Space Navigation

Part I: Introduction
–Terrestrial Navigation
–Important Mathematical Concepts
–Coordinate Systems and Time Systems
 Terrestrial Navigation

• Principles of Position Determination

– Dead-reckoning
– Position fixing
• Theta-theta procedure
• Rho-rho procedure
• Rho-theta procedure
• Pseudorange procedure
• Terrestrial Navigation Instruments
• Terrestrial Radio Navigation
– Point source systems
– Area based systems
Principles of Position Determination
• Dead reckoning
– Extrapolation of a known position to some future time
– Example: airspeed and a compass (air position indicator)
• Need to know initial position
– Example: inertial platform (accels, gyros)
• Need to know initial position and velocity
– Update position with position fix
• Position fixing
– Determination of position without reference to former position
– Establish lines of position which are determined by measuring
angles to celestial bodies, or known landmarks, or by using radio
navigation aids.
– Intersection of lines of position give a position fix
Principles of Position Determination
(Position Fixing)
• Theta-Theta Fixing
– One angle measurement to a known landmark establishes a
“line-of-position” (LOP)
– Two angles (theta-theta) required to determine 2D position (2
eqs, 2 unknowns)
– Good/bad geometries
• Rho-Rho Fixing
– LOP of a range measurement to a known landmark is a circle
– Two range measurements (rho-rho) required to determine 2D
position (2 eqs, 2 unknowns)
– Good/bad geometries
– For 3D positions, the “Surface-of-position” (SOP) of a range
measurement to a known landmark is a sphere
• Rho-Theta Fixing
– 2D position determined by intersection of a circle and a line
– Good/bad geometries
Principles of Position Determination
(Position Fixing)
• Pseudorange Fixing
– Encountered in radio navigation techniques (including GPS)
– Range measurements have a common error or bias due to
receiver clock error (i.e. receiver clock is not synchronized with
transmitter clock)
– Requires one additional measurement compared to rho-rho
fixing to determine clock error.
– M1= r1 + ∆r (∆r = c * ∆t, clock error)
– Three pseudorange measurements are required to determine 2D
position and range/clock bias (3 eqs, 3 unknowns). Four
measurements required to determine 3D position
– The “hyperbolic” approach provides a computational
alternative
– Eliminates range bias directly by differencing the range
measurements
– M1-M2 = r1 – r2
– Results in a system of 2 eqs and 2 unknowns (for the 2D
problem).
– LOP associated with each measurement is a hyperbola.
 Terrestrial Navigation Instruments
• Odometers
• Laser ranging
– Time of arrival/pulses
– Continuous waves
• RF techniques, radar (radio detection and ranging)
– Time of arrival/pulses
– Continuous waves
– One-way, two-way ranging
– Interferometry can provide directional information
• Sonar (sound navigation and ranging)
– Time-of-arrival/pulses
Terrestrial Navigation Instruments
• Barometer
– p = p0*exp(-g h ρ0/p0)
– Measures altitude
• Radar altimeter
– Measures altitude
• Doppler sensors
∆f = fr – fe=-fe*(vr/c)
• Accelerometers and gyroscopes
– Gyros measure angular rotation rate
– Accels measures non-gravitational acceleration
• Compass
– Measures direction of magnetic north
 Terrestrial Radio Navigation
• POINT SOURCE SYSTEMS
– Distance measuring equipment (DME)
• A known ground beacon (or transponder) receives pulses and retransmits
• Elapsed time between transmission and reception determines range
• Ground station often co-located with VOR (allows theta-rho procedure)
– Non-directional beacons (NDB) and direction finders
• Direction finder/antenna determine direction to ground station
• 190-535 KHz band
– VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR)
• VOR’s are radio beacons that transmit a signal with bearing information
• Electronically rotates a directional antenna pattern at 30 rps
• Also generates an omni-directional 30 Hz reference signal
• The measured phase difference determines bearing to beacon
– Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN)
• Developed by US military and naval forces
• Provides continuous indication of bearing and range to a station
• VORTAC – Combination of VOR and TACAN (military and civilian)
 Terrestrial Radio Navigation
• AREA-BASED SYSTEMS
– Basic Principles
• Rely on more than one transmitter (typically 3 or more)
• Synchronized master and secondary transmitting stations
• Apply hyperbolic or pseudorange positioning procedures (similar
to GPS)

– Phased-out systems
• Omega – hyperbolic navigation system based on phase
difference techniques
• Decca – British version used mainly for coastal navigation
 Terrestrial Radio Navigation
• AREA-BASED SYSTEMS (continued …)
– Loran-C (Long-range navigation)
• Hyperbolic navigation system based on time difference measurements
and phase difference measurements
• LF 90-110 kHz band, carrier of 100 kHz, λ=3 km
• Synchronized master and secondary stations broadcasts pulses
• Measures the time-difference between the time-of-arrival of a signal
from a master station and a secondary station
• Each time-difference yields a hyperbolic line-of-position
• Observation math model: TOA1 = tT1 + ρ1/c + δclock + ASF1
• Wave propagation delay
– Some delays can be predicted accurately
» Delays due to atmospheric refractivity, ground conductivity, and
water specific delays
– Others cannot be predicted accurately
» ASF- Additional secondary phase factors
• Overall accuracy is typically 18-90 m
– Differential Loran-C (similiar differential GPS)
• A reference station at a known position is established
• Broadcasts correction data to reduce ASF effects
 Terrestrial Radio Navigation
• AREA-BASED SYSTEMS (continued…)
– Datatrak
• Local navigation for land applications, development started in the 1980’s
• Includes navigation and communication infrastructure
• Position determination based on pseudorange or hyperbolic positioning
and requires simultaneous reception of the signals of at least three
transmitters.
• Broadcasts on 4 frequencies in the LF 130-170 kHz band (see below)
• Phase differences provide super-coarse, normal-coarse, fine position
determination
– f1+ -f 1- = 80 Hz , λ = 3750 km
– f2 - f1 =13 kHz, λ = 23 km
– f1 approx. 150 kHz, λ = 2 km
• Overall position accuracy is 50 m.

80 Hz 80 Hz

f1- f1+ f2- f2+

frequency
∆f=13 kHz
 Terrestrial Radio Navigation
• AREA-BASED SYSTEMS (continued…)
– Digital Television (DTV) Networks
• Position determination technology currently under development
– Cellular Communication Networks
• Operate at 900 MHz – 2 GHz
• Proximity positioning (cell area)
• Signal strength techniques (employs mathematical models)
• Angle-of-arrival techniques (single or multiple stations, theta-theta
positioning)
• Time-based methods (single/multiple stations, pseudorange or hyperbolic
positioning)
Space Navigation
Part I: Introduction
–Terrestrial Navigation
–Important Mathematical Concepts
–Coordinate Systems and Time Systems
Space Navigation
Part I: Introduction
–Terrestrial Navigation
–Important Mathematical Concepts
–Coordinate Systems and Time Systems
 Coordinate Systems
• Earth-Centered-Inertial (ECI)
– Mean equator and equinox of epoch J2000
• Mean equator and equinox of date (non-inertial)
• Earth-Centered Earth-Fixed (ECEF)
– Rotates at earth-rate, w=360.9856123 deg/day
• Local (NED)
– Detailed calculations require treatment of Earth as an ellipsoid
• Local-vertical local-horizontal (LVLH)
– Used extensively in orbit GN&C analysis
• Body Frame
– Rigidly attached to spacecraft
– Rotated with angular velocity wb
 Earth-Centered Inertial/Fixed

ECF – based entirely on time

wb
iz,b
iy,b

ix,b
 North-East-Down (NED)
wb
iz,b
iy,b

ix,b
 Local Vertical/Local Horizontal

wb
iz,b
iy,b

ix,b
 Time Systems
• Sidereal Time
– Derived from the Earth’s rotation wrt the stars
– Not a uniform time scale (we is not a constant)

• Universal Time (UT)

– Derived from the Earth’s angular rotation wrt the sun
– Not a uniform time scale (we is not a constant)
– UT1 – includes correction for polar motion (but uniform only to within
few milliseconds)

• Barycentric Dynamic Time (TDB)

– Derived from planetary motion

• Terrestrial Dynamic Time (TDT)/Ephemeris Time (ET)

– Derived from planetary motion
 Time Systems
• International Atomic Time (TAI)
– 1s = 9,192,631,770 cycles of hyperfine ground state transitions of
cesium 133
– Starts on Jan 1, 1958, 0 hr, 0 min, 0 sec
• Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)
– Uses atomic second
– Integer leap seconds are added/deleted at distinct epoch to keep the
system close to UT1
– UTC = TAI + n (seconds)
• GPS Time
– GPS = TAI – 19 seconds
• Julian Date
– Number of mean solar days elapsed since epoch 4713 BC, Jan 1, at 12
noon.
– Standard epochs
• GPS standard epoch 2444244.5 Jan 6, 1980, 0 hr, 0 min, 0 sec
• J2000 2451545.0 Jan 1, 2000, 12hr,0 min, 0 sec
 Time Systems
1s

UTC

UT1 TAI

19 s
Time

GPS Time

TDB

International Atomic Time (TAI)