Chapter 3
Hidayat Jamal & Zulhilmi
ismail
Hydraulics & Hydrology
Department, FKA, UTM
1
Non-Uniform flow
■ Non-uniform flow, So = Sw = Si
– Uniform flow, So = Sw = Si
■ y1 = y2
■ Water depth must be specified at selected section
V12
1
2g V22
S
2 i
2g
Sw
H1 E y1
1
y2
z1 So
Section 1 Section 2
2
Energy in Open Channel
v2
Total Energy, H z y (m)
2g
z = potential energy or potential head
y = hydrostatic energy or hydrostatic head
v2
= kinetic energy or kinetic head
2g
= Coriolis coefficient (value between 1.0 to 1.36)
Normally use = 1.0
Energy at section 1 is thus
2
v1
H1 z1 y1
2g
Specific Energy
■ The sum of the depth of flow and the velocity head is the
specific energy:
v2 y - hydrostatic energy
E y v2
2g - kinetic energy
2g
■ As know, v = Q/A
Q2
E y
2gA2
Curve for
different, higher
Q.
y A
SPECIAL CASE: Rectangular channel,
B
(A = By) and Q = qB
B 2q 2
E y q is the discharge per unit width of channel
2 gB 2 y 2
E y
q2
2gy 2
Why Specific Energy
Equation is important???
In understanding Non-uniform flow phenomena
(1) A plot of flow depth (y) vs. specific Energy (E)
- Constant discharge (Q or q)
- Call Specific Energy Diagram
(2) A plot of flow depth (y) vs. discharge (Q or q)
- Constant specific energy
- Call Discharge Diagram
Relationship y-E
(constant Q or q)
yc = critical depth
Subcritical flow, ysub
y yc
Supercritical flow, ysuper
y yc
Specific Energy Diagram
ysub and ysuper are alternate depths (same specific energy)
8
Relationship y-q
(constant E )
For rectangular channel only
yc = critical depth
ysub & ysuper = alternate depth
Discharge Diagram
9
So Remember!!
State of Flow Characteristics
Critical Flow, yc Fr = 1 or y = yc
Subcritical (y1 or ysub) Fr < 1 or y1 > yc
Supercritical (y2 or ysuper) Fr > 1 or y2 < yc
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Critical Depth
Critical Flow
■ Characteristics
– Unstable surface
– Series of standing waves Difficult to measure depth
■ Occurrence
– Broad crested weir (and other weirs)
– Channel Constriction (rapid changes in cross-section)
– Over falls
– Changes in channel slope from mild to steep
■ Used for flow measurements
– Unique relationship between depth and discharge
________________________________________________
Critical Flow
Froude number, Fr = 1
Specific energy is minimum for a given discharge
4
Find critical depth, yc 3
dE Q2
0 E y
2
y
dy ; 2gA2 1
dE Q 2 dA 0
1 3 0 1 2 3 4
dy gA dy E
v 2 dA
1
gA dy
Critical Flow
The differential water area near the surface
(see Figure) dA T .dy
Arbitrary cross-section
T
dE v 2T dy
1
dy gA dA
y A
A
and D P
T
2 T = surface width
dE v
1
dy gD
Critical Flow
dE
At critical state of flow, 0
dy
v2
1
gD
v2 D
2g 2
v
Well known as 1 , means at critical flow Fr = 1
gD
Critical Flow
Q A
By substituting v and D
A T
Therefore, general equation for critical flow:
1 Q2 1 A
2
2g A 2T
Q 2Tc
3
1 (any cross-section channel)
gAc
Critical Flow:
Rectangular channel
From general equation,
Q 2Tc T Tc Tc
1 ;
gAc3
Ac Byc yc
Ac
Then,
2 Q B
Q B q
1 ;
B
gByc3
1/ 3
q 2
q
2
So, yc 3 or yc for rectangular
g g channel
Critical Flow Relationships:
Rectangular Channels
When E = Emin, critical depth, y = yc
q2
E y
2gy 2
differentiating dE q2
1 3
dy gy
dE
When E = Emin, 0, y yc
dy
q2
q 2 gyc3 or yc 3 Specific Energy Diagram
g
Critical Flow Relationships:
Rectangular Channels
Sub. Into the energy eqn. at the point of critical flow:
E Emin ; y yc ; q 2 gyc3
q2
Emin yc
2 gyc2
gyc3
Emin yc
2 gyc2
3
Emin 1.5 yc or Emin yc
Emin yc 0.5 yc 2
Critical Flow Relationships:
Rectangular Channels
Discharge diagram y vs. q for constant E
q2
E y
2gy 2
q 2 2 gy 2 ( E y )
q 2 gy 2 ( E y )
For constant E, q maximum at critical flow Discharge Diagram
i.e dq
0 at q = qmax
dy E 1.5 yc and qmax gyc3
Summary of Critical Flow in Open Channels
(1) General equation during critical condition
- ALL channel cross-section shapes;
Q 2Tc
3
1
gAc
- For rectangular channel;
q2 2 2
qmax
yc 3 ; yc Emin ; yc 3
g 3 g
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Summary
cont…
(2) Specific Energy during critical condition
(constant Q or q)
- ALL channel cross-section shapes;
vc2 Q2
Emin yc yc
2g 2 gAc2
- For RECTANGULAR channel;
q2
E Emin 1.5 yc where yc 3
g
22
Summary
cont…
(3) Flow rate per unit width, q (constant E) is
maximum during critical flow condition
- For RECTANGULAR channel only;
2
where yc E
3
and qmax gyc3
23
Summary
cont…
(4) Froude Number is 1 during critical flow
2
v D
2g 2
v
Fr
gD
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Critical Section in Open
Channels
Critical section – channel cross-section have
critical condition
If this condition exists throughout the channel
– flow in channel is called critical flow.
A channel critical flow has a bed slope (So)
called critical bed slope (Sc)
i.e So = Sc
Cont…
If So<Sc subcritical flow, y>yc, v<vc
If So=Sc subcritical flow, y=yc, v=vc
If So>Sc subcritical flow, y<yc, v>vc
Flow Control
Defined as a channel cross-section where the
flow depth can be determined conclusively
At control section, the stage-discharge
relationship is established and easily determined
At critical section for example, by using critical
flow relationships, q can be calculated easily from
the depth
Examples of Control
Sections
Analysis of Flow across a
Weir in a Rectangular Channel
What is a Weir?
Structure placed across the channel to obstruct the
uniform flow and still allows water to flow over it
Propose mainly to control flow in the open channel
By ensuring a control section is formed over the weir for
all ranges of discharges in the channel.
Effectiveness of weir depends on the channel discharge
(Q or q) range and it height.
Analysis of Flow across a
Weir in a Rectangular Channel
This section will look into the analysis of weir in
RECTANGULAR channel
The weir will raise the bed level by its height (∆Z or h)
Specific energy defined as the energy measured from the
channel bed
Over the weir structure, the specific energy (E) is
reduced by the amount ∆Z (h) without any change to the
flow rate (q constant)
Analysis of Flow across a
Weir in a Rectangular Channel
Effect of a weir on the water level as explained using the
specific energy diagram
Analysis of Flow across a
Weir in a Rectangular Channel
For analysis purpose, consider:
- Rectangular channel of constant width (B m)
- Carrying a constant discharge (Q m3/s) giving q = Q/B
- Flowing at a normal depth (yo m)
- Weir height (∆Z or h m) is placed across the channel
- Four representative channel cross-sections are defined
as marked as:
0 --- very far upstream of the weir
1 --- just behind (upstream) of the weir
2 --- above the weir
3 --- just after (downstream) of the weir
WITHOUT WEIR
Uniform flow condition- WITHOUT WEIR and channel is
prismatic
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WEIR – CASE 1
34
WEIR – CASE 2
35
WEIR – CASE 3
36
Summary of Energy and Flow Depth – Weir Case
Approaching flow is subcritical and uniform
Given Q, B and normal flow depth, yo
(1) Energy of approaching flow
Q2 v2
Eo y o 2
yo
2 gA 2g
or q2 (rectangular channel ONLY)
Eo y o
2gy 2
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Summary
cont…
(2) Critical weir height, ∆Zc
Q 2Tc
1
- (a) Critical flow depth: yc gAc 3 using Chart or graphical
q2
or yc 3 ; for rectangular channel
g
- (b) Minimum specific energy: Emin vc2 any cross-section
yc
2g
or Emin 1.5 yc for rectangular channel
- (c) Critical weir height: Z c Eo Emin
38
Summary cont
(3) Compared actual weir height, ∆Z to critical weir height, ∆Zc
(hmin)
y1 y3 yo
Z Z c E1 E3 Eo
- (a) CASE 1: (Weir is drowned)
[calculate y2 from E2=Eo- ∆Z (y2 is still subcritical)] E2 Eo Z
y1 yo
Z Z c
- (b) CASE 2: (Weir is controlling) E1 E3 Eo
[calculate y3 from E3=Eo (y3 is still supercritical & alternate E2 Eo Z Emin
depth of y1)]
Z Z c (Weir is controlling y 2 yc
- (c) CASE 3:
E1 E3 Emin Z
but backwater effect is formed)
E2 Emin
[calculate y1 & y3 from E1=E3=Emin+ ∆Z (y1 & y3 is alternate depth] y 2 yc
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Analysis of Flow across a
Channel Constriction in a
Rectangular Channel
What is a Channel Constriction?
Structure reduced width placed across the channel to
control the flow and still allows water to flow over it but at
an increased velocity and q.
Effectiveness of CC depends on the channel discharge
(Q or q) range and the width of the channel constriction
(Bf).
Normally does not raise the bed level.
The discharge diagram (y vs. q with E constant) is relevant
Summary of Energy and Flow Depth – Channel Constriction
Approaching flow is subcritical and uniform
Given Q, B and normal flow depth, yo
Width at channel constriction = Bf where Bf < B
Critical depth at channel = yc
Critical depth at channel constriction = ycf
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Analysis of Flow across a Channel
Constriction in Rectangular Channel
For analysis purpose, consider:
- Rectangular channel of constant width (B m)
- Carrying a constant discharge (Q m3/s) giving q = Q/B
m3/s.m
- Flowing at a normal depth (yo m) & subcritical
- Channel constriction width (Bf m) is placed
- Bf < B and therefore qf > q
- Four representative channel cross-sections is defined as
marked as:
0 --- very far upstream of the channel constriction
1 --- just behind (upstream) of the channel constriction
2 --- above the channel constriction
3 --- just after (downstream) of the channel constriction
Analysis of Flow across a
Channel Constriction in a
Rectangular Channel
Effect of a channel constriction on the water level as
explained using the discharge diagram
WITHOUT CHANNEL
CONSTRICTION
Uniform flow condition- WITHOUT CHANNEL
CONSTRICTION and channel is prismatic
44
CHANNEL CONSTRICTION –
CASE 1
45
CHANNEL CONSTRICTION –
CASE 2
46
CHANNEL CONSTRICTION –
CASE 3
47
Summary
cont…
(1) Energy of approaching flow
Q2 v2
Eo yo 2
yo
2 gA 2g
q2
or Eo yo (rectangular channel ONLY)
2gy 2
48
Summary
cont…
(2) Critical channel width, Bc
- (a) Minimum specific energy = Emin = Eo
2
Emin 1.5 ycf hence ycf E min
3
- (b) Maximum flow rate at this energy, qmax gycf3
Q
- (c) Critical channel width, Bc
qmax
49
Summary
cont…
(3) Compared Bf to critical channel width, Bc
- (a) CASE 1: B f Bc (CC is not controlling) y1 y3 yo
[calculate yf from Ef=Eo and q=qf (yf is still subcritical)] E1 E f E3 Eo
y1 yo
- (b) CASE 2: B f Bc (CC is controlling) E1 E f E3 Eo
[calculate y3 from E3=Eo and discharge=q (y3 is still
E f Emin
supercritical & alternate depth of y1)]
y2 ycf
- (c) CASE 3: B f Bc (CC is controlling but E f Emin
backwater effect is formed) calculate E’
[calculate y1 & y3 from E1=E3=E’ and q (y1 & y3 is alternate depth] Emin 1.5 ycf
E Emin
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Homework
A rectangular channel of width 3.5m wide and conveys water with
discharge of 17.5m3/s at a depth of 2.0m. A hydraulic structure is
constructed at the downstream of the channel and the channel width is
reduced to 2.5m. Assume the constriction to be horizontal and the flow to
be frictionless. Determine;
(i)state of flow,
(ii) water depths just before, just after and at the constriction,
(iii) sketch the flow profile along the channel. Show the important values
in your sketch.
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