to restore the equipment to
meet its original design specification. (Can be carried out by
qualified personnel)

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6 Spare Parts
6.1 General Parts

Spare parts associated with Hazardous equipment are

extensive and varied. There are obvious spares that would be
considered consumables and others less likely to cause
problems like intrinsically safe barriers, however depending
on your rigs specific type and quantity of hazardous
equipment will dictate the appropriate spares to carry.

6.2 Glands & reducers

There needs to be a selection of explosion-proof glands kept

in stock to be able to install new cables or replace motor
starters if required. There should also be a selection of
explosion-proof screwed conduit fittings such as junction
boxes to repair damaged installations such as Shale Shakers
or other equipment that has a high utilization.

6.3 Conduit & fittings

Where the electrical installation for the motors is installed

with flame proof conduit fittings, and armoured flexible
conduit to the motors, it is a good idea to have spare flexible
conduits, and a selection of conduit cut and threaded to the
required lengths to replace damaged items.

6.4 Junction Boxes & Enclosures

A selection of junction boxes and enclosures of varies sizes

would also be considered as essential spares. These should
include the polycarbonate EXe type as well as a selection of
smaller EXd metal junction boxes.

6.5 Drilling Equipment

The same would apply to units such as the Koomey system,

and mobile units such as explosion-proof high pressure wash
down guns which are wired using the bolted explosion-proof
starter enclosures and screwed conduit. For this equipment
apart from internal spares for the starter, such as contactors,
relays, and transformers, external spares such as push
buttons and indicator lights will be required.

The same will apply to the remote control panels for the
Koomey system, of which there will be one on the rig floor
and one set well away from the rig floor for use if the rig
floor is abandoned during a well blow out incident. The
remote panel will be situated in a safe area where the Blow
Out Preventer (BOP) can be operated safely under
instructions from the Toolpusher, or Company Man to control
the well.

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7 Trouble Shooting
7.1 What if it Breaks Down

It is probably more appropriate in this section to expand on

the break down of the designed explosion-proof technique
rather than for example the trouble shooting methods that
are used to get a faulty motor back into operation.

Most of the questions that would normally apply to this

heading are covered in the previous sections of this course
book however it must be pointed out that generally any
breakdown in the hazardous protection methods can be
described as sleeping accidents waiting to happen, as it won’t
be known until a accidental gas release spoils your day, that
a weakness exists in your system.

This is where periodic inspections carried out frequently will

enhance the safety and compliance of your equipment and
allow you to sleep more comfortably at night.

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8 Questions
1. What is a flame path?
The metal surfaces provide cooling of the hot gas and
______ so they do not ignite the surrounding
atmosphere.

2. Can Exi-a equipment cause an ignition source with

one fault on the circuit.
a) Yes. b) No. c) Maybe.

3. On what type of Hazardous certified equipment would

a flame path be found?
a) EXe b) EXn c) EXp d) EXd

4. What constitutes a Zone 1 area?

In which an explosive gas/air mixture _________to
occur in normal operation.

5. What constitutes a Zone 2 area?

In which an explosive gas/air mixture is _________ to
occur in normal operation.

6. Does EXp equipment need purging before energising?

a) Yes. b) No. c) Maybe.

7. What does an explosion-proof enclosure do in the

event of an internal explosion?
a) Blows up. b) Contains the explosion.
c) Ignites the external gases. d) Implodes.

8. Do Zener barriers need to be certified as EXi ?

a) Yes. b) No. c) Maybe.

9. Apart from the junction box, where else would one

fund a flame path on an EXd electric motor?
a) Drive end housing. b) Non drive end housing.
c) Motor lifting lug. d) a & b.

10. Can the threads be repaired in an explosion-proof

enclosure? a) Yes. b) No. c) Maybe.

11. What should be installed on AC & DC traction motor

exhaust and why?
A __________should be fitted to prevent any sparks
from igniting any external ________.

12. Can standard terminal blocks be used in EXe junction

boxes? (a) Yes (b) No (c) Maybe

13. Why is Air ducting normally installed on rotary table

motors?
To provide cooling air from a source outside the
_________ zone.
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9 Reference Material
Below is a list of web sites that will give you a lot of
information regarding hazardous equipment techniques,
selection, installation and maintenance criteria. When any
replacement equipment is purchased, all of the above must
be considered. In particular the rig zoning chart will need to
be consulted to determine the extent of the zoned areas and
the appropriate type of hazardous equipment required. A
good reference to explosion-proof equipment is the
catalogues from companies such as Crouse Hinds and
Appleton.

9.1 Web Sites

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]
[Link]/CrouseHinds/resources/[Link]

[Link]

[Link]
[Link]/CrouseHinds/resources/zonequest/

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]
ude/Information_E020_030.pdf

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]
tm

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10 Work place Assignments

1. Check that the SCR/VFD, LER, and control rooms are
pressurised to keep gas out.

2. Check that the Traction motor purge detection system

is working, and the motors cannot start without purge
air.

3. Check the pressure alarms for the control panels are

working.

4. Check that the pressurisation air is not contaminated

with oil or water, and that the filter driers are working
well?

5. Check if the traction motors are fitted with spark

arrestors, and that they are clean and not obstructing
the air flow.

6. Check any lighting inside the zone1 area to make sure

it is suitable for that area.

7. Check that all the explosion-proof enclosures have all

their bolts installed and tight.

8. Check that threaded covers are lubricated and

moveable if required, in particular the caps on the
fluorescent lights.

9. See if there is a purge air line on the foot throttle.

10. Check the condition of flame paths such as the control

box on the Koomey unit, which tend to be unopened
for long periods of time.

11. Check the condition of a random selection of motor

junction box covers for the condition of the flame path
and the securing bolts.

12. Check for any broken quarts/glass tubes on the

explosion-proof fluorescent light fixtures.

13. Check the derrick lighting for damage such as broken

polycarbonate lenses, water inside, due to damaged
gaskets, or damaged leads and plugs or receptacles.

14. During day light hours, check the emergency lights by

turning off selected breakers to see if they work, and
time the rig floor units for the time they will run
without power.

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11 Glossary
Area Classification: The probability that an explosive
atmospheres will occur and their persistence. Places that are
or can be connected via openings to places in which
explosive atmospheres may occur shall be taken into account
in assessing explosion risks.

Encapsulation (EXm): A type of protection in which parts

that could ignite an explosive atmosphere by either sparking
or heating are enclosed in a compound in such a way that
the explosive atmosphere cannot be ignited. The compound
provides a barrier between the electrical apparatus and the
explosive atmosphere.

Equipment: designed to this concept is suitable for use in

classified hazardous areas Zone 1 and Zone 2.

EX: Explosion-proof

EX Equipment: Equipment that has been certified for use

in a Potentially Explosive Atmosphere.

Explosion-proof Air-conditioner: These are air-

conditioners where all the working parts are encapsulated so
that no sparks or defects can escape and cause a fire or
explosion in zone 1 and 2 areas.

EEX: European Standard Explosion-proof

Flashpoint: The temperature at which a liquid will form a

flammable atmosphere.

Flameproof (EXd): Explosion-proof The equipment is

contained within an enclosure which will withstand an
internal explosion of a flammable gas or vapour that may
enter it, without suffering damage and without
communicating the internal explosion to the external
explosive atmosphere, through any joints or structural
openings in the enclosure.

Equipment: designed to this concept is suitable for use in

classified hazardous areas Zone 1 and Zone 2.

Gas Detectors: These are located around and under the rig
floor to detect hydrocarbon gases and indicate or sound an
alarm, there will also be gas detectors at the places one
would expect gas to appear, such as shale shakers and mud
tanks. In addition to these gas detectors there will be H2S
detectors to sense hydrogen sulphide gas, and warn of its
existence, and sound an alarm so that personnel can be
evacuated.

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Hazardous Area : This is an area in which explosive gas

atmosphere is present or likely to be present, in quantities
such as to require special precautions for construction,
installation and use of electrical apparatus.

Ignition Risk Assessment: The likelihood that ignition

sources will be present and become active and effective, the
installations, work processes and substances used their
possible interactions and the scale of the anticipated effects.

Increased Safety (EXe): Additional measures are applied

to an electrical apparatus to give increased security against
the possibility of excessive temperatures and of the
occurrence of arcs and sparks during the life of the
apparatus. It applies only to an electrical apparatus, no parts
of which produce sparks, arcs, or exceeds the limiting
temperature of the materials, upon which safety depends,
that are used in its construction.

Equipment: designed to this concept is suitable for use in

classified hazardous areas Zone 1 and Zone 2.

Ingress Protection (IP): Degree of protection from foreign

bodies and water from rain to sprayed jets.

Intrinsic safety (is) (EXia EXib): A protection technique

based upon the restriction of electrical energy within the
apparatus and in the interconnecting wiring, exposed to a
explosive atmosphere, to a level below that which can cause
ignition by either sparking or heating effects. Because of the
method by which intrinsic safety is achieved it is necessary
that not only the electrical apparatus exposed to the
explosive atmosphere, but also other associated electrical
apparatus with which it is interconnected, is suitably
constructed. The concept is divided into two sub types,
which are dependent upon the number of allowable fault
conditions. The symbols (ia) and (ib) denote the sub types.
This design concept is reflected in the equipment marking by
the symbols (EXia or EXib)

Zone 0 protection EXia, Intrinsically safe, maintains two

simultaneous faults within its own circuitry as opposed to
Zone 1 protection EXib as maintaining one fault.

Equipment: designed to this concept is suitable for use in

EXia - Zone 0, Zone 1 and Zone 2.
EXib - Zone 1 and Zone 2.

IP15 Institute of Petroleum Model code of Safe Practice

Part 15 (Petroleum Products)

Lower Explosive/Flammable Limit (LEL): At which a

substance will ignite.

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Non-sparking (EXn): A type of protection applied to an

electrical apparatus such that, in normal operation, it is not
capable of igniting a surrounding explosive atmosphere, and
a fault capable of causing ignition is not likely to occur.

Equipment: designed to this concept is suitable for use in

classified hazardous areas Zone 2.

Oil Immersion (EXo): A method of protection where the

electrical apparatus is made safe by oil-immersion. In the
sense that an explosive atmosphere above the oil or outside
the enclosure will not be ignited. The oil presents a barrier
between the explosive atmosphere and the electrical
apparatus.

Equipment: designed to this concept is suitable for use in

classified hazardous areas Zone 1 and Zone 2.

Powder Filled (EXq): A method of protection where the

enclosure of the electrical apparatus is filled with a mass of
granular material such that, if an arc occurs the arc will not
be liable to ignite the external explosive atmosphere.

Equipment designed to this concept is suitable for use in

classified hazardous areas Zone 1 and Zone 2.

Pressurising Blower: An axial type blower set in the wall

or bulkhead to pressurise an SCR room or control room to
make the pressure inside greater than outside. This is done
to keep any gas in the atmosphere outside of the room, and
where the air blown into the room will be clean air free of
gas.

Purge Air: Air that is pumped into an enclosure so that the

pressure in the enclosure is greater than outside, so that gas
cannot enter the enclosure. This concept also applies to
traction motors, where it is used to purge the gas out of the
motor before the motor starts.

Purge Pressurisation (EXp): A method of protection using

the pressure of a protective gas to prevent the ingress of an
explosive atmosphere to a space that may contain a source
of ignition and, where necessary, using continuous dilution of
an atmosphere within the space that contains a source of
emission gas, which may form an explosive atmosphere. This
design concept is reflected in the equipment marking by the
symbol EXp.

Equipment: designed to this concept is suitable for use in

classified hazardous areas Zone 1 and Zone 2.

Source of Release (SoR): For Area Classification where

the leak path that may lead to a hazardous zone.

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Source of Hazard (SoH): For Area Classification where the

leak path that may lead to a hazardous zone.

Spark Arrestors: A course mesh filter designed to stop

sparks or hot metal particles leaving the traction motor in the
event of a motor failure, in a gas filled atmosphere where
they might cause an explosion.

Temperature Class (T1-T6): ATEX, AEX and IEC

Equipment is identified with a temperature class. It is either
identified by a T rating or by a temperature in degrees C. The
temperature class identifies the hottest temperature that the
equipment can obtain. This can be a either the inside or the
outside of the equipment depending on the protection
concept.

Upper Explosive/Flammable Limit (UEL): At which a

substance will ignite.

Zone 0: A location where an explosive atmosphere

consisting of a mixture of gas and air or flammable
substances in the form of a gas, vapour or mist is present
continuously or for long periods.

Zone 1 or Class 1 Division 1: A location where an

explosive atmosphere consisting of a mixture of gas and air
or flammable substances in the form of a gas, vapour or mist
is likely to occur in normal operation occasionally.

Zone 2 or Class 1 Division 2: A location where an

explosive atmosphere consisting of a mixture of gas and air
or flammable substances in the form of a gas, vapour or mist
is not likely to occur in normal operation but may
occasionally. If it does it will only persist for a short period
only.

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Section 18
Motor Control Centre

1 Equipment Overview ................................................ 2

1 How Does It Work .................................................... 6
2 How Do I Operate It ................................................. 9
3 Inspection............................................................. 11
4 Maintenance.......................................................... 12
5 Spare Parts ........................................................... 14
6 Trouble Shooting ................................................... 16
7 Questions ............................................................. 19
8 Reference Material ................................................. 20
9 Work Place Assignments ......................................... 22
1 Glossary ............................................................... 23

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1 Equipment Overview
1.1 General Description

Motor control centres are groupings or collections of

combination starters in one assembly. A combination starter
is a single enclosure containing the motor starter. This
consists of, fuses or circuit breaker, and a device for
disconnecting power from the motor. Other devices
associated with the motor, such as pushbuttons, indicator
lights and fire/gas relays may also be included.

In most industrial applications many electric motors of

various sizes are required, and it is often necessary to control
some or all of the motors from a central location. The piece
of equipment designed for this function is the motor control
centre.

Figure 1 Power Distribution Layout Diagram

1.2 Drilling Rig MCCs

On larger drilling rigs there will be more MCCs to distribute

power to associated equipment. The main supply power is
normally generated at 600 volts, and then transformed down
to 480 VAC via the main switchboard. Main feeder circuit
breakers will then supply power for each MCC in the system
which will be distributed around the rig. Some of these MCCs
will feed step down transformers to reduce the 480 VAC
supply to 208/120 VAC power to local Lighting and low power
distribution panels.

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1.3 MCC Layout Configuration

Each MCC is supplied from the main switchboard. An

incoming circuit breaker mounted in one of the MCC cubicles
will distribute the three phase 480 VAC power via a busbar
system to all of the associated motor control centres. The
busbar generally runs horizontally along the top of the MCC
and will have vertical busbar running down from the main
busbar system to connect to each of the starter enclosures.
This busbar is run at the rear of the plug in enclosures that
the starters are installed into, so that the individual starter
units themselves can be removed at any time without
switching off the MCC.

Figure 2 Motor Control Cubicles

Direct on line motor starter units are normally sized

according to the current requirements of the motors they are
supplying. They are sized normally from 1 to 4 stepping up in
current capacity each time, and each starter size will cover a
current range where different size circuit breakers can be
installed to suit different motor requirements.

Figure 3 Internal View of Motor Starter

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This flexibility can be expanded by the use of interchangeable

overload heaters, to protect the motors in that range. These
sizes are determined according to NEMA (National Electrical
Manufacturers Association) an American standard for
electrical equipment. This applies to all types of electrical
enclosures and switch gear for sizing the equipment to a
known standard for ordering and replacement purposes.
Below is a table showing the NEMA sizes for motor starters
related to their horsepower capacity.

Table 1 NEMA Starters suitable for HP Range

As can be seen in the above chart, the normal sizes found in

an MCC will be:

NEMA 1 = 10HP, NEMA 2 = 25HP,

NEMA 3 = 50HP, NEMA 4 = 100HP

MCCs are designed so that any combination of starters can

be used depending on the rig requirements during
construction. Spare spaces or cubicles can be fitted with
blanking panels to maintain the overall finish of the MCC.

1.4 Direct On Line Starters (DOL)

Normally direct on line starting is used on oil exploration rigs

due in part to cost, but also because they generate their own
power and do not have to consider the effects of heavy
starting transients on other users on the system.

1.5 Uninterruptible Power Supplies

With the advancement in technology and the reliance on

sensitive electronic equipment for well monitoring data
acquisition and in some cases VICIS drilling control systems
the (UPS) has become a common feature. These units help to
filter out power surges spikes, typically caused by DOL motor
starting, and provide an uninterruptible supply should the
main power system fail.

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1.6 MCC Manufacturers

There are several manufacturers which have become well

known in the oil exploration field, although MCCs are
manufactured all over the World in most countries. As the oil
exploration industry was base initially in America the
American equipment was originally the most common
equipment used.

This equipment is manufactured from companies such as;

General Electric (GE), Alan Bradley, Square D,

Siemens, and Westinghouse and many more.

Figure 4 Motor Control Cubicle Assembly

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2 How Does It Work

2.1 Motor Control Cubicles

Motor Control Centres are used to distribute the three phase

power throughout the rig which is required to run three
phase motors and equipment.

The size of the starters, and therefore their enclosures, can

be varied in the MCC to cater for different sizes and
amperage ratings of three phase motors. Starters and their
enclosures are normally rated by size such as “size 1" up to "
size 4 " to cover all amperage requirements.

The sizes are normally referred to as a NEMA number such as

NEMA size1 or NEMA size4 for ordering purposes. This is an
American standard set up by the National Electrical
Manufacturers Association so the all the American
manufacturers produce to standard sizes to make equipment
interchangeable.

2.2 Combination Motor Control Unit

The combination motor control unit as described uses a

moulded case circuit breaker to provide circuit disconnecting
means and branch circuit over current protection. The circuit
breaker can be opened or closed using the operating handle
located on the front of the cubicle.

Figure 5 Graphical Diagram of Copper Stabs

2.3 Installation and Removal

Simplification of installation and removal of a combination

motor control unit is provided by self-aligning copper stabs
on the back of the control unit. A ground bus stab is used
when a vertical ground bus is supplied as an option. When
the unit is physically too large for stabs or rated for greater
than 250 amps a fixed mounting is used.

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2.4 Front Panel Layout

Colours of indicating lights in particular shall conform

to this standard as follows:

Green Light Switch open. Motor not running. (Ready. IEC)

Red Light Switch closed. Power on Motor can be

assumed to be running (Abnormal IEC)

Yellow or Amber Light Switch tripped on Fault.

(Caution IEC)

White Light Normal Operation IEC

The appearance and marking of motor-control equipment

shall conform to AS1431.

Figure 6 MCC Front Panel Layout

2.5 Earthing & Earth Leakage System

At the bottom of the MCC in the front there is an earth or

ground busbar to which all the earth cables are connected.
This busbar must be checked to ensure that it is grounded to
the steel deck below it. On some rigs the MCCs may be
mounted on rubber flexible mounts to reduce the amount of
vibration transmitted to the MCCs by surrounding machinery.

In most distribution panels that are designed for lighting and

utility power earth leakage protection systems will be fitted
to protect personnel. These are installed to prevent injury in
the event of an insulation failure, such as extension cords or
portable tools and equipment which are not double insulated.

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If a fault develops that brings the casing of the appliance into

contact with an active conductor, an unsuspecting person
who touches this appliance will provide a path to ground for
this current which is normally returned via the neutral.

Figure 7 Type of RCDs found inside a MCC

This is the job for which an earth leakage protection device is

designed for, and it will trip the supply current to that circuit
within 40ms @ 30ma.

Note: Rigs and vessels that have three phase / three wire
distribution systems are unable to utilize Residual Current
Circuit Breakers for personnel protection. Ideally these
systems would have “Line Monitor” protection installed at
each distribution panel.

Figure 8 Line Monitoring Protection

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3 How Do I Operate It
3.1 General Operating Guide

As the distribution centre for motor supply the motor control

centre requires minimal intervention. However occasionally
motors may need to be manually operated or isolated in the
event of repairs or maintenance having to be carried out.

3.2 Lock-out Procedure

In the event of a motor or drive being repaired, a starter can

be locked out in the OFF position for safety to prevent it
being started by accident and causing injury to someone
working on the equipment.

This is done by pushing the starter operating handle to the

bottom of its stroke and putting a padlock through the hole
provided in the mechanism to lock it in the off position. This
will effectively prevent any accidental energising of the
associated equipment. Some facilities will provide a lock-out
cabinet where the keys and padlocks are kept. It is common
practice for the key to be placed in this locked cabinet after
the isolation has been carried out. Normally the electrician
would be the only authorised person to have access to this
cabinet. Other facilities may encourage the person working
on the isolated equipment to have possession of this key.

The lock-out procedure should also include the securing of a

danger tag on the handle/padlock. The notation on the tag
should state why it has been locked out, by whom and at
what date/time the lock-out procedure was carried out. All
personnel working on any part of the isolated equipment
should be encouraged to place their own Danger Tag on the
isolated MCC. This will ensure that it cannot be switched on
until all danger tags have been removed by the persons
involved in the task.

3.3 Trip Fault Recovery

If the circuit breaker in the starter trips on instantaneous

overload, usually the result of a total short circuit fault, the
circuit breaker operating lever on the front panel will move to
the central position. This will indicate that a fault has
occurred. To reset the circuit breaker will require the lever to
be pushed to the bottom of its stroke to the “OFF” position,
until a click is heard, then push the lever all the way up to
the “ON” position. The motor starter will now be energised
and the motor can be started and run if required.

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The circuit breaker utilizes a magnetic fault current device to

trip the breaker under severe fault conditions. The starter
unit’s contactor however, uses either thermal or electronic
overcurrent devices to trip the supply to the contactor coil in
the event of a sustained overload. Thermal mechanisms that
trip the contactor may require a short time period while the
overload block heaters cool down before the unit can be
reset. One should not make continuous attempts to reset the
overload trip before it cools, as this can damage the tripping
mechanism.

Figure 9 Selection of Overload Relays

The overloads will trip on constant current that exceeds the

value of the heaters, which is normally 115% of the full load
current of the motor being protected. If they are of the
melting alloy type overload, these will require a cool-down
period in which the metal solidifies again so the overload trip
can be reset and the motor restarted. A similar cool-down
period applies to those overload units that employ bi-metal
tripping mechanisms. These thermal overload devices are
now being phased out and replaced by electronic overload
relays. The electronic overload devices have controls that
allow the user to set the trip current levels, time factor and
instant trip in the event of phase loss as well as many other
features.

If the starter needs to be replaced in the event of failure or

repair, there is normally a latching mechanism at the front of
the enclosure to prevent it being removed. If this is released
with a screw driver, the starter enclosure can be withdrawn
by pulling on its case firmly. This will release the bus bar
connecting stabs at the rear of the starter enclosure. The
reverse applies when reinserting the motor cubicle; the
starter is pushed into the enclosure with some force to push
the clamps onto the vertical busbars at the rear of the MCC
to reconnect it to the three phase supply.

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4 Inspection
4.1 Visual Checks at Motor Starter

Inspections normally take place during preventative

maintenance campaigns where procedures are followed to
thoroughly check all the cubicles components. These
inspections will mainly be visual checks that will be looking
for loose connections and any signs of hot spots.

It is a common practice to test a motor for faults at the

starter in the MCC as an easy point of access where one does
not have to open junction boxes or other sealed points in the
system. It is also the normal point at which a motor can be
reversed when a replacement motor has been installed if the
rotation is in the wrong direction.

Figure 10 Inspection of Motor Control Cubicle

Check all interlocks to make sure they are operating when

the assignments are made to start the major items, such as
Mud Pumps, Drawworks or Top Drive. The auxiliaries for this
equipment such as blowers, lubrication pumps and cooling
pumps are supplied from the MCC, but their starters are
controlled through the interlocks of the drilling equipment
control system (SCR or VFD).

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5 Maintenance
5.1 General

Motor control cubicles should be cleaned out with a vacuum

cleaner using a dry paint brush to remove any dust or dirt
from the internal parts. All terminations should be checked
periodically for tightness and hot spots, or thermally tested
for signs of overheating.

Any noisy contactors should be checked to find the cause and

repaired. The lamination cores should be inspected to make
sure that good contact is achieved when they come together
to ensure the coil does not overheat.

Figure 11 Serious Maintenance Required

Checks should also be done periodically if there has been re-

occurring tripping of a motor without obvious cause. Make
sure the main contacts in the contactor are in good condition
and not burnt or carbonised. If more current is being drawn
on one phase than the others due to lack of proper contact
the contact surfaces maybe damaged. This is normally
exposed using a tong tester to check for phase current
balance.

The overload relays should also be current injection tested on

a regular basis to make sure the overloads are working and
are tripping at the correct current value. If you are assigned
to a rig that you have not been to before, it is good practice
to check and see if a testing program has been carried out in
the last five years.

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5.2 Thermographic Studies

Thermography is the use of an infrared imaging and

measurement camera to "see" and "measure" thermal
energy emitted from an object. Thermal, or infrared energy,
is light that is not visible because its wavelength is too long
to be detected by the human eye; it's the part of the
electromagnetic spectrum that we perceive as heat. Unlike
visible light, in the infrared world, everything with a
temperature above absolute zero emits heat.

Figure 12 Thermographic Photo of Hot Spot

Even very cold objects, like ice cubes, emit infrared. The
higher the object's temperature, the greater the IR radiation
emitted. Infrared detection allows us to see what our eyes
cannot. Infrared thermography cameras produce images of
invisible infrared or "heat" radiation and provide precise non-
contact temperature measurement capabilities.

Figure 13 Thermographic Photo of Hot Fuses

Nearly everything gets hot before it fails, making infrared

cameras extremely cost-effective and valuable diagnostic
tools in many diverse applications.

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6 Spare Parts
6.1 Contactor Coils

It will be necessary to keep a stock of control fuses in the

event of failure, and it is good policy to keep spare contactor
coils of the correct voltage and frequency so that the
contactors can be repaired if the only fault is a burnt out coil
in that starter contactor.

Figure 14 Selection of Contactor Coils

6.2 Contactors and Auxiliary Contacts

The most common spare part kept for MCC is the humble
contactor. A selection will be required to cater for the
different size starters which make up your MCC Panels. These
are normally supplied as the basic contactor without the
auxiliary contacts or switches attached, so these will need to
be stocked separately.

Figure 15 Selection of Overload Heaters

6.3 Overload Heaters

Due to the versatility of these starters, a stock of different

size overload heaters will also need to be kept. Once the
overload value is set there should no longer be a need for
further adjustment. Small changes to the load characteristics
of the motor may require the setting to be changed at some
stage providing that it does not exceed the maximum full
load running amps of the motor concerned.

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6.4 Overload relays

It is possible for overload relays to fail in the event of

overheating due to loose connections or shorting because of
tracking, so one of each size for the four sizes of starters
would cover any chance of failure and allow for repair in the
event of problems.

Figure 16 Selection of Overload Relays

6.5 Terminal Blocks & Indication Lamp holders

It is normally a good idea to keep spare terminal blocks

available in case of a stripped thread in a termination which
can cause some aggravation if there are no spares and the
unit is required urgently. Lamp holder assemblies also need
to be kept in stock as well as a supply of replacement lamps.

Figure 17 Replaceable Kit of Contacts

6.6 Contactor replaceable Contacts

In some larger contactors the main contacts can be replaced

as replacement parts so these should also be kept in stock in
the event of failure, allowing a small repair to return the
contactor to service fairly quickly.

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7 Trouble Shooting
7.1 What if it Breaks Down

Faults which are relate to Motor control cubicles can

generally be divided into two sections.

• Local components eg. All components that reside

within the MCC Cubicle.

• Peripheral components eg. Lockouts, interlocks,

switches, control devices, and motors etc.

These are covered in the following paragraphs.

7.1.1 Motor Control Cubicle Checks

There are various problems that may occur, some to be
contributed to the starter unit and some to be to control
system. The first check to be made is to observe that the
control power light is illuminated on the front panel of the
faulty cubicle. If this light is not illuminated first check the
lamp in case the globe has a broken filament. If the lamp
checks out OK the next step will be to find out why the
control power is absent. The OEM control schematic which
covers this size of starter will be helpful in deciding where to
place your voltage tester to measure the control voltage. You
may find a control fuse open or the fire & gas relay causing
your problem.

7.1.2 Misaligned Operating Mechanism

Looking for problems with motor starters can sometimes be
simply a case of damage or misalignment of the operating
lever mechanism which will not allow the breaker to close.
The most common of these is due to the starter door not
being fully closed and the door mechanical interlock not
allowing the lever to be operated. This can be a simple case
of the door not sitting properly or the latch being damaged.

On most types of starter cubicles there is a slotted

screwdriver head near the operating lever, which if turned
will lift a hook, and allow the door to be opened for testing
while the main front circuit breaker is turned on. This is
helpful when tracing the control circuit to find the cause of its
interruption. Other wise the only time the door can be
opened is when the lever is down and the circuit breaker is
turned off.

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7.1.3 Interchangeable Capability

The starter units are normally self contained units that are
retractable. If they are unlatched at the front, they can be
pulled out of the plug in enclosure for repair or replacement
with a unit of the similar size. These interchangeable units
normally have open contacts at the rear in the form of a
sprung clamp assembly. When the starter enclosure is
pushed in with some force, it will clamp onto the vertical
busbars at the rear of the MCC enclosure to supply the unit
with a three phase power. The control power that feeds
external lockout or RCU stop/start stations will also have a
retractable type of plug & receptacle arrangement mounted
within the MCC.

7.1.4 Switch Mechanism

During assembly or repair, the mechanism between the lever
and the breaker may need to be adjusted to ensure the full
throw of the circuit breaker lever to ensure the breaker can
be switched on. This is checked by the pushing the lever all
the way up until it latches, and followed by pushing the lever
all the way down to the off position.

Figure 18 Selection of Control Fuses

7.1.5 Control Fuses

Normally there will be control fuses in the starter to protect
the starter/contactor coil from overload, and these should
always be checked before going too far as these are normally
light fuses of around 2 amps and may be ruptured by many
starts over a short period of time.

7.1.6 Contactors
Overheating to the contactor coils can also occur if they are
located where they are not well ventilated, or where the
contactor cannot fully close due to dirt, corrosion, or
misalignment. In this case they are normally very noisy and
produce a loud buzzing noise which can also be caused in
some cases by the swelling of the coils due to heat. This can
trap the moving laminations and prevent full closure where
the iron cores cannot make good contact. Therefore all noisy
contactors should always be investigated.

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7.1.7 Interlock Circuits

Control circuit interlocks are a common feature in drilling
systems where the Drawworks or Rotary Table DC Traction
motors cannot be started until the auxiliary equipment such
as the AC blowers are operating to cool the motors. The
same applies with the Mud Pumps where the blowers, and
lube pumps for rod and chain lubrication need to be
operating before the DC traction motors can start.

7.1.8 Slave Relays

In some cases there may be "slave relays" in the starter
cubicle or located separately which can be driven by one
designated auxiliary contact. The relay can then drive several
functions to provide power to other systems such as indicator
lights or other control features.

7.1.9 Local Start/Stop Stations (RCU)

Local control start/stop buttons are normally positioned on
the front panel of the MCC which will be wired in series and
parallel with the field RCUs. Indicator lights will also be
present to indicate that power is available to the starter and
the status of the associated motor, whether it is running or
stopped.

7.2 Peripheral components

Example; Lockouts, interlocks, switches, and control

devices.

Depending on what the designed control function of the

motor control cubicle is will dictate the type of peripheral
components associated with it. Most problems that occur
resulting in the failure of an MCC to operate a motor can
generally be tracked down to this part of the control system.

The obvious starting point to track down any external

problems is to arm yourself with the control schematic
associated with the control cubicle in question. This will show
the external control circuits and provide the test points where
your multimeter can be attached to fault find the faulty
circuits.

Example; Motors.

Motor problems can be easily assessed by carrying out a

quick resistance and insulation tests at the overload relay.
These will instantly tell you the electrical health of the motor
and may save you a lot of time. Periodic checks of the
running amps compared with the full load rating of the motor
will help predict potential future problems.

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8 Questions
1 What is an MCC.
a) Motor Control Cubicle.
b) Machinery Control Cupboard.
c) Mechanics Coffee Cup.

2 What is an MCC used for.

a) Control & Indication. b) Motor Starters.
c) Metering Instrumentation. d) a b & c

3 Where is the MCC supplied from?

a) Local power company. b) Portable Gen Set.
b) Local Power Station. c) Main Switchboard.

4 What is a DOL motor starter?

a) Dead or Live. b) Double over Load.
c) Dead on Line. d) Direct on Line.

5 How are the starters graded?

a) Small to Large. b) A to H
c) Nema 00, 0, 1-6

6 Where will the contactors be found?

a) Mounted inside Switchboards.
b) Mounted inside MCC cubicles.
c) Mounted inside Exd enclosures. d) a b & c

7 What will determine the size of the overload heaters?

a) Hp of Motor. b) kW of Motor. c) Full Load Amps.
d) Locked rotor Amps.

8 Name two selection positions that can be found on the

DOL motor starters MCC front panel.
a) Auto. b) Manual. c) Tiptronic. d) a & b

9 What is the lockout facility used for on the motor

starter door?
These are used to _____ the associated equipment
from being operated unintentionally.

10 What are the local controls on the motor starter doors

used for?
a) Manual operation. b) Auto operation.
c) Start/Stop functions. c) a b & c

11 What is the usual sign that the breaker has tripped in

a motor starter.
a) Circuit breaker handle in up position.
b) Circuit breaker handle in middle position.
c) Circuit breaker handle in down position.

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9 Reference Material
There are normally installation manuals supplied with these
panels when originally installed which are supplied by the
manufacturer of the switchgear in the MCCs. With the better
known brands there will also be spare part information to
ensure the correct parts are available to repair the motor
starters if required.

9.1 Web Sites

[Link]
ml

[Link]

[Link]
.nsf/unid/C012FCAC0274F85885256A2400664FEA/$file/MCC
[Link]

[Link]

[Link]
dustry_id/1001/

[Link]

[Link]
/[Link]

[Link]
dg_701/DIV_16/16920_S_Motor_Control_Centers.doc

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]
[Link]/news/Solid%20State%20CB%20Trip%[Link]

[Link]
_s/Suppliers/[Link]

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9.2 Manufacturers

ABB Inc.

Carlo Gavazzi

Eaton Electrical Inc.

GE Consumer & Industrial

Metron Inc.

Moeller Electric Corporation

Rockwell Automation

Siemens Energy 7 Automation Inc.

Square D Company

Toshiba International Corporation

9.3 Related Standards

[Link]

IEE rec EEEMFOI 1992 sect 26.7

API RP 14FZ 12.9 / API RP 54 6.9

NEMA Publication ICS 2-322

UL 508

ANSI/NEMA ICS1

ANSI/NEMA ICS2

UL 845

ANSI/NFPA 70

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10 Work Place Assignments

1. Check the rig drawings or schematics to see where
the MCC is supplied from.

2. Check where the input is connected to the MCC

busbar.

3. Check the routing of input and output control wiring

which will be critical in fault finding.

4. Check to see if there are any PLCs installed in the

MCC and what their function is.

5. Check to see what method is required to remove a

starter, and what the securing mechanism is.

6. Check to see what termination method is used

between the starter and the MCC main frame
terminations.

7. If there is a distribution board in the MCC for lighting

and small power, check to see what type of breakers
are installed, ie. Plug in or screw attached type, in
case one needs to be changed in a hurry.

8. Check to see if the starters have their own control

transformers to reduce the voltage from 480 VAC to
120VAC control voltage or if there is one common
control transformer, and where it is located.

9. Check the method of adjustment of the linkage for the

operating mechanism for the breaker operating
handle, as this may be critical for resetting the
breaker if it trips.

10. Check the type of overload heaters used, whether

they are bimetal or melting alloy, and what spares are
available should the motor be changed for a different
type where adjustment will need to be made in the
current rating of the supply to the motor.

11. Check to see what spare breakers are available, and

that there is at least one spare for each breaker in use
of the correct current rating.

12. Check that there are spare contactors of the correct

size for each size used in the MCC starters, and that
there are spare coils for these contactors, should they
be required.

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11 Glossary
Air Circuit Breakers These are used to interrupt circuits
while current flows through them. Compressed air is used to
quench the arc when the connection is broken.

Alternating current Electric current in which the direction

of flow is reversed at frequent intervals: usually 100 or 120
times per second (50 or 60 cycles per second or 50//60 Hz).

Ammeter An electric meter used to measure current,

calibrated in amperes.

Ampacity The current-carrying capacity of conductors or

equipment, expressed in amperes.

Ampere (A) or amp The basic SI unit measuring the

quantity of electricity. The unit for the electric current; the
flow of electrons. One amp is 1 coulomb passing in one
second. One amp is produced by an electric force of 1 volt
acting across a resistance of 1 ohm.

Ampere-hour (Ah) Quantity of electricity or measure of

charge. (1 Ah = 3600 C [Coulomb])

Armoured Cable A cable provided with a wrapping of

metal, usually steel wires or tapes, primarily for the purpose
of mechanical protection.

Authorized Employee An employee who locks out or tags

out machines or equipment in order to perform servicing or
maintenance on that machine or equipment. An affected
employee becomes an authorized employee when that
employee's duties include performing servicing or
maintenance covered under this section.

Automatic Circuit re-closer A self-controlled device for

interrupting and re-closing an alternating current circuit with
a predetermined sequence of opening and re-closing followed
by resetting, hold-closed, or lockout operation.

Barrier A physical obstruction which is intended to prevent

contact with energized lines or equipment or to prevent
unauthorized access to a work area.

Base Load That part of electricity demand which is

continuous, and does not vary over a 24-hour period.
Approximately equivalent to the minimum daily load.

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Bonding Jumper A bare or insulated conductor used to

ensure the required electrical conductivity between metal
parts required to be electrically connected. Frequently used
from a bonding bushing to the service equipment enclosure
to provide a path around concentric knockouts in an
enclosure wall - also used to bond one raceway to another.

Bus Bar Heavy copper flat bar or circular rod used to

replace copper cable in switchboard or MCC construction to
carry high current.

Bus Support Insulators These are porcelain or fibreglass

insulators that serve to isolate the bus bar switches and
other support structures and to prevent leakage current from
flowing through the structure. These insulators are similar in
function of other insulators used in substations and
transmission poles and towers.

Circuit Breaker A protective device that opens a circuit

upon sensing a current overload. Unlike a fuse, it can be
reset.

Clearance (between objects) The clear distance between

two objects measured surface to surface.

Clearance (for work) Authorization to perform specified

work or permission to enter a restricted area.

Conductor A wire or combination of wires not insulated

from one another, suitable for carrying electric current.

Connection That part of a circuit that has negligible

impedance and that joins components, devices, etc.,
together.

Contactor Heavy magnetically operated relay or actuator,

which will close on an input signal from a start button or PLC.

Contactor Coil Electric operating coil used to close the

contactor on demand from the start button or PLC.

Continuity The state of being whole, unbroken.

Continuous Load A load where the maximum current is

expected to continue for three hours or more. Rating of the
branch circuit protection device shall not be less tan 125% of
the continuous load.

Control Fuse This fuse will be found on the secondary side

of the control transformer, and is normally of a low current
rating such as 2 amps to protect the contactor coils and PLCs
in the event of a fault, these may be “slow blow fuses” to
allow for the “inrush” of current to the transformer when first
switched on.

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Control Panels Control panels contain meters, control

switches and recorders located in the control building, also
called a doghouse. These are used to control the substation
equipment, to send power from one circuit to another or to
open or shut down circuits when needed.

Control Transformer A transformer that converts the MCC

voltage from 480 VAC to 120VAC for the use in controlling
the starting devices such as start/stop buttons, and the coils
of relays and contactor used in the start system, and some
PLCs. These are used to prevent high voltages at the push
button stations and throughout the start control system;
these transformers can be one common unit for the whole
system, or a small transformer in each starter.

Current Transformers Current transformers can be used

to supply information for measuring power flows and the
electrical inputs for the operation of protective relays
associated with the transmission and distribution circuits or
for power transformers.

De-energized Free from any electrical connection to a

source of potential difference and from electric charge; not
having a potential different from that of the earth. Note: The
term is used only with reference to current-carrying parts,
which are sometimes energized (alive).

Direct current (dc) Electric current in which electrons flow

in one direction only. Opposite of alternating current.

Disconnect Switches Disconnect switches or circuit

breakers are used to isolate equipment or to redirect current
in a substation.

Distribution Bus A distribution bus is a steel structure

array of switches used to route power out of a substation.

Distribution Transformers Distribution transformers

reduce the voltage of the primary circuit to the voltage
required by customers.

Energized (alive, live) Electrically connected to a source

of potential difference, or electrically charged so as to have a
potential significantly different from that of earth in the
vicinity.

Energy isolating device A physical device that prevents

the transmission or release of energy, including, but not
limited to, the following: a manually operated electric circuit
breaker, a disconnect switch, a manually operated switch, a
slide gate, a slip blind, a line valve, blocks, and any similar
device with a visible indication of the position of the device.
(Push buttons, selector switches, and other control-circuit-
type devices are not energy isolating devices.)

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Explosionproof Designed and constructed to withstand and

internal explosion without creating an external explosion or
fire.

Feeder A circuit, such as conductors in conduit or a busway

run, which carries a large block of power from the service
equipment to a sub-feeder panel or a branch circuit panel or
to some point at which the block power is broken into smaller
circuits.

Ground A large conducting body (such as the earth) used

as a common return for an electric circuit and as an arbitrary
zero of potential.

Grounding Conductor A conductor used to connect metal

equipment enclosures and/or the system grounded conductor
to a grounding electrode, such as the ground wire run to the
water pipe at a service; also may be a bare or insulated
conductor used to ground motor frames, panel boxes, and
other metal equipment enclosures used throughout electrical
systems. In most conduit systems, the conduit is used as the
ground conductor.

Guarded Covered, fenced, enclosed, or otherwise protected,

by means of suitable covers or casings, barrier rails or
screens, mats, or platforms, designed to minimize the
possibility, under normal conditions, of approach or
accidental contact by persons or objects. Note: Wires which
are insulated, but not otherwise protected, are not
considered as guarded.

Insulation A material that offers high electric resistance

making it suitable for covering components, terminals and
wires to prevent the possible future contact of adjacent
conductors resulting in a short circuit.

Insulated Separated from other conducting surfaces by a

dielectric (including air space) offering a high resistance to
the passage of current.

Insulated Separated from other conducting surfaces by a

dielectric (including air space) offering a high resistance to
the passage of current.

Isolating Switch A switch intended for isolating an

electrical circuit from the source of power. It has no
interrupting rating and is intended to be operated only after
the circuit has been opened by some other means.

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Lockout Facility There is normally a prevision on the

starter door so that the operating handle for the breaker can
be locked out in the off position to prevent the power being
switched on while repairs are being carried out on the motor
or the equipment it drives. This is normally achieved with a
padlock being used to lock the operating lever and a
stationary bracket together in the off position on the door of
the starter.

Megger A test instrument for measuring the insulation

resistance of conductors and other electrical equipment;
specifically, a megaohm (million ohms) meter; this is a
registered trade mark of the James Biddle Co.

Metal-clad Switchgear An outdoor metal-clad switchgear

is a weatherproof housing for circuit breakers, protective
relays, meters, current transformers, potential transformers,
bus conductors, and other equipment. An indoor switchgear
must be protected from the environment and contains the
same types of equipment as the outdoor type.

Meters They are measuring devices and can be an

indicating meter or a recording meter. An indicating meter
shows on a dial the quantity being measured. A recording
meter makes a permanent record of the quantity being
measured, usually by tracing a line on a chart or graph.

Motor Control Centre. (MCC) A collection of electric motor

starters of various sizes in a specially constructed panel used
to start and control motors of various sizes around the rig.

Motor Starter. A starting device for controlling an

individual electric motor consisting of a breaker, contactor,
and overload relay enclosed in a steel enclosure with rear
plug in connectors to attach to the supply busbar at the rear
of the MCC.

Oil Circuit Breakers Oil circuit breakers are used to switch

circuits and equipment in and out of a system in a
substation. They are oil filled to provide cooling and to
prevent arcing when the switch is activated.

Overcurrent Any current in excess of the rated current of

equipment or the ampacity of a conductor. It may result from
overload, short circuit or ground fault.

Overload Load greater than the load for which the system
or mechanism was intended. A fault, such as a short circuit
or ground fault, is not an overload.

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Overload Relay. The overload relay is a resettable

mechanism which once set with the contacts closed, will trip
the contacts open on a predetermined maximum current.
This is normally achieved with bimetal strips of metal that
will deform when heated by the current or a metal alloy that
melts at a predetermined heat opening the contacts. In both
cases they require time to cool before they can be reset.

Potential Transformers Potential transformers are

required to provide accurate voltages for meters used for
billing industrial customers or utility companies.

Power Transformers Transformers raise or lower the

voltage as needed to serve the transmission or distribution
circuits.

Protective Equipment Equipment in a distribution system

such as protective relays, cutout switches, disconnect
switches, lightning arresters, and fuses. These all work in
concert to open circuits whenever a short circuit, lightning
strikes or other disruptive event occurs

Rated Voltage The maximum voltage at which an electric

component can operate for extended periods without undue
degradation or safety hazard.

Relays A relay is a low-powered device used to activate a

high-powered device. Relays are used to trigger circuit
breakers and other switches in substations and transmission
and distribution systems.

Switches Distribution systems have switches installed at

strategic locations to redirect power flows for load balancing
or sectionalizing.

Switchboard A large single panel, frame, or assembly of

panels having switches, overcurrent, and other protective
devices, buses, and usually instruments mounted on the face
or back or both. Switchboards are generally accessible from
the rear and from the front and are not intended to be
installed in cabinets.

Vacuum Circuit Breakers A vacuum circuit breaker

utilizes a vacuum to extinguish arcing when the circuit
breaker is opened and to act as a dielectric to insulate the
contacts after the arc is interrupted.

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Section 19
Instrumentation

1 Equipment Overview ................................................ 2

2 How Does It Work .................................................. 17
3 How Do I Operate It ............................................... 21
4 Inspection............................................................. 22
5 Maintenance.......................................................... 24
6 Spare Parts ........................................................... 27
7 Trouble Shooting ................................................... 28
8 Questions ............................................................. 30
9 Reference Material ................................................. 31
10 Assignments....................................................... 32
11 Glossary ............................................................ 34

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1 Equipment Overview
1.1 Drilling Instrumentation

Drilling instrumentation is the broad term used to describe

the instruments that give the driller and his assistant feed
back about the condition of the well and the equipment over
which he has control during the drilling operation This
consists of a mix of instruments driven by either electrics or
electronics and those driven by hydraulics or in some cases
pneumatics. These make up the group of instruments
receiving signals from sensors collecting information from all
sectors of the drilling operation.

1.2 Drillers Console

This is best described as the main control centre from which

the driller operates and controls all of the associated drilling
equipment. It also displays essential feedback information
regarding all drilling related systems to enable the operation
to be carried out efficiently and safely.

Figure 1 Drillers Console

1.3 Weight Indicator

On the drillers console there is a very large indicator or

gauge which is called the weight indicator, this is powered
hydraulically by a load cell at the dead man anchor where the
drill line is secured to the drill floor and indicates the weight
exerted on the drill line by the weight on the hook or top
drive hanging in the derrick.

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1.4 Rotary table/Top drive RPM Gauge

There is also a rotary RPM gauge which indicates the speed

of the rotary table or top drive rotation, letting the driller
know the exact revolutions per minute of the drill string. This
is achieved by the use of a stationary proximity sensor which
changes state as it is passed by a rotating steel target. Once
every rotation the count is recorded and processed by the
instruments electronics which outputs a signal proportional to
the number of rotations per minute. This digital or analogue
signal is sent to drive the gauge or digital readout on the
drillers console.

1.5 Mud Pump RPM Gauge

The same method is used to measure the speed of the Mud

Pumps. There will also be an indicating meter or digital
readout for each pump on a strokes per minute gauge
located on the Drillers Console to display the number of SPM
for the associated mud pump. This is used by the driller to
calculate the amount of mud that will be pumped by the
pump over a period of time. By using the stroke and bore of
the pump cylinders he can calculate the volume of drilling
fluid being pumped into the circulatory mud system.

In older systems explosion proof industrial limit switches are

used to count the strokes. This is achieved by mounting them
with "G" clamps over the pony rod rubber baffles.

This allows the rod clamped to the limit switch shaft to be

operated every time the baffle passes it. Instrumentation
then counts the activation of the limit switch before
processing this information and relaying it to the driller’s
gauges.

1.6 Mud Volume Totalizer

Mud volume totaliser systems all rely on specific

measurements of mud tank parameters to allow calculations
to be carried out which then allows accurate tank volumes to
be display. The quantity measured in barrels of mud is
calculated by the size of the holding tank, this allows a figure
to be arrived at which represents the maximum amount of
mud that the tank can hold.

With this information the system can calculate the difference

between full and empty by the position of the float or the
return signal if a ultrasonic system is used. If the tank
happens to be irregular in shape, or has a lot of intrusions or
pipe work in it, problems will be experienced trying to
calibrate the instrument to give accurate readings.

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Under these circumstances special calculations will be

required from the mud man or mud engineer to obtain the
correct mud volume of the tank being measured. In the case
of tapered tanks, when there is such a variation from top to
bottom, this can be a problem for the totalizer computer, to
give a correct reading for display on the driller’s console.

Figure 2 Mud Volume Totaliser Panel

The panel shown above will indicate on the right hand side
gauge the amount of mud in each tank, or give a total
reading of all selected tanks. On the left hand side is the loss
or gain meter, this gauge can be set at zero in the centre to
indicate any loss or gain in the mud system.

The alarms can be set on the panel below the gauge, which
also has a red warning light, below that is the controls to set
the needle to zero, and a smoothing control for the control of
sensitivity when making this adjustment.

The driller can read the volume of drilling fluid in each tank
or the total volume of all the tanks in the system, also the
loss or gain of the whole mud system. There is also an alarm
function with set points adjustable above and below the
steady state of the system. This setting will set off an alarm
to warn the driller of changes in the system if there is any
loss or gain of drilling fluid.

With this display system the driller can view the contents of
just the active system, whole system, or a single tank to
ascertain the amount of mud he has available. This is crucial
information to have in the event of a problem where the well
is gaining or losing circulation fluid.

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1.7 Mud Flow Fill Indication

Mud flow instrumentation gives an essential feedback signal

to the driller. This displays the returning mud flow volume in
the flow line and is commonly called a “flow show”. This
instrument displays the percentage of drilling fluid returning
back to the mud pits. For many years this has been achieved
by placing a paddle assembly in the mud flow return trough
and thereby measuring the returning mud stream from the
well.

Figure 3 Mud Flow- Fill Indicator Panel

The paddle moves through 90°, and in doing so will indicate

0 to 100% flow and all percentages in between. This
measurement is achieved by the use of a variable resistor
which is driven by the paddle. The variable output voltage
signal is then sent to the electronic interface PCB for
conversion to a digital or analogue signal and the resultant
output then drives the indication display on the drillers
console.

Two alarm setpoint parameters can be configured into this

flow display instrumentation once normal flow has been
achieved. One setpoint alarm will be for a percentage above
normal flow, and the other setpoint alarm will trigger the
alarm for a percentage set below normal flow. Therefore any
variation from normal flow will set off an alarm to warn the
driller of a change in conditions in the well.

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The mud flow indicator panel is also very important to the

driller as this display provides the information necessary for
maintaining the correct amount of drilling fluid circulating
though out the system. It is also a multifunctional panel
which can indicate the strokes per minute of the selected
pump, or it can be switched to give a read out of the total
strokes pumped. The left hand gauge displays the returning
mud flow that is flowing in the flow line. A warning light and
controls to set alarm parameters which monitor any changes
in flow and alarm indication are mounted under these
gauges. Positioned at the bottom left next to the on/off
switch; there is a smoothing control to adjust the sensitivity
of the system, and a light to indicate when the mud starts to
flow in the flow line.

1.7.1 Ultrasonic Flow Instrumentation

With modern advances in technology these older systems are
being replaced with Ultrasonic sensors which have the benefit
of having no moving parts. Processes within the electronics
carries out the measurements and performs the same task as
the earlier models but with less maintenance required.

Figure 4 Drillers Console & Mud System Display

Above is a photo of a Drillers Console located beside the

Drawworks with a view overlooking the rig floor. This photo
also shows a Martin & Decker/Totco Mud Totalizer Panel
which will give the Driller all the information he requires
about the mud system. Information such as pit levels,
volume, mud flow & returns, and alarms to warn of any
change in the parameters being monitored. All of which will
indicate a change in the state of the well.

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1.8 Mud Tank Level Floats

The mud in circulation while drilling is referred to as the

“active system” and is monitored all the time for loss or gain
to warn of problems in the well. To monitor the active mud
system a measuring device is used to inform the driller of the
quantity of drilling mud he has in the system during the
drilling operation.

On older systems this can be done with foam donuts which

float on top of the mud in the tanks or pits, and the
movement either up or down will change the resistance value
of a variable potentiometer. This occurs when a magnetic link
between the float and the potentiometer, via a chain driven
mechanism encapsulated inside a stainless tube, causes the
potentiometer to rotate.

This change in resistance will affect the signal voltage going

back to the interface panel and thereby the output signal
supplying the digital read out or gauge.

1.8.1 Ultrasonic Level Sensors

Later system consists of an ultrasonic sensor on each mud
tank or pit to measure the amount of mud contained. Just
like the Mud flow ultrasonic instrument this is done by
measuring the distance between the sensor and the surface
of the mud in the tank. This variable signal between full and
empty is sent back to a data acquisition panel and converted
to a digital or analogue signal for indication on the Drillers
Console.

Figure 5 Ultra-sonic Pit Level Sensor on the Mud Tank

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1.8.2 Radar Level Instrumentation

Due to further developments ultrasonic sensors have been
replaced with radar sensors, these are not affected by media,
vapour, temperature, or pressure anomalies. However it has
been mentioned that foamy conditions can affect the
reliability of these systems.

1.9 Additional Instrumentation

This equipment will only be briefly touched upon as although

some of there components comes under the heading of
Instrumentation each item is a system unto themselves and
would require extensive explanation to do them any justice.
However a brief description will be attempted to make you
aware of their existence and function.

1.9.1 BOP Accumulator panels

Another major piece of equipment that deserves a mention
under this category is the remote BOP panel which is
generally within easy reach of the driller. It houses all of the
remote control push buttons and indication lamps in the form
of a mimic panel. Gauges on this panel also display the
system pressure and are also used as indication that
functions have caused a corresponding pressure drop.

Figure 6 BOP Control Panel shown on Right

The BOP system is made up of a high pressure assembly or

stack of hydraulically operated rams and compression rings
that allow the safe control of any drilling operation. The
hydraulic operation of this equipment is provided by an
accumulator unit that is normally installed away from the
well head area. This accumulator system is the reservoir for
the pressurised hydraulic fluid and consists of a triplex pump,
back up air pumps, accumulator pressure vessels, hydraulic
controls and electric panels.

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The system uses a complex series of electric solenoid valves

and pressure transducers to allow the system to be remotely
controlled or mechanically operated at the unit itself.

1.9.2 Iron Roughneck Controls

Once again we are talking about a dedicated piece of made
for purpose equipment in the form of a robotic iron
roughneck. As the name implies a lot of the heavy duty
manual repetitive jobs carried out on the drill floor have been
handed over to this machine. The iron rough neck itself is a
mechanical version of Tarzan, its sole purpose in life is to
make life easy for the drill floor crew.

Figure 7 Iron Roughneck Control Panel

It is armed with hydraulically driven torque wrenches, make

up / break out tools, hydraulically driven carriages and a
control panel to allow for manual operation. The hydraulic
power to this unit is supplied from remote pumps and is
delivered via umbilical hoses. Similarity the electrics which
controls the machines electric/hydraulic solenoid valves are
supervised by a dedicated PLC. This equipment generally
resides inside an Exp enclosure inside the Dog House.

A remote Instrument panel can be found inside the drillers

cabin which duplicates some of the functions that are locally
displayed on the iron roughneck panel and gives the driller
the opportunity to control some of its features. To further
advance your knowledge on this unique piece of equipment I
would strongly suggest an appointment with the OEM
manual.

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1.9.3 Choke & Kill Instrumentation

Once again this device is a stand alone unique piece of
drilling equipment, its job is to both monitor and activate if
necessary choke and kill functions that may be required
under abnormal conditions. The instrumentation that is
associated with this unit is mainly pneumatic pressure
gauges valves and mud pump stroke counters. Allowing the
driller to activate and observe the following; Drill pipe and
Casing pressure, Pump speed indicator (SPM), Total stroke
counter and reset switch, Choke control handle and Choke
position indicator.

Figure 8 Pump Stroke Counter Unit Battery Powered.

1.10 Drilling Chart Recorder

This is an instrument for providing a real-time monitoring

and readout of the drilling progress of a rotary drilled well.
One channel is connected to the wire of a standard wire line
measurement wire and monitors the length paid out as a drill
string descends. Simultaneously the device monitors the drill
operator's controls to detect the status of drill operation.

Figure 9 Drilling Chart Recorder

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A visual and a hardcopy graphic displaying the operation is

provided with a real-time indication of the rate of drill
penetration and the rate of change of the drill penetration,
thus providing direct information as to passage through
various formations. Other channels are dedicated to depth,
hookload, time, RPM, torque, GPM, pump pressure, etc. and
in total will give the drilling company a record of the all
parameters associated with the well being drilled.

1.10.1 Recording Channels

• Hook load/W.O.B.

• RPM.

• SPM.

• ROP.

• Gain/loss.

1.10.2 Manufacturers
There are many manufacturers of this equipment;

Martin Decker/Otco Chart Recorders, Barton/Bristol

Chart Recorders, Petron Drilling Information Systems,
etc.

1.11 Drillers Main Control Panel

Located on the drillers main control panel you will find all of
the controls that enable the driller to function all of the
assignments necessary to control the drilling equipment.
These controls consist of assignment switches, SCR/DC
motor speed control rheostats, VFD/AC motor speed control
rheostats, Emergency stop buttons, current & power meters,
indication lights and gauges.

• SCR Selection switch or switches

• Mud pump local/remote switches

• Forward reverse switches

• Throttle rheostats

• Torque rheostat RT

• Emergency stop switch

• Gauges current/power

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1.11.1 Indicator Lights & Gauges

Above is a Tech Power drillers control panel. Viewed through
the Perspex screen are indicator lights showing which dc
motors are assigned or in operation. They also indicate the
available SCRS and the status of the auxiliary motors.
Analogue gauges can also be seen which monitor the total
kW load and the RT/TD running amps.

1.11.2 Selection Switches & Emergency Shutdown

Below the indication panel there are the buttons for the
emergency shutdowns, and the selector switches for the four
SCR units, so the driller can select which SCRs he wishes to
use with each function.

1.11.3 Mud Pump Local/Remote Switches

The first two switches in the next row down are selector
switches for the mud pumps, this is to direct control of the
mud pumps from the rig floor remote position, to the mud
pump room local position.

Figure 10 Drillers Control Panel

This is done so that people working on the mud pumps in the

mud pump room can operate the pumps locally. If they need
to rotate them slowly during repair work they are operated
from a small control panel in the mud pump room with a
throttle assigned to each pump. If the pumps do not need to
be rotated, then normally they are locked out at the motors
by putting the pins in the lockout switches on the motors to
prevent them running while the pump is being repaired for
the safety of the personnel.

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1.11.4 Rotary Table Forward/Reverse Switch

Another switch which is located on this panel is the “forward”
or “reverse” switch for the rotary table. This can be selected
to run the rotary table in either direction as required.

1.11.5 Rotary Table Spin Switch

On the same row there is a green button, marked rotary
spin, which can be pushed to spin the rotary table in the
selected direction, during the make up or breakout of drill
pipe.

1.11.6 Rotary Table Torque Rheostat

The next control down the panel is a rheostat or variable
resistance to control the rotary table drilling torque limit.
A preset limit can be set which will dictate the amount of
torque produced by the rotary table. This is designed to limit
the force exerted by the rotary table or top drive on the drill
pipe when drilling to prevent twisting off the drill pipe. With
this preset value the SCR will phase back the assigned SCR
driving the rotary table should a sudden increase in torque
be experienced.

Figure 11 Drillers Throttle Rheostats

1.11.7 Throttle Rheostats

Below the rotary torque control there are four throttle hand
wheels, the first two are for the mud pumps, to control the
speed of mud pumps 1 & 2. The next throttle along is to
control the speed of the rotary table, or the top drive. The
last throttle is to control the cat head speed of the
drawworks. Each of these throttles will control the drive
motors on the associated equipment, which is normally two
motors on the drawworks, two motors on the mud pumps,
and one motor on the rotary table or top drive. On some rigs
you will find other combinations so it is not uncommon to
find drawworks which have three motors and top drives
having two.

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1.11.8 Purge Pressurization System

At the end of the row there is a switch to silence the purge
air alarm if the door of the panel needs to be opened. This
would cause a loss of air pressure and activate the pressure
loss horn or siren.

Figure 12 Drillers Control Panel Purge System

Associated with this purge system is a magnahellic pressure

gauge and regulator normally mounted on the side of the
panel to monitor the purge air pressure inside the control
panel. On the gauge there is a green sector to indicate the
desired pressure, and a red sector each side of the green
sector to indicate the pressure is too high or too low.

Because these panels are located in Zone 1 / Class 1 Division

1 areas on the rig floor and in close proximity to the well
head in some cases, they will be certified as explosion proof
Exp and should only be opened when the area is proven to
be gas free. This can be ascertained with use of the rig gas
detector or portable unit and normally requires a permit
before you start work, or at least permission of the
Toolpusher or Company Man, to confirm it is safe to work in
that area. The air purge system is regulated to about
0.5”water or 125 Pa to prevent damage to the gauge
glasses, or panels by over pressurisation. This air is passed
through a filter drier to remove any oil or water that may be
found in the main rig air system.

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1.11.9 Auxiliary Motor Indication

All of the drilling motors have auxiliary AC motors which are
essential as part of the cooling, lubrication or pumping
requirements associated with their respective AC/DC traction
motors functions. Normally a sole indication light is assigned
to each drilling motor as indication of normal and abnormal
operation. This light will illuminate once all of the associated
auxiliary motors have turned on. However this same light will
also flash at the same time as an alarm is initiated to provide
warning of an auxiliary motor malfunction.

Figure 13 Drillers Control Auxiliary Indication Lights

1.11.10 Power Limit

The power limit indication is designed to warn if more power
is required, therefore signifying that another generator needs
to be put on line. This normal fluctuation indicates the
system is being used efficiently, but does not need more
power unless the power limit light stays on for an extended
period of time.

1.12 Local Mud Pump Control Console

The main function of this panel is to give local control of the

mud pump to the drilling crew member assigned to look after
it. Generally this is required when maintenance to swabs
liners, pony rods, or fluid ends require attention. After the
control logic has been assigned to this panel by the driller it
can only be controlled from this location, making any
accidental activation of the drillers controls redundant or
ineffectual. Only after the maintenance is completed and the
control logic is switched back to the drillers control from the
local panel will the system be reinstated to the normal
operating status.

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As can be seen on the photo below this panel also contains

emergency stop buttons which can be used in an emergency
or as a means to lock out the control system when
maintenance is being carried out.

Figure 14 Local Control Panel for the Mud Pumps

In some procedures the pump may need to be rotated slowly

to reposition the pistons before removal. Therefore the
person doing the job has total control over its operation. It
must also be mentioned that the local throttle rheostats are
not identical to the drillers rheostats and only have a limited
speed control function.

1.13 Manufacturers

There are several well known drilling instrumentation

companies that have developed instrumentation that has
been specifically designed for the oil exploration industry
over many years, and among these are:

Martin Decker/Totco, Swaco, Geolograph Pioneer, and

Kent, Allen-Bradley, etc.

As more countries produce drilling equipment, more names

are added to this list, with manufacturers from China and
India joining a long list of equipment suppliers for the oil and
gas industry. This has come about because these countries
have become major players in oil and gas exploration and
production industries.

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2 How Does It Work

2.1 General Overview of Operation

In addition to supervising a crew you'll find the Driller job is

operating the oil rig's drilling and hoisting equipment,
managing the rig floor, driller's console which includes
brakes, monitors, throttles, clutches and many gauges. The
readings and feedback obtained from the console
instrumentation enable the driller to make adjustments
whenever necessary.

Figure 15 Enclosed Drillers Console

2.2 Drawworks Operation

When the drawworks is set to idle or cat head speed, very

little amperage will be shown until the clutches are engaged
and the foot throttle is pushed to the floor. This is when the
ammeter will swing to several hundred amps as the
drawworks accelerates and takes the weight of the drill pipe.
This can be observed when running in or out of the hole or
when addition stands are added for drilling ahead.

2.3 Rotary Table Operation

The same will apply to the rotary table drive system, where
very little current will be shown until it is rotating the drill
string in the hole. The load will increase with the extra torque
required as hole gets progressively deeper.

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2.4 Mud Pump Operation

The pump strokes will normally change with the depth of the
well or with the type of tools being run in to the well, so the
hole will determine the pump speed and the size of liners
used in the pumps.

This speed will be displayed on the driller’s console as

strokes per minute. When the driller starts a pump he will
get three indications. First he will see the pump is running by
the stroke counters showing SPM, then secondly he will get
indication from the flow show instrumentation that mud is
returning to the mud pits and thirdly there will be pressure
indicated on the pressure gauge on the panel.

On some operations because this SPM readout is so

important to the drilling operation there is an auxiliary set of
battery powered digital stroke counters, allowing the two
systems to be compared for accuracy. To test for calibration
a watch count can be taken of the pump strokes over a
minute to prove the accuracy of the system. The stroke
counters are activated by whisker type limit switches
mounted on the mud pumps. These are activated on every
pump stroke as the rubber baffle on the pony rods comes
into contact with the metal triggering rod.

Every time the baffle passes the switch it is operated once to

close and open the switch on each stroke, thus sending a
voltage signal back to the data acquisition unit to be
processed into an output signal for the gauge or meter on
the drillers console.

The later type of stroke counters use proximity switches.

These are positioned so as to detect the movement of the
pump mechanism such as the crosshead slide. This allows a
signal to be sent to the data acquisition circuitry as the
proximity sensor changes state at each pass.

2.5 Mud Flow Operation

The flow show instrumentation is responsible for displaying in

real time the quantity of drilling fluid that is retuning from
the well after being pumped down the drill string. If there is
a change in the quantity returning there may be a problem.
The loss of mud circulation indicates the drill bit has gone
into a void or cavity which the mud is being pumped into. Or
conversely in the case of a gain in mud returns, this would
indicate that gas or oil is being forced up the casing and
increasing the returns or adding to the volume of the returns
at the surface.

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2.6 Mud Pit/Tank System

Within the active mud system there is a known volume of

drilling fluid which is being monitored by the pit or tank
sensors. The same principle applies here as with the flow
show, in that if there is a loss of volume in the active holding
pit/tanks there will be an alarm to indicate a potential
problem. The sensors will feedback signals to the drillers
displays and warn him of changes in the levels so appropriate
action can be taken.

2.7 Drill Console

This equipment in the drillers console on the rig floor is in a

Zone 1 Class 1 area, therefore the hazardous area protection
method is purge pressurization. This method prevents any
ingress of flammable gasses by maintaining a constant
pressure within the enclosure. Generally the only
instrumentation associated with this panel is the total load
kW meter and the rotary table amp meter.

2.8 Instrument Air System

As part of the instrument air system you will generally find a

filter drier installed. Its job it is to remove any oil or water
from the air therefore preventing it from being introduced
into the panels. An audible alarm will warn of the loss of
pressurisation if the instrument air system should fail. This is
designed as a continuous purge system. An orifice in the
panel will control a set rate of exhaust so that the air is being
replenished constantly.

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2.9 Weight Indicator

The photo below is an good example of a dead line anchor

where the load cell for the Weight Indicator can be seen in a
bronze/brass colour to the right. This cell is a hydraulic
device which when compressed by the weight of the load on
the Travelling Blocks in the Derrick will force hydraulic oil
along a hose to the Weight Indicator Gauge. The weight
indicator is calibrated to read zero with everything except the
drill string hanging on the blocks, this includes the top drive
if fitted.

Figure 16 Dead Line Anchor Showing Load Cell

Above is an excellent example of a dead line anchor showing

the load cell in the front of the picture with the hydraulic
hose going to the Weight Indicator on the driller’s console.

The weight indicator will only start to read weight after

drilling equipment is suspended from the bales. This may be
in the form of drill pipe, collars, casing, production tubing
etc.

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3 How Do I Operate It
3.1 Drilling Instrumentation

Drilling instrumentation is normally operated by the driller

from the rig floor. However because of the wide number of
devices used by the industry it would be outside the scope of
this course to give a detailed description on how all of these
are operated. The controls to most of these devices are
generally very easy to understand and a quick discussion
with the operator of this equipment will quickly bring you up
to speed on how they are used. Any further in depth
information can be gained from the OEM manuals associated
with this equipment.

Figure 17 Enclosed Drillers Console

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4 Inspection
4.1 Daily Inspections

Drilling instrumentation which is used on oil rigs normally

gives little trouble once commissioned. It may be necessary
to check the rig floor daily to see if the driller is having any
problems with any of the functions on the drillers console.
The driller should also be asked on morning rounds if
anything has occurred overnight that needs to be checked
out or attended to on the drilling system.

Check the condition and operation of the local controls such

as those on the Drillers Console and the Mud Pump Console
in the Mud Pump Room, and lubricate and protect with WD40
and LPS3 to keep them moving freely.

Any switches with rubber boots on them to make them water

tight should be checked to make sure the rubber boot is still
good and water tight, or replace the boots. All the controls
should be checked for free operation.

4.1.1 Drill console Purge System

The gauge reading for the purge system on the drillers
console should be checked on a regular basis to make sure
the purge pressurisation system is functioning as required.
This is normally a segmented gauge, with sections marked in
red or green to show the state of the system. The green
sector is the normal operating safe zone.

4.1.2 Mud System Instrumentation

The pit level sensors which live on top of the mud pits can be
easily damaged if they are of the ultrasonic type. These need
to be given protection against heavy objects being moved
around the mud pits. This includes protection for the cables
to ensure they are not damaged by activities such as mud
mixing around the mud pits during operations. The
occasional inspection around this area may save this
sensitive equipment from being damaged if you see anything
untoward going on.

Because of the very dirty nature of its location the sensor for
the flow show will require constant inspection. The paddle
type is prone to gathering mud under the paddle in some
conditions, especially if the fall of the trough is not steep
enough. The angle of the trough needs to be fairly steep to
stop the build up of mud and cutting from impeding the
paddle from making its full movement or preventing it from
returning to the zero flow position.

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The ultrasonic type should give less trouble as there is

nothing to slow the flow of the mud and cuttings down the
trough, however these can still give false readings if cuttings
build up in the bottom of the trough.

4.1.3 Rotary Table / Top Drive

The sensor for the rotary table or top drive will be of the
proximity type and will only require periodic inspections. This
is to ensure that the cable to the sensor, or the attached
target for the proximity switch has not been damaged. The
clearance between the switch and the moving target will also
need checking. This may have become too large for the
magnetic flux of the switch to be effected by the passing
steel target, thereby not allowing the switch to operate
correctly.

4.1.4 Mud Pumps

Inspections on SPM devices that are applicable to your
operation require observation during operation. The older
type of clamp on limit switch is generally more troublesome.
A quick regular inspection of the positioning of these devices
may save you the constant call outs that can occur when the
driller reports that his pump strokes aren’t working. The
newer proximity type of device which picks up the cross head
slide as they oscillate within there guides are far more robust
and once commissioned require no attention.

4.1.5 Power Limit System

Inspect the power limit system by checking the indicator light
function on the drillers console. Depending on the amount of
generators online this light will temporarily illuminate when a
high load is applied to the system. As the driller picks up a
load and the drawworks accelerates to normal speed larger
this power requirement will drop away.

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5 Maintenance
5.1 General

Maintenance will depend on the type of system installed on

the rig. Most instrumentation systems once they are
commissioned and are operating normally give little trouble
unless part of the system is physically damaged.

5.1.1 Water Intrusion

One of the major hazards to these systems is the frequent
washing down of the rig. Especially when the drillers console
is not in a driller’s cabin, but on the rig floor out in the open.
These exposed instruments can get covered with mud and
are the silent victims to the roughnecks cleaning techniques.

Extra care must to be taken when washing down the control

panels. Water under pressure can easily be forced passed
door or panel mounted component seals. If this is salt water
it will cause damage and corrosion to PCBs, wiring
connections and switch gear. Resulting in short circuits, burnt
out components or erroneous readings.

5.1.2 Mud Level Sensors

In older systems the maintenance level is much higher with
many moving parts in the pit level sensors, the flow show
sensors, and the whisker type stroke counter switches.

Older pit level sensors use a float system. The float has a
steel collar inside which travels up and down the outside of a
stainless steel tube. This attracts a magnetic component
inside the tube which is attached to a continuous stainless
steel ball chain. As the float moves with the level of the tank
the attracted magnetic mouse causes the chain to move in
the same direction. After transversing the top and bottom
pulleys this continuous chain rotates a small gearbox
mechanism coupled to a potentiometer at the top of the
probe. The corresponding output from this potentiometer is
the driver for the display system.

With this type of system it is possible for the float to lose the
magnetic connection between the float and the probe. There
fore intervention will be required to reset the mechanism.

Two methods to achieve this are as follows:

• Push the float down the tube below the surface of

mud until it picks up the collar magnetically

• Remove the probes top lid and carefully rotate the top
pulley until you feel the magnetic coupling take place.

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In some cases it is possible for the ball chain to skip the

indentation in the top pulley and throw out the calibration, in
which case the easy option is to try and skip the chain back
over the indentions to correct the error in calibration.

You will also find that the probe is full of transformer oil. Its
purpose is to keep the mechanism lubricated dampen any
sudden float oscillations and to help maintain explosion proof
integrity of the probe.

It is also possible for this system to lose oil from the flange
below the alloy box, this will occur if the box housing the
mechanism at the top of the tube distorts away from the
flange and opens the gasket securing it to the stainless steel
tube in the tank.

Another thing to look out for is the proximity of the probe to

the agitator in the tank. The float coupling can be upset if the
mud agitators are positioned too close to the probe. This can
cause excessive float movement because of the disturbed
surface. This problem can also apply to the ultrasonic types
of sensor if the surface is disturbed too much.

5.1.3 Mud Flow Sensor

Flow show sensors can be quite difficult to reach as the flow
line is normally under the rig floor where the flow line runs
from the bell nipple. The flow line is generally a pipe with a
slot cut in the top with a mounting flange to bolt the sensor
to, or a trough which has a supporting frame fitted to accept
the mud flow device.

The paddle will need to be able to move through 90% from

vertical to horizontal as the flow increases. As the shaft
rotates a lever will move a variable resistor or potentiometer
through a calibrated range to vary the signal voltage to
indicate the percentage of flow, from “0” to 100%.

Because these are sometimes mounted in locations which are

hard to reach, it is always advisable to try and get a good fall
on the pipe or trough to prevent the build up of cuttings from
the well sitting on the bottom of the pipe or trough. This
build up will stop the paddle from returning to the zero
position, at the bottom of the pipe or trough.

The lever mechanism should always be protected from the

mud and kept clean and dry with its pivot points lubricated to
reduce wear. The steel cover should always be replaced after
servicing the unit and the screw on lid of the explosion proof
junction box should be lubricated. This is to ensure that it
can be removed the next time, as the environment where the
flow show is located is very damp and corrosive.

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In the case of the open trough type of flow lines, the sensors
are subject to far worse conditions, mainly due to the
amount of mud splashing around the area and the hot steam
which rises from the trough. However because of the
exposed nature of this type of setup it is easer to check the
paddle movement and clear away any obstructions that may
be causing problems.

5.1.4 Drill Line Weight Indicator

The normal source of problems with weight indicators is the
loss of hydraulic fluid, therefore the leak will need to be
found and repaired. Before the system can be put back into
operation any lost fluid will need replacing and the air bleed
from the lines. This procedure should be carried out with no
load on the blocks to return the system to zero. The manual
for the weight indicator should tell you the normal gap that
can be expected at the load cell, normally somewhere
between .5 and .75 of an inch gap, as once the gap becomes
zero no reading will be obtained from the load cell.

The connection between the load cell and the weight

indicator should be the correct type of high pressure hose, as
this will not expand or contract under pressure or
temperature changes which would otherwise affect the
accuracy of the readings. Stainless or steel tubing should
not be used for control lines as this can be affected by
ambient temperature, particularly in hot climates where it
will rise and fall with the daily temperatures.

5.1.5 Stroke Counter Switches

Whisker type limit switches which are used as stroke
counters can have their life extended by removing the
operating head and repacking it with new grease before it
dries out. Also frequent spraying of WD40 penetrating fluid
or LPS1 and LPS3 heavy duty rust inhibitor can help prevent
corrosion in a salt and chemical environment. This includes
external working parts along with the alloy whisker rod clamp
and the steel “G” clamp used for fixing the switch to the mud
pump.

5.1.6 Protective rubber boots

The rubber boots on switchgear should be changed if they
have ruptured and will let in water, and the same will apply
to key pads on later systems where water or mud can get in
and create problems.

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6 Spare Parts
6.1 General

The amount of spare parts will depend on the type of system

in use, there should always be spare printed circuit boards
kept for the system to replace any that suffers component
failure, and replacements ordered to replace those used.

6.1.1 Mud Tank Sensors

Concerning mud pit sensors and flow shows, it is a good
policy to keep spares for these on hand. It should also be
noted that the older tube type pit sensors or probe units
come in different lengths to cater for different tank depths,
so the length of the probe tube could be critical, as these are
more difficult to keep around because of their length.
Therefore it may be appropriate to have these stored away
from your site such as a warehouse or on shore facility. With
the ultrasonic type of sensors it is easy to keep a spare in the
workshop or rig store.

6.1.2 Control Panel Components

On some control panels toggle switches have water proof
boots to prevent the ingress of water and mud, these quite
often require replacement. There should always be spare
potentiometers and control knobs, as these knobs can easily
be broken on removal when the potentiometers are changed
for new ones. Spare meters and gauges can be kept on hand
to replace those that fail or are damaged during drilling
operations. Some of the digital readouts can start to lose
part of their display over time, so they cannot be read by the
driller, therefore spares for these digital displays should also
be considered.

6.1.3 Stroke Counter Switches

Spare proximity switches should be kept in stock in case of
failure, including the explosion proof junction box, terminal
block, and cable gland. If whisker type switches are being
used then complete replacement units should be kept as
spares. This includes "G" clamps and brackets along with
switch assemblies including rods and clamps. Companies
such as “Swaco” can provide stroke counter switch
assemblies complete with the cable and whiskers all ready to
install.

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7 Trouble Shooting
7.1 What if it Breaks down

Trouble shooting on drilling instrumentation will depend on

the type of system installed. The older systems will require a
lot more maintenance and problems can be expected due to
the mechanical nature of the components.

7.1.1 Mud Pit Sensors

Float type pit level sensors which have a donut shaped float
transversing a stainless steel tube can easily become
disconnected from the internal mechanism. As previously
explained this can be easily rectified by either pushing the
float down to pick up the magnetic mouse or by rotating the
chain at the surface mechanism box.

Or the other common problem occurs when the ball type

chain which drives this type of system has skipped position
on the top pulley of the sensor. The chain can be moved back
to the original position by lifting it over the indents in the
pulley one at a time until it is reading correctly again.

Both of these problems are normally caused by the level in

that tank rising or falling too fast. The mechanical system
cannot keep up with the rapid change of position of the float
on the outside of the tube. In rare situations there can be
problems with the gear assembly at the top of the sensor
tube or the potentiometer driven by the gears is faulty.

7.1.2 Mud Flow Sensor

Flow show sensors of the paddle type can develop
mechanical failure due to constant movement of the paddle,
such as warn bearings or damaged linkages. Generally the
most common problems will be the failure of the wiring or
potentiometer problems. If it is the latter you will find that
this component is adjustable and will sometimes work loose
and therefore lose its calibration. This is a case of
potentiometer adjustment to realign the movement of the
pot with the operation of the paddle. Therefore by moving
the paddle through 90 degrees, the gauge will move from 0
to 100%.

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With the older type of flow indicators the potentiometer is a

tubular design with a slotted fixing bracket, this allows it to
be moved length wise if the fixing screw is slackened. The
other part of the assembly is a rod which passes through the
tube as it is driven by a lever from the paddle. Depending on
the penetration of the rod it will increase or decrease the
resistance of the potentiometer, which inturn will increase or
reduce the voltage to the gauge on the panel. Consequently
any adjustment to the position of this potentiometer will
effect the calibration.

7.1.3 Stroke Counters

In older systems the stroke counters are often whisker
switches, which are explosion proof industrial limit switches.
These switches have a long lever extension 200mm to
300mm long by 2 or 3 mm thick like a welding rod mounted
in a clamp at right angles to the shaft of the operating head
of the switch.

Most of the problems relating to these components can be

easily tested. The first and most obvious check to be made
is to visually inspect the location of the faulty mud pump
stroke counter. You may find that it is simply a case of a
misaligned limit switch. If this is not the problem the next
step would be to unclamp the unit for a closer inspection. By
stroking the whisker rod you should be able to hear and feel
the micro switch activating. If the mechanism appears to be
unserviceable simply replace with a new assembly.

In regard to later systems that use proximity detectors which

are used as stroke counters these can be a little more
difficult because of their more permanent mounting. Some
detectors have an LED light to indicate their state as the
cross head slide passes the proximity head and can easily be
observed. However generally, by removing the proximity
switch from its plate you can simulate the normal operation
by passing a metal object past the head.

7.1.4 Printed Circuit Boards

It is also possible to have component failure on printed
circuit boards which in some cases may be caused by wiring
faults in the field. If wiring has become damaged a quick
check should be made of the circuit before a circuit board is
changed for a new one. A short circuit in this cable could
cause the same fault to develop in the new PCB. A quick
swap of the input feeds coming from a channel that is known
to be operating can also narrow down the process of
elimination.

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8 Questions
1. Why is the drilling instrumentation so important?
Because it provides essential drilling ________about
the condition of the well and the operation of the
drilling equipment.

2. What does the weight indicator do and what does it

indicate?
a) Drillers weight. b) Drill string weight.
c) Displays. d) Monitors. e) b & c

3. What is a flow show and what does it do?

It _______ and indicates the volume of mud flowing
from the well and indicates and _______ if there is
any changes.

4. What do the stroke counters indicate?

a) R/T rpm. b) T/D rpm.
c) Mud pump spm. d) Weight on Bit.

5. What does the RPM gauge indicate?

a) R/T speed. b) T/D speed.
c) Mud pump spm. d) Weight on Bit. c) a & b

6. What are the two most common types of pit level

sensors used on the majority of oil rigs?
a) Radar. b) Float type. c) Ultrasonic. d) b & c

7. What is a purge system and what does it do?

It is a ________ zone protection technique which
pressurizes an enclosure or motor to prevent the
ingress of external ________ gases.

8. What is monitored by the pit level alarm system?

a) Depression. b) Anxiety. c) Active mud tanks. c)
Trip tank.

9. Why is it so important to monitor the mud returns?

Because the driller needs to know that the well is not
_______ or _______ drilling fluid.

10. What is the active mud system?

a) Mud system in circulation. b) Tripping mud system.
c) Reserve mud system. d) Active mud tanks.

11. What is the reserve mud system?

These are a series of ____ ______that are used to
hold extra drilling fluid if required or to premix mud
with different densities.

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9 Reference Material
The first reference point for any information regarding the
drilling instrumentation will be the manufacturer’s manuals
for the particular system installed on that rig.

These manuals will give the complete information on the

installation of the system, commissioning, and calibration,
prior to drilling so that all the equipment can be tested
before drilling begins to prove that the system works.

9.1 Web Sites

[Link]
Instrumentation/Case-Studies/Martin-Decker-Totco

[Link]

[Link]
.php

[Link]

[Link]/pdfs/[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]
004%20RD%20Simulator%[Link]

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10 Work Place Assignments

1. The first port of call in your introduction to drilling
instrumentation should start at the Drillers Cabin.
Here you will find most of the displays that inform the
Driller about the status condition and operation of the
drilling equipment. Get the driller to point out and
explain the function of the following:

Drillers console

• SCR Assignment switches

• Emergency stop switch

• Drilling motor throttles

• Function of indication lights

• Current limit & Power limit gauges

• Purge pressurisation Magnahellic gauge

2. After you have taken all of this in the next section of

instrumentation that is visible to the driller will be the
Mud system display panels. Get the driller to point out
and explain the function of the following:

Mud volume totalizer

• Mud Gain/Loss indication & setting alarms

• Mud Volume indication & tank selection

3. The next display panel that will need explanation is

the Mud flow fill display panel. Get the driller to point
out and explain the function of the following:

Mud Flow Fill Display

• Mud pump SPM Gauge & alarm settings

• Mud Pumps SPM or Fill strokes display and pump

selection

4. Following this familiarisation the next very important

gauge to be pointed out is the drillers Weight
indicator. It is operated hydraulically and generally is
maintained by the mechanical department. Get the
driller to explain its functions and to point out the
dead line anchor from where the instrument gets its
hydraulic signal.

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Weight On Bit Indicator

• Scale & pointer function

• Location of dead line anchor

5. Last but not least will be the Koomey BOP Mimic &
control panel. This is generally within easy reach of
the driller in case quick decisive action needs to be
taken to close in the well. Unless a BOP test is taking
place your familiarisation will be visual only as any
activation of this equipment by unauthorised drilling
crew is absolutely forbidden.

Koomey BOP Control & Indication Panel

• Check Indication lamp test button (Only function that

can be operated during your familiarisation)

• Visually check out layout of mimic panel and note the

position of the push to operate button

6. Once again depending on the type and size of your

Rig will dictate the complexity and location of the fire
and gas panel. Your mission is to find its location and
observe the layout and functionality of the panel.

Drill Floor Fire & Gas Panel

• Look at alarm indication layout

• Check position of acknowledge & reset buttons

• Check type of detection covered

• Look for any illuminated fault indication lamps

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11 Glossary
Choke & Kill Panel: This is a unique piece of equipment
that allows control over the BOP under abnormal conditions.

Crown Blocks: At the top of the Derrick there are five or six
pullies or sheaves mounted to accommodate the drill line
travel as it goes up or down the Derrick. The other ends of
these lines are located in the Travelling Blocks which holed
the hook.

Data Acquisition Panel: This panel will receive signals from

the sensors, and convert these signals to digital or analogue
signals to send to the instruments on the driller’s console, to
give a readout on the control panel.

Drillers Console: The control panel in front of the driller

containing his indicating instruments which keep him
informed of the situation in the well.

Drill Line: This is the special steel wire cable that is run ten
or twelve times, between the Crown Blocks and the
Travelling Blocks, with one end secured at the Dead Line
Anchor, and the other end secured to the Drawworks Drum
at the Drawworks.

Float Sensors: These are a type of sensor where a float sits

on top of the mud in a mud pit, and will vary the voltage
output depending on what height the float is relative to the
bottom of the tank, with the sensor indicating “0” mud when
the float is sitting on the bottom of the tank.

Flow Show: The Flow Show records the volume of returning

mud flow from the well as a percentage form “0” at zero
returns to “100%” at maximum mud returns, and will
normally be 60 – 70% as the mud flows back to the mud
pits.

Iron Rough Neck: This is best described as a mechanical

robot which is PLC controlled. It is designed to make up
break out and torque up drill pipe and collars.

Koomey BOP Control Panel: The BOP control Panel is the

main drillers control interface which allows all the functions
of the Blow Out Preventer to be controlled and operated from
the rig floor.

Load Cell: The Load Cell in this particular case is positioned

between the two halves of the Dead Line Anchor, with the
stationary half of the anchor bolted to the deck. The second
half of the anchor has been designed to be rotated by the
load on the drill line from the load on the Travelling Blocks.

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The Load Cell is compressed by this load expelling hydraulic

fluid through a hose to the Weight Indicator Gauge, which
will indicate the load of the drill pipe on the Travelling Blocks.

Mud Agitators: These are impellers mounted at the bottom

of the mud pit, driven by a motor and shaft from the top of
the mud pit, to agitate the mud to prevent the solids settling
at the bottom of the tank, and they are kept running all the
time to keep the solids suspended in the mud at all times.

Mud Pits: The Mud Pits on land rigs are the same as the
mud tanks, but the name has been passed down from the
early days of drilling when holes were dug in the ground for
the mud to be stored in during drilling operations. This
terminology has been passed on to land rigs in modern
times, although these to are mobile tanks.

Mud Tanks: The Mud tanks are used to mix and store the
drilling fluid (Mud) and they are normally divided into two
groups, the first group is called the Active System, where the
mud in use to drill the well is kept. The second group is
where the mud is mixed and kept in reserve for use if
required in the active system, and this is called the Reserve
System.

Purge Panel: This panel is to control the purge air to the

control panels on the rig floor as part of the hazard control
system. There will normally be a regulator to reduce the rig
air pressure down to a low pressure, and a filter drier to
remove oil and moisture. The air will then pass to a second
regulator on the panel, so that the air flow can be adjusted,
there will be a pressure gauge with one green segment and
two red segments, and the air must be adjusted to sit in the
green sector. The panel also has a control which has two
positions, one for constant pressure and the second for boost
to bring the system up to the required pressure quickly if the
panel has been opened and pressure lost. There may also be
a Magnahellic pressure switch on the panel which will close to
give an alarm on pressure failure.

Proximity Switches: The Proximity switches are usually

situated in the removable side plates of the mud pump, and
the tip or head of the switch is adjusted so that it is very
close to the cross head, or connecting rod of the mud pump
as it passes, and will attract a magnetic action in the switch
to close it.

Pit Sensors: The Pit Sensors monitor the quantity of mud in

a mud pit at any one time, and the information is returned to
the Data Acquisition Panel for processing before being sent to
the Drillers console to inform the driller.

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Radar Sensors: Radar Sensors operate in the same manor

as the Ultrasonic Sensor, but are better able to cope with
condensation, foam, or turbulent surface conditions. The
Ultrasonic sensors are better used where they are not
influenced by vapours, temperature, or pressure. Ultrasonics
perform better in short range applications, because the
blanking distance is better, and they also perform well in
very small or very narrow vessels, because the beam angle is
only 10°.

SCR/VFD Control panel: The control panel for the main

drives such as the Top Drive, Mud Pumps, and Drawworks, to
assign and control the speed of these motors.

Stroke Counters: The switches which operate at each

stroke to count the number of strokes the mud pump has
performed.

Travelling Blocks: The travelling Block is suspended on the

drill line hanging from the crown blocks, which again has five
or six pullies or sheaves mounted in it to accommodate the
drill line travel. There will be an attachment below it for the
hook and swivel which will carry the drilling loads such as the
Top Drive and drill pipe or casing. These items can be rated
at 500 tonnes or more to carry the drilling loads.

Ultrasonic Sensors: Ultrasonic Sensors are normally

mounted on the grating above the mud pit, and project a
beam to the surface below, which can be the bottom of the
tank if it is empty, or the top of the mud if it is full and this
information is returned to the Data Acquisition panel for
processing.

Whisker Switch: The Whisker switches are explosion proof

industrial grade limit switches with extended operating
levers, which contact the rubber pony rod baffles to operate
at each stroke to count the number of times the pony rod
operates.

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Section 21
Programmable Logic
Control

1 Equipment Overview ................................................ 2

2 How Does It Work .................................................... 5
3 How Do I Operate It ............................................... 11
4 Inspection............................................................. 24
5 Maintenance.......................................................... 25
6 Spare Parts ........................................................... 26
7 Trouble Shooting ................................................... 27
8 Questions ............................................................. 29
9 Reference Material ................................................. 30
10 Work Place Assignments ......................................... 31
11 Glossary ............................................................... 32

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Programmable Logic Control (PLCs)

1 Equipment Overview
1.1 History

The PLC was invented in response to the needs of the

American automotive industry. Before the PLC, control,
sequencing, and safety interlock logic for manufacturing
automobiles was accomplished using relays, timers and
dedicated closed-loop controllers. The process for updating
such facilities for the yearly model change-over was very
time consuming and expensive, as the relay systems needed
to be rewired by skilled electricians. In 1968 GM Hydramatic
(the automatic transmission division of General Motors)
issued a request for proposal for an electronic replacement
for hard-wired relay systems.

The winning proposal came from Bedford Associates of

Bedford, Massachusetts. The first PLC, designated the 084
because it was Bedford Associates eighty-fourth project, was
the result. Bedford Associates started a new company
dedicated to developing, manufacturing, selling, and
servicing this new product: Modicon, which stood for modular
digital controller. One of the people who worked on that
project was Dick Morley, who is considered to be the "father"
of the PLC. The Modicon brand was sold in 1977 to Gould
Electronics, and later acquired by German Company AEG and
then by Schneider Electric, the current owner.

One of the very first 084 models built is now on display at

Modicon's headquarters in North Andover, Massachusetts. It
was presented to Modicon by GM, when the unit was retired
after nearly twenty years of uninterrupted service.

1.2 Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)

A programmable controller is a small industrial strength

computer used to control real world actions, based on its
program and real world sensors. The PLC replaces thousands
of relays that were in older electrical panels, and allows the
maintenance technician to change the way a machine works
without having to do any wiring. The program is typically in
ladder logic, which is similar to the wiring schematics
maintenance electricians are already accustomed to working
with. Inputs to a PLC can be switches, sensors, encoders,
machine operator data, etc. Outputs from the PLC can be
control signals for motors, solenoids, actuators, alarms,
indicator lights, etc.

These are part of the computer family and are used in many
commercial and industrial applications to control equipment
in most situations in manufacturing processes such as
automation. Where a process can be controlled by a PLC to
perform certain functions automatically once started and
continues until stopped by an operator.
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1.3 Drilling Industry Application

In the drilling industry they replace older forms of interface

between the driller and the drilling equipment, such as relays
and small current contactors which were used to control
auxiliary motors for the main drilling equipment.

The auxiliary motors such as blowers and lubricating pumps

for the drawworks, mud pumps, and top drive come on once
assignments have been made by the driller on the rig floor.
These items are interlocked and have to be running before
the main equipment can start; this is for safety and
mechanical protection reasons.

With this type of control system, signals from the drillers

console go to a PLC as input signals and then the PLC will
send output signals to various items as dictated by the PLCs
program. This is in a controlled order to produce the
functions which control the rig during drilling operations.

If we go back to the previous example where the driller

assigns a mud pump, the PLC as programmed, will start the
cooling blower for the motor, the chain lubrication pump, and
the pony rod lubrication pump. These will close the auxiliary
contacts in their starters to allow the starting of the mud
pumps main motors. This is achieved by closing the DC
contactors associated with the selected drilling motor or
motors and assigned SCR.

At the same time sensors are generally installed in the

system to monitor various parameters of the operation and
feeding this back to the PLC. This in turn offers various types
of protection to the system, such as over temperature, over
speed and many other protective facets of protection in the
control system.

1.4 Basic PLC

The basic PLC consists of a chassis, central processing unit

(CPU), power supply module, and input and output modules.
The PLC will also have an operator interface and connection
port for a programming device such as a lap top computer.
This is so that the CPU can be programmed or the
input/output functions manipulated if required (forced).

1.5 Input Module

The input module is designed to accept a variety of digital

and analog signals from various controls and sensors and
convert them to logic signals that can be used by the CPU.
The CPU will then make decisions based on those signals and
execute control decisions based on the programmed
instructions in the memory.

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1.6 Output Module

The output modules will convert the control instructions from

the CPU into digital or analog signals that will be used by
various field devices to act upon those instructions, such as
the contactor in a starter.

1.7 Laptop connection

To program the PLC, a lap top computer is often used

because it serves various functions, it can be used to
download the instructions which will determine what the PLC
will do with a specific input signals from the sensors. The
programming can be displayed on the monitor to indicate
changes, and new parameters can be entered or changes
made to the program as required.

1.8 Sensors

The sensors used for PLCs can be as simple as a stop/start

push buttons, these are connected to the PLC inputs used to
start a normal three phase motor. The contactor coil can be
considered as being the actuator in the associated motor
starter which is connected to the PLC output module.

1.9 Manufacturers

Well known PLC brands are;

ABB Ltd., Koyo, Honeywell, Siemens, Modicon, Omron,

Allen-Bradley, General Electric, Panasonic, Matsushita,

Mitsubishi, Toshiba, etc.

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2 How Does It Work

2.1 Pre PLCs

Before the introduction of the PLC the majority of equipment

control on oil rigs was with the use of relays and contactors
to start and stop various motors during drilling operations.
This in general was known as a hard wired control system,
where wiring was run from the MCC to the start/stop stations
and from the MCC to the motor to give control over that
motors operation.

2.2 PLCs

With this introduction the wiring changed so that the

start/stop buttons are now connected to the input modules of
the PLC, and the start/stop buttons became input sensors.
The coil supply of the motor starter contactor is now
connected to the output module connections of the PLC which
then becomes an actuator. The functions of the I/Os can be
changed in the PLC programming if required so that normally
closed contacts can be made normally open contacts and visa
versa, therefore it is now easier to modify control commands
in the PLC than what it was in the old hard wired systems.

Changes to the functionality of the equipment can be easily

made by reprogramming the PLC. Most PLCs have integrated
diagnostic and override functions. Applications can be easily
documented, and duplicated much quicker with less cost.

2.3 Binary System

The PLC is a computer and will store information in the form

of On or Off conditions (1 or 0), referred to as binary digits
(bits). Sometimes the binary digits are used individually and
sometimes to represent numeric values.

Various number systems are used in PLCs, and all numbering

systems have the same characteristics: digits, base, and
weight. The same decimal system that is used in every day
life, with the following characteristics:

Ten digits 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9

Base 10

Weights 1,10,100,1000

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2.3.1 Binary Characteristics

The binary system is used by programmable controllers and
has the following characteristics:

Two Digits 0, 1

Base 2

Weight Power of Base 2 (1, 2, 4, 8, 16 )

In a binary system 1s and 0s are arranged in columns. and

each column is weighted, with the first column having a
binary weight of 2° and this is equivalent to a decimal 1. This
is called the least significant bit, and the binary weight is
doubled with each succeeding column. The next column has
a weight of 2' which is equivalent to a decimal 2. The decimal
value is doubled with each successive column. The number in
the far left column is referred to as the most significant bit,
and in this example the most significant bit has a binary
weight of 2, and this is equivalent to a decimal 128.

The following can be used to find a decimal number from a

binary value:

Figure 1

Using the chart above, go from left to right ( Most significant

to least significant ) looking for 1s, write down the decimal
number for each column, and add the sum of the columns
together.

In the diagram shown below columns 4 & 5 contain 1, and

the decimal value of both columns added together
(16+8=24) so the decimal equivalent of this binary number
is 24, so the sum of the weighted columns that contain a 1 is
the decimal number the PLC has stored.

Figure 2
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Programmable Logic Control (PLCs)

If one takes that example and were to used different columns

to illustrate the system, for example columns 4 and 6, where
the decimal value of forth column from the right is 8 and the
value of the sixth column is 32, then the decimal equivalent
of this binary number is 40.

Figure 3

Each piece of binary information is a bit, and eight bits make

a byte, so two bytes or sixteen bits, make one word.

Figure 4

Programmable controllers will only understand on or off

signals, and in a binary system there are only two numbers,
1 and 0 where binary 1 indicates there is a circuit and the
switch is closed, or binary 0 where the switch is open and
there is no signal.

Figure 5

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Programmable Logic Control (PLCs)

Figure 6

The Binary-Coded Decimal (BCD) is decimal numbers where

each digit is represented by a four-bit binary number. A BCD
is commonly used with input and output devices. A
thumbwheel switch is one example of an input device that
uses BCD. This is where the binary numbers are broken into
groups of four bits, each group representing a decimal
equivalent. A four digit thumbwheel switch, like the one
shown here would control 16(4x4) PLC inputs.

Figure 7

2.4 Hexadecimal System

The hexadecimal on PLCs is used because it allows the status

of a large number of binary bits to be represented in a small
space such as a computer screen, or programming device
display. Each hexadecimal digit represents the exact status
of four binary bits. To convert a decimal number to the
hexadecimal number, the decimal number is divided by the
base of 16, so to convert decimal 28 to hexadecimal. The 28
divided by 16 is 1 with 12 left over, and the 12 is equivalent
to the “C” in hexadecimal, so the hexadecimal equivalent of
28 becomes 1C.

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2.4.1 Characteristics
The Hexadecimal system is used in PLCs and has the
following characteristics:

16 Digit 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F

Base 16

Weights Power of base 16 (1, 16, 256, 4096)

A = 10 D = 13

B = 11 E = 14

C = 12 F = 15

The decimal value of a hexadecimal number is obtained by

multiplying the individual hexadecimal digits by the base 16
weight and then adding the results. In the following example
the number 2B is converted to its decimal equivalent of 43.

Figure 8

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Programmable Logic Control (PLCs)

2.4.2 Conversion of numbers

The following chart shows a few numeric values in decimal,
binary, BCD, and Hexadecimal representation.

Figure 9

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3 How Do I Operate It
3.1 Terminology

The terminology used with PLCs is unique to PLCs, and to

understand the concept of PLCs, it is necessary to
understand these terms.

3.1.1 Sensors
When we talk of sensors, these are the devices that are
connected to the input connections of a PLC, to allow a
control voltage to flow, such as a start push button, micro
switch, or temperature probe with closing contacts.

Figure 10

This also applies when these devices open their contacts and
remove this voltage such as the stop button for a circuit, so
the signal no longer flows to the input modules, and the PLC
will see in both cases an open or closed signal (0 or 1).

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3.1.2 Input Devices

Figure 11

Figure 12

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3.1.3 Power Supply

Depending on the design and size of PLCs it can have an
onboard, modular, or external power supply. This power
source will be directed back to the input module from sensors
in the field to give an ON or Off signal to the PLC.

Figure 13

3.1.4 Output Devices

The output terminals from output modules are connected to
devices that require electrical energy to function. Devices
such as indication lamps, warning alarms, solenoids, relays,
contactor coils etc. All of these devices are required to make
equipment in modern industries operate.

Figure 14

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3.1.5 Simplified Graphic of PLC Operation

Figure 15

Once the sensor input is removed from the PLC the actuator
output will cease to be energised, and in the case of the
motor starter the contactor will drop out and stop the motor
from operating.

Figure 16

3.1.6 Digital Input

There are inputs known as digital inputs or discrete inputs
that can be in an ON or OFF state. These digital inputs
include pushbuttons, toggle switches, limit switches,
proximity switches, and contact closures that are connected
to the PLCs digital inputs. With the contacts closed or ON
they can be referred to as logic 1 or logic high, and in the
open circuit or OFF position, the input becomes logic 0, or
logic low.

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3.1.7 Analogue Input

The other type of input is the analogue input which is a
continuously variable signal, where the typical analogue input
may be from 0 to 20 milliamp, 10 to 30 milliamp, or 0 to 10
volts. This is when the signal is coming from a sensor which
is giving constantly changing signal strength.

Figure 17

3.1.8 Digital Output

A digital or discrete output is either an ON or OFF condition.
Contactors, solenoids, alarms, or lamps are the normal
actuators connected to these PLC outputs, so these items can
be turn ON or OFF by the PLC digital output.

Figure 18

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3.1.9 Analogue Outputs

The analogue outputs are a continuous signal, which may be
0 to 10 volts to drive an analog meter to indicate speed,
weight or temperature. In more complex applications, an
electric over air transducer may be used in a flow control
system.

Figure 19

3.1.10 Central Processing unit (CPU)

The heart of the PLC is the (CPU) central processing unit,
which is a microprocessor unit that contains the system
memory. This is the PLCs decision making unit, where the
CPU monitors the inputs and makes decisions based on the
program stored in the memory to activate outputs. The CPU
performs various functions such as, scanning, counting,
timing, data comparison, and sequential operations.

Figure 20

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Programmable Logic Control (PLCs)

Early PLCs were designed to be used by electricians who

would learn PLC programming on the job. These PLCs were
programmed in "ladder logic", which strongly resembles a
schematic diagram of relay logic. Modern PLCs can be
programmed in a variety of ways, from ladder logic to more
traditional programming languages such as BASIC and C.
Another method is State Logic, a Very High Level
Programming Language designed to program PLCs based on
State Transition Diagrams.

Recently, the International standard IEC 61131-3 has

become popular. IEC 61131-3 currently defines five
programming languages for programmable control systems:
FBD (Function block diagram), LD (Ladder diagram), ST
(Structured text, similar to the Pascal programming
language), IL (Instruction list, similar to assembly language)
and SFC (Sequential function chart). These techniques
emphasize logical organization of operations.

While the fundamental concepts of PLC programming are

common to all manufacturers, differences in I/O addressing,
memory organization and instruction sets mean that PLC
programs are never perfectly interchangeable between
different makers. Even within the same product line of a
single manufacturer, different models may not be directly
compatible.

3.1.11 Ladder Logic

Ladder logic (LAD) is a programming language, which uses a
graphical line diagram to display hard wiring control. This can
be in either display or printed format, where the left vertical
line represents the control supply voltage. The programmed
instructions allows the power path to flow via the output
module to the coil concerned. The right vertical line or
neutral is omitted. The ladder logic diagram is read from left
to right and from top to bottom. The rungs are sometimes
referred to as networks, and the network may have several
elements but only one output coil as shown below.

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Figure 21

In this example above showing 10.0 and 10.1 supplying Q0.0

being the first instruction combination, so if there are
energised inputs at 10.0 and 10.1, output Q0.0 is energised.
These inputs could be switches, pushbuttons, pressure
switches, or contact closures. In the case of 10.4 10.5, and
Q1.1 these represent a second combination, where the
closure of either 10.4 or 10.5 will energise output relay Q0.1.

3.1.12 Example of Ladder Logic Graphical

Figure 22

Above shows how a Discrete or digital input at 10.0 will

produce an output from Q0.0 to supply power to the light on
the right

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3.1.13 Example of Statement List

A statement list (STL) provides a different view of the
instructions given to the PLC, and is shown in a different way
as shown below. The operation which is to be achieved is
shown on the left, and the item to be operated is shown on
the right. A comparison can be made between the ladder
logic and the statement list, showing a similar structure,
where the same task is performed as in the previous
diagram.

Figure 23

3.1.14 Example Function Blocks

With the third method, function block diagram (FBD) this
again is a different logic approach with much the same
results, each function is a designated task which is indicated
by the title in the rectangle. These have the inputs shown on
the left hand side, and the outputs shown on the right hand
side, with the function in the box.

The “AND” indicates series functions in the box, and “OR”

indicates parallel functions, where there are choices to be
made in the control structure, or the way one wishes to
control a particular function of the PLC.

Figure 24

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3.1.15 Programming & Scan Cycle

The PLC programming is achieved through a repetitive
process called scan. A PLC scan will start with the CPU
reading the inputs. The application program is performed
using the status of the inputs. Once programming is
completed the CPU will perform internal and diagnostic tasks.
The scan cycle will end by updating the outputs, and the
restart. The cycle time will depend on the size of the
program, the number of I/Os, and amount of communication
required.

Figure 25 Scan Cycle being processed by CPU

3.1.16 Software
Software is used to download information to a computer or
PLC. This information can include instructions or programs
that will direct the hardware in these units, and can be
loaded from a floppy disc, CD, memory stick, portable hard
drive, or any method of transferring information from one
computer to another.

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3.1.17 Hardware

Figure 26

Hardware is the actual equipment, namely the computer or

PLC or programmable device including the monitor,
keyboard, and connecting cables and permanently installed
equipment. But does not include the programs or the
operating system.

Figure 27

A PC/PPI cable with a DIP switch will be required to program

the PLC from a personal computer, this cable allows the
serial interface of the PLC to communicate with the serial
interface of the of the PC. The DIP switches on the cable are
used to select the appropriate speed (baud rate), for passing
information between the PLC and the PC.

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3.1.18 Motor Control Cubicle

Below is a schematic of a normal motor control circuit
showing all the main components.

Figure 28

3.1.19 PLC Controlled MCC

If we transfer this control to a PLC where the start and stop
push buttons are wired to the PLC then we arrived at the
motor control system shown below.

Figure 29

As can be seen the start button in this PLC is connected to

10.0, the stop button to 10.1, and the overload circuit to
10.2 which gives the same control over the motor as the
hard wired terminations. In this diagram 10.1 and 10.2 are
closed and waiting for 10.0 to be closed to start the motor.

When the start button is pushed 10.0 receives logic 1 input

so that 10.0, 10.1, and 10.2 are all logic 1 and the logic 1
output is supplied to Q0.0 sending a start output signal to
the motor starter.

The interlocking internal contact Q0.0 will keep the motor

running until the stop (10.1) contact is opened.

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Programmable Logic Control (PLCs)

3.1.20 PLC Controlled MCC & Indication

Figure 30

In this diagram indicator lights are introduced to the control

circuit with the use of Networks 2 and 3, with Network 2
being indicated as normally open contacts to Q0.1, the run
indicator light. And Network 3 shown as normally closed
contacts to Q0.2 for the stop indicator light. These will
change when Q0.0 is activated with the push of the start
button.

3.1.21 PLC Controlled MCC & Indication with Limit s/w

Figure 31

In the above diagram a limit switch is added in the control

line to the motor starter actuator output, which must close
before the output signal can reach Q0.0 and start the motor.

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Programmable Logic Control (PLCs)

4 Inspection
4.1 General

In general only a visual inspection can be made while the

system is in operation, unless part of the system has failed to
operate. In this case then the obvious place to start is at the
point of failure.

If part of the system has failed to operate, then an inspection

of the sensors and actuators for that particular function
would be worth inspecting to see if it is something as simple
as a loose connection or terminal screw, or cable damage.

Normally once the system has been commissioned and run

for a period of time, the only problems that occur will be
external component failure of a sensor or actuator. Once
these have been checked the input or output modules will be
the next components to look at.

PLC systems such as Siemens and have LED indicators which

show the circuits that are operating at any one time, with
green for run, and yellow for stop, which will indicate the
inputs and outputs that are operating as shown below, and
thereby indicate the status of the system.

Figure 32

4.1.1 PLC Battery Indication

It is a good idea to check when this was last changed out,
some PLC have a LCD indicating if the internal CMOS battery
is OK. If you do replace write the date on a sticker nearby.

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Programmable Logic Control (PLCs)

5 Maintenance
5.1 General

When these units have been programmed and are operating

under normal running conditions, they usually require little or
no maintenance unless they suffer component failure in one
of the modules. This will normally require that module to be
changed for a new one to rectify the problem.

Below is a list of points that are relevant to maintain your

systems.

• How many PLCs are used on your facility?

• Are the most common spares for the PLC? On hand.

• Do you have an up to date list of all PLC model types,

part availability, program copies, and details for your
facility?

• Is there a back up copy of the PLC programs?

• Do your program copies have descriptors assigned,

making them easier to work with?

• Is there hardware and software available to view the

PLC program?

• Date battery last changed. See manufacturer’s data

for recommended change frequency.

When the system is not in use, it is good practise to check

for loose connections or terminal screws as it only takes a
bad connection to create a problem. This also applies to the
sensors and actuators. If any input or output fails to function
the correct operation of the equipment will be compromised.

5.2 PLC Audit

The first step to take is to perform a PLC audit. Open every

electrical panel, and write down the PLC brand, model, and
other pertinent information.

• Use the list above to ascertain whether you have all

the necessary programs and equipment to help
diagnose any problems.

• Last date Program Changed. Remember to log when

outside consultants or OEM make program changes.

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6 Spare Parts
6.1 General

Look for the OEM manuals with the recommended spare

parts lists and cross reference these with the spares that are
kept on your facility.

There may be various types of input and output modules, so

there should always be at least one spare of each type kept
in stock in a clean dry environment with the rest of the
electronic spares for the facility.

6.2 Recommended Spare Parts (Should include)

• Software associated with all PLC including copies of

latest equipment program.

• PLC mother board battery. (See manufacturer’s data

for recommended change frequency).

• Power supply

• CPU Module

• Input Modules

• Output Modules

• Analogue Input module

• Analogue output module

• Digital counter module

• Encoders

• Fuse links

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Programmable Logic Control (PLCs)

7 Trouble Shooting
7.1 What if it Breaks Down

It is not uncommon to only learn about a PLC once the

equipment has stopped and the clock is ticking by at
thousands of dollars per hour. Unfortunately, it is also
common that after the problem is sorted out, it's on to the
next problem, without fully learning what can be done to
avoid these costly downtimes. Some older electrical panels
may only have relays in them, but most machines these days
are controlled by a PLC. If an essential piece of equipment on
your facility were to break down because of a PLC fault how
much would this cost?

7.2 Fault Finding Practices

This encompasses visual inspection, continuity checks, input

and output wiring checks, operational testing, emergency
stops, safety control relays, ESD troubleshooting, hardware
failures, software errors etc.

7.2.1 Peripheral Checks

Normally the first signs of trouble will be the loss of control
over a piece of equipment or machinery. First check that the
main power supply to that piece of equipment is present,
then verify that there are no interlocks, overloads, or fire and
Gas relays responsible which have caused the stoppage.

7.2.2 Going Online

The next step should be the connection of a laptop computer
to the PLC concerned. Once online the equipments program
will display the ladder logic if applicable and quickly display
the problem within the control logic. This could be as simple
as a proximity switch not allowing the machine to progress
any further to an encoder fault which will cause a problem
when the driller tries to carry out a drawworks block
calibration.

7.2.3 Input Outputs Tests

If the program is running in the CPU and everything appears
normal then the input module for the equipment that has
failed can be tested. By having the start button functioned in
the case of a motor drive you will see that’s its associated
I/O channel LED will light up proving that the signal is being
received at the input module at the PLC. At the same time
providing no other device is stopping the program from
initiating the input signal, the output module should indicate
that a signal is being sent to the corresponding MCC to start
the motor.

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Programmable Logic Control (PLCs)

7.2.4 Sensors & Actuators

When checking sensors, test for a control voltage out of the
input module terminals, and confirm that voltage returns
when the start button, limit switch, proximity detector etc,
contacts are closed. This signal can be measured at the input
connection of the input module and will illuminate the I/O
modules LED if applicable.

In the case of the output module the same applies, if the

start button is pushed to give an input voltage to the input
module, there should be a control voltage across the output
terminals of the output module for the required function. This
only applies providing all conditions have been met to satisfy
the program. If the wires are removed from the output
terminals of the output module for that particular function,
the resistance of a coil will be measured if the output module
in question controls a motor starter.

7.2.5 I/O Module LEDs

Light emitting diodes (LED) or some form of indication to
show which inputs and outputs are operating are a common
feature on most PLCs. This allows quick and simple checks to
be made during maintenance or fault finding at any one time.
Much of this information can be obtained at a glance
normally during daily checks.

There are normally some self diagnoses with the PLCs with
rounds. One should familiarise themselves from the drawing
of the system so that you will know from these indicators on
the PLC, what equipment is being operated. One should know
what the normal state is during operation, so if there is a
change it will be noticeable if certain indicators do not light
up giving some warning of a malfunction.

7.2.6 Forcing
Forcing is a method where input or output circuits can be
temporarily over ridden. This is achieved by going online with
a notebook computer and requesting the PLC to simulate the
function of part of the program to enable a change of state of
an input or output. This is not a recommended practice for a
novice and can severely compromise the safety of personnel
and machinery. Generally this is only done under controlled
conditions or during commissioning. When a function is
forced the control bit identifier and the element is highlighted
because it is on.

7.2.7 Replacement Modules

If a new I/O module is installed, before it is connected to its
associated peripheral circuits, all circuits should be checked.
This is to ensure that the circuits are not damaged or shorted
which may have been the cause of the original failure.

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Programmable Logic Control (PLCs)

8 Questions
1 The three main components of PLCs are the input
module, CPU, and ______________.

2 A ________ ________ is used to input instructions

into a PLC.

3 Prior to PLCs drilling control was achieved by _____

______ control systems.

4 _________ _________ is a PLC programming

language that uses components resembling elements
used in a line diagram.

5 A__________ consists of one or more instructions

that accomplish a task.

6 A switch or push button is a __________input.

7 When talking about computer or PLC memory, 1K

refers to ________ bits, bytes, or words.

8 The _____ makes decisions and executes control

instructions based on the input signals.

9 Which of the following is not required when creating

or changing a PLC program?

a. PLC b) Programming Device

b. Programming Software

c. Connecting Cable

d. Printer

10 A special cable, referred to as a ____________

cable, is needed when a personal computer is used as
a programming device.

11 A _________ consist of one or more instructions that

accomplish a task.

12 The CPU _________ indicators reflect the current

mode of operation.

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Programmable Logic Control (PLCs)

9 Reference Material
The first point of reference should always be the
manufacturer’s manual (OEM) for any piece of equipment.
This will give the necessary information for installation,
commissioning, maintenance, and repair of that piece of
equipment under normal working conditions. In many cases
the company service department will have people on call to
assist you over the phone in the case of a failure in the field.

The STEP 2000 Siemans Technical Education Program is

excellent reference point for electrical educational material,
to help you better understand the purpose and function of a
PLC system.

9.1 Web Sites

[Link]

[Link]
[Link]

[Link]
[Link]

[Link]
ks/

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]
F

[Link]
0/[Link]

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10 Work Place Assignments

1 Check the location on your rig of any PLCs in the
system.

2 Check the drawings to find out what equipment the

PLCs on your rig controls.

3 Make a note of all the manufacturers of the PLCs on

your rig.

4 See if you have all the required equipment to

program the PLCs on your rig if it should become
necessary.

5 Locate the required program software/CD for your rig

system, if the rig has an instrument technician he
may have it in a safe place, you will also need the
cable to connect the computer to the PLC.

6 Locate any spare parts in stock for the system on

your rig, such as spare CPU, Input modules, Output
modules, External power supplies, of the correct type
for the PLCs on your rig, remember there may be
different types of modules so you will need at least
one of each type in spare parts.

7 Check out the PLC systems on your Rig and find out
the location and voltage of the primary source of
supply to these units. Are they feed via a UPS?

8 Check and see if there are any auxiliary parts in the

system such as relays or contactors that are slaved
off the PLCs to control heavier voltages or current
ratings.

9 See if you can find any records of previous history of

the PLCs to find out if they have had a history of
problems at all, and the cause of these failures.

10 Locate any Ladder diagrams of the PLC system on the

rig so that you will know what the original
programming was for the system and if it has been
modified in the past.

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11 Glossary
Address: An address is part of a statement and specifies
what the processor should execute the instruction on.
Addresses can be absolute or symbolic.

Actuator: An actuator is a device that will respond to

an output signal from the PLC and the output module,
and convert electrical energy to physical output to
operate a mechanical device.

Analogue Input: An analogue input is an input to the

PLC input module, which comes from a variable source
such as a level switch in a water tank, which is
monitoring the water level, and will have a varying signal
typically 0 to 20 milliamps, 4 to 20 milliamps, or 0 to 10
volts.

Analogue Output: The analogue output is a variable

output from the PLC output module, and can be a 0 to 10
VDC supply to items such as an analogue meter or gauge
which can indicate speed, weight, level or temperature,
which will be dictated by the corresponding analogue
input.

Backplane Bus: The backplane Bus of a PLC is

generally the Chassis that supplies the module racks with
internal operating voltage and allows data exchange
between the modules.

Baud Rate: The baud rate of a data communications

system is the number of symbols per second transferred.
At higher speeds, it is possible to encode more than one
bit in each electrical change. 4,800 baud may allow 9,600
bits to be sent each second. At high data transfer speeds,
therefore, data transmission rates are usually expressed
in bits per second (bps) rather than baud. For example, a
9,600 bps modem may operate at only 2,400 baud.

CMOS: Stands for Complimentary Metal Oxide

Semiconductor which is a volatile form of RAM memory.
Requires a small amount of battery power for CMOS
memory to hold the date, time, and system setup
parameters along with PLC program.

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Connector Cables: Connector Cables are required to

interface between two units such as the computer or
programming device and the PLC. The cable required for
the purpose is referred to as PC/PPI cable, where the PPI
is Point to Point Interface and the PC is Personal
Computer. This cable allows the serial interface of the PLC
to communicate with the RS-232 serial interface of the
personal computer, and DIP switches in the PC/PPI cable
are used to select the appropriate speed (baud rate) at
which information is passed between the computer and
the PLC.

CPU Central Processing Unit: This is the computer or

processing unit which will make decisions based on the
input of sensors, and control the actuators to bring about
certain actions in the field required for the operation of
the oil rig machinery.

Debugging: In computers, debugging is the process of

locating and fixing or bypassing bugs (errors) in
computer program code or the engineering of a hardware
device. To debug a program or hardware device is to start
with a problem, isolate the source of the problem, and
then fix it.

Discrete Input (Digital): The discrete input into the

PLC input module will come from items such as a push
button switch, toggle switch, micro switch, proximity
switches, or contact closures, which are all examples of
discrete inputs.

Discrete Output (Digital): A discrete output is an

output signal from the PLC output module to an item that
requires constant power, such as a light bulb, solenoid, or
contactor coil and is an ON or OFF condition.

EPROM: Is the abbreviation for Erasable Programmable

Read Only Memory, where this feature provides so level
of protection against unwanted changes in the programs.
They are designed so that the information stored in them
can be read but not easily changed.

Expansion Module: Expansion modules are used to

extend the input or output capability of the PLC up to the
maximum capacity of the CPU so that full advantage can
be taken of the PLC.

External power Supplies: The power supply is external

and can be in many cases 24VDC or a 120/230 VAC
depending on the CPU type and capacity, if it is 120/230
VAC this can be an advantage used to power 120 volt
contactors in motor starters in the MCCs.

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Fiberoptic: Communications are gaining greater acceptance

and are being used in more and more installations. Fiberoptic
cable is virtually impervious to harsh environmental
conditions and electrical noise. Also, these links can span
extremely long distances and transmit data at very high
speeds. For example, in some LAN systems, these links can
transmit at relatively high speeds and span long distances
before requiring a repeater. When repeaters are used,
virtually unlimited distances can be achieved.

Firmware: Firmware is application specific, where

information is burned into EPROM which is the basic
programs for that system, and is part of the hardware for the
system giving the PLC/Computer its basic functions.

Forcing: This is achieved by going online with a

notebook computer and requesting the PLC to simulate the
function of part of the program to enable a change of state of
an input or output.

Function Blocks: Function blocks are logic blokes that have

a memory. A function block allows you to pass parameters in
the user program, which means they are suitable for
programming complex functions that are required frequently.

Hardware: Hardware is a Computer/CPU complete with

monitor and keyboard so that information can be accessed or
added to the memory system.

Kbps: This stands for "thousand bits per second," which is a

rate of measure for electronic data transfer.

Input Module: This is the modules on the input side of the

PLC which receive the input signal from the sensors and
processes them before they enter the CPU.

I/O: This stands for "inputs and outputs," which are modules
that handle data to the PLC (inputs) or signals from the PLC
(outputs) to an external device.

Ladder Logic: Ladder logic is a way of illustrating the

program which has been entered into the memory of the PLC
CPU so they can be read in hard copy, and compared with
what is seen on the computer monitor when fault finding.

Ladder Logic Diagram: Ladder logic Diagrams are drawn to

be read from left to right, and from top to bottom, and
represent the sequence of control points in a circuit such as
normally open or normally closed contacts and actuator coils.

Mbps: This stands for "million bits per second."

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Memory Size: Memory is measured in Ks, an abbreviation of

Kilo which in the case of computer memory is 1024 Bits,
Bytes, or Words, and not the usual numerical 1000
associated with the normal metric measurement.

Node Address: This term is applied to any one of the

positions or stations in a network. Each node incorporates a
device that can communicate with all other devices on the
network. A node address is used to access a device.

Output Module: This module is on the output side of the

CPU and processes the signal being sent to the actuators in
the field which will complete an operation by controlling a
piece of equipment as required.

Programming Devices: The Programming Device is where

the program is written before it is transferred to the
PLC/CPU, and this can be a lap top computer or a specially
designed unit specific to the PLC where the program can be
viewed before it is installed in the PLC.

PLC Programmable Logic Controllers: Small units used to

centralise control in industrial applications, which can be
used to control industrial processes in refineries and such
once programmed to do so in automation situations. These
are also used in manual control situations such as oil rig to
control the drilling equipment.

PLC Scan: The PLC reads the status of the inputs and then
applies the program. Once the program is completed the CPU
will perform an internal diagnostic and communication tasks
and update the outputs. It will then start over the scan cycle
again, but the time of the scan will depend on the number of
inputs and outputs, and the amount of communication
required.

RAM: Is the abbreviation for Random Access Memory where

information can be written and read from as a temporary
storage area. RAM is volatile which means the data will be
lost if the power is removed from the computer, so battery
back up is required to maintain it.

ROM: Is the abbreviation for Read Only Memory where data

can be read from but not written to, this memory is non
volatile and is used to protect data from accidental erasure.
If there is power failure data will not be lost from this area,
and this is where the computer programs will be found that
maintain the computer operating system.

RS232: This is an IEEE standard for serial communications

that describes specific wiring connections, voltage levels, and
other operating parameters for electronic data
communications. There also are several other RS standards
defined.

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RS422: When longer transmission distances are needed,

RS422 is a better choice. Unlike the RS232C interface, RS422
is "balanced." Each of its primary signals consist of two wires
that are always at opposite logic levels, with respect to signal
ground. As a result, the interface can achieve longer
transmission distance (4000 ft) and higher data transmission
rates (up to 90 Kbps). In shorter runs (less than 50 ft), data
transfer can reach 10 Mbps.

Sensor: A sensor is a device that will return a signal to the

terminals of the input module of the PLC, such as a start
push button when the contacts are closed, converting
physical effort to electrical energy.

Serial: This is an electronic data transfer scheme in which

information is transmitted one bit at a time.

Serial port: This the communications access point on a

device that is set up for serial communications.

Software: Software is normally a CD, Portable hard drive,

or Thumb drive on which a program or instructions are
stored, which can be down loaded into a computer or CPU to
direct hardware in that system.

Statement List: The statement list is another way of

illustrating the operating control circuit by showing each
network in alpha numeric form instead of a ladder diagram
form.

Status Indicators: Status indicators are positioned on the

PLC so the operations can be viewed by the operators while
the system is running, and they will have some indication of
what sections of the system are working. This is usually
achieved with the use of LED Lights.

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