Humanities Translation From English Into Arabic-1
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TRANSLATION :
FROM ENGLISH INTO ARABIC
ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻌـــﻠﻮﻡ ﺍﻹﻧﺴــﺎﻧﻴﺔ:
ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻹﻧﺟﻠﻳﺯﻳﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺑﻳﺔ
Dr. Muhammad Ali Alkhuli
Publisher : DAR ALFALAH ﺍﻟﻧﺎﺷﺭ :ﺩﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻔﻼﺡ ﻟﻠﻧﺷﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻭﺯﻳﻊ
P. o. Box 818 ﺹ .ﺏ 818
Swaileh 11910 ﺻﻭﻳﻠﺢ 11910
Jordan ﺍﻷﺭﺩﻥ
Tel & fax 009626-5411547 ﻫﺎﺗﻑ ﻭﻓﺎﻛﺱ 009626-5411547
E-mail: books @[Link]
Website: [Link]
ﺑﻣﻭﺟﺏ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻭﻥ ُ ،ﻳﻣﻧﻊ ﺗﺻﻭﻳﺭ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ ﺃﻭ ﺃﻱ ﺟﺯء ﻣﻧﻪ.
ﺟﻣﻳﻊ ﺍﻟﺣﻘﻭﻕ ﻣﺣﻔﻭﻅﺔ ﻟﻠﻧﺎﺷﺭ
I
Copyright: by the publisher
All rights are reserved.
No part of this book may be translated, reproduced , stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording ,
without the prior written permission of the publisher .
2008 Edition
Publisher : DAR ALFALAH ﺩﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻔﻼﺡ ﻟﻠﻨﺸﺮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻮﺯﻳﻊ: ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺷﺮ
P.O. BOX 818 818 ﺏ.ﺹ
Swaileh 11910 11910 ﺻﻮﻳﻠﺢ
Jordan ﺍﻷﺭﺩﻥ
Tel & Fax 009626-5411547 009626-5411547 ﻫﺎﺗﻒ ﻭ ﻓﺎﻛﺲ
E-mail: books@[Link]
Website: [Link]
ﺭﻗﻢ ﺍﻹﻳﺪﺍﻉ ﻟﺪﻯ ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﻁﻨﻴﺔ
2001/7/1373
418, 022
ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻲ، ﺍﻟﺨﻮﻟﻲ
ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻲ/ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ: ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻧﻴﺔ
2001 ، ﺩﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻔﻼﺡ: َﻋ ﱠﻤﺎﻥ. ﺍﻟﺨﻮﻟﻲ
( ﺹ202 )
2001/ 7 /1373 : ! .ﺭ
. ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻹﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ/ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻧﻴﺔ/ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ: ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺻﻔﺎﺕ
ﺍﻷﺭﺩﻥ، • ﺗﻢ ﺇﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﺑﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻔﻬﺮﺳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺼﻨﻴﻒ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﻁﻨﻴﺔ
2001 / 7 / 1365 ﺭﻗﻢ ﺍﻹﺟﺎﺯﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺴﻠﺴﻞ ﻟﺪﻯ ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻄﺒﻮﻋﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﺸﺮ
ISBN 9957- 401- 39 – 4 ( ) ﺭﺩﻣﻚ
II
Contents
PREFACE ............................................................................................... 1
ﻣـﻘــﺩﻣــﺔ.................................................................................................. 1
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF ........................................................................ 4
TRANSLATION ....................................................................................... 4
ﻣﺑﺎﺩﺉ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺗﺭﺟﻣﺔ................................................................................. 4
UNIT 1 .............................................................................................. 12
LEARNING AND ACQUIRING ............................................................... 12
Helpful Vocabulary : ..........................................................................14
UNIT 2 ............................................................................................. 16
ENGLAND AND SHAKESPEAR ................................................................ 16
Helpful Vocabulary : ..........................................................................18
UNIT 3 ................................................................................................ 20
WHAT IS LITERATURE, And WHY DO WE STUDY IT? ...................... 20
Helpful Vocabulary : ..........................................................................22
UNIT 4 ............................................................................................... 24
III
ARABIA AND HER................................................................................. 24
NEIGHBOURS ...................................................................................... 24
Helpful Vocabulary : ..........................................................................26
UNIT 5 ............................................................................................... 28
SOME INTELLECTUAL FOUATIONS OF POLITICAL SOCIOLOGY ........... 28
Helpful Vocabulary : ..........................................................................30
UNIT 6 ............................................................................................... 32
GAMES AND LANGUAGE TEACHING ...................................................... 32
Helpful Vocabulary : ..........................................................................34
UNIT 7 ............................................................................................... 36
CHANGES IN GEOGRAPHY TEACHING .................................................. 36
Helpful Vocabulary : ..........................................................................38
UNIT 8 ............................................................................................... 40
THE USE OF THIS ............................................................................... 40
COMPASS ........................................................................................... 40
Helpful Vocabulary : ..........................................................................42
UNIT 9 ............................................................................................... 44
The PERIOD OF THE WEARRING STATES ............................................ 44
Helpful Vocabulary : ..........................................................................46
UNIT 10 ............................................................................................. 48
THE HUMANITY ................................................................................... 48
IV
OF ASIA .............................................................................................. 48
Helpful Vocabulary : ..........................................................................50
UNIT 11 ............................................................................................. 52
LITERATURE AS A SPECIALIST SUBJECT ...................................... 52
Helpful Vocabulary : ..........................................................................54
UNIT 12 ............................................................................................. 56
THE PURPOSES AND ........................................................................... 56
FUNCTION OF..................................................................................... 56
THE STATE ......................................................................................... 56
Helpful Vocabulary : ..........................................................................58
UNIT 13 ............................................................................................. 60
CHANING STUDENT NEEDS AND A TEACHER'S ROLE60
Bonding as a key to ...........................................................................61
Healthy Adolescent Development ......................................................61
Helpful Vocabulary : ..........................................................................62
UNIT 14 ............................................................................................. 65
TEACHING METHOD COMPARED .......................................................... 65
WITH OTHER EDUCATIONAL ............................................................... 65
CONCEPTS .......................................................................................... 65
Goals and methods ...........................................................................66
Helpful Vocabulary : ..........................................................................67
UNIT 15 ............................................................................................. 70
V
SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT ........................................... 70
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................70
Helpful Vocabulary : ..........................................................................72
UNIT 16 ............................................................................................. 74
LAW AND POLITICS ............................................................................ 74
UNIT 17 ............................................................................................. 78
THE CENTRAL STATUS .......................................................................... 78
OF LEARNING IN ................................................................................ 78
PSYCHOLOGY ...................................................................................... 78
Helpful Vocabulary : ..........................................................................80
UNIT 18 .............................................................................................. 82
THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY ............................ 82
Helpful Vocabulary : ..........................................................................84
UNIT 19 .............................................................................................. 86
GEOGRAPHY IN .................................................................................. 86
AFTER-SCHOOL ................................................................................... 86
LIFE .................................................................................................... 86
Helpful Vocabulary : ..........................................................................88
UNIT 20 .............................................................................................. 90
THE NEED FOR .................................................................................... 90
MODELS ............................................................................................. 90
VI
Helpful Vocabulary : ..........................................................................92
Helpful Vocabulary : ..........................................................................92
UNIT 21 .............................................................................................. 94
THE POLITICIAN'S ................................................................................ 94
PROBLEM ........................................................................................... 94
Helpful Vocabulary : ..........................................................................96
UNIT 22 .............................................................................................. 98
THE FOUNDATIONS OF MODERN POLITICS ............................... 98
Helpful Vocabulary : ........................................................................ 100
UNIT 23 ............................................................................................ 103
THINKING ABOUT ............................................................................. 103
POLITICS ........................................................................................... 103
Helpful Vocabulary : ........................................................................ 105
UNIT 24 ............................................................................................ 107
THE ART OF LITERATURE .................................................................. 107
Helpful Vocabulary : ........................................................................ 109
UNIT 25 ............................................................................................ 111
LIFE AND WRITINGS OF.................................................................... 111
ARISTOTLE ........................................................................................ 111
Helpful Vocabulary : ........................................................................ 113
UNIT 26 ............................................................................................ 116
VII
ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY ...................................................................... 116
Helpful Vocabulary : ........................................................................ 118
UNIT 27 ............................................................................................ 121
INDUSTRIAL SOCOETY AND INDEUSTRIAL.......................... 121
SOCIOLOGY ....................................................................................... 121
Helpful Vocabulary : ........................................................................ 123
UNIT 28 ............................................................................................ 126
RESEARCH IN THE ............................................................................ 126
SOCIOLOGY OF ................................................................................. 126
EDUCATION ...................................................................................... 126
The establishment of sociological research ....................................... 127
Helpful Vocabulary : ........................................................................ 128
UNIT 29 ............................................................................................ 131
THE NATURE OF SOCIETY......................................... 131
Helpful Vocabulary : ........................................................................ 133
UNIT 30 ............................................................................................ 135
MOROCCO ........................................................................................ 135
Helpful Vocabulary : ........................................................................ 137
UNIT 31 ............................................................................................ 139
WHY WRITE ? .................................................................................... 139
Helpful Vocabulary : ........................................................................ 141
VIII
UNIT 32 ............................................................................................ 143
LITERATURE ...................................................................................... 143
Helpful Vocabulary : ........................................................................ 145
UNIT 33 ............................................................................................ 148
NINETEENTH-CENTURY ...................................................................... 148
ART IN THE UNERED .......................................................................... 148
STATES ............................................................................................. 148
Helpful Vocabulary : ........................................................................ 150
UNIT 34 ............................................................................................ 152
THE LARYNX AND ............................................................................. 152
VOICING ........................................................................................... 152
Helpful Vocabulary : ........................................................................ 154
UNIT 35 ............................................................................................ 156
PRONUNCIATION AND ....................................................................... 156
SPELING............................................................................................ 156
Helpful Vocabulary : ........................................................................ 158
UNIT 36 ............................................................................................ 161
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ....................................................................... 161
AESTHETICS ...................................................................................... 161
Helpful Vocabulary : ........................................................................ 163
UNIT 37 ............................................................................................ 165
IX
YOUR KEY TO A............................................................................. 165
BERRER LIFE ..................................................................................... 165
Helpful Vocabulary : ........................................................................ 167
UNIT 38 ............................................................................................ 170
THE SCIENTIFIC ................................................................................. 170
METHOD .......................................................................................... 170
The scientific method ...................................................................... 170
Helpful Vocabulary : ........................................................................ 172
UNIT 39 ............................................................................................ 174
KNOWLEDGE AND ............................................................................. 174
MASTERY OF ..................................................................................... 174
LANGUAGE ....................................................................................... 174
Helpful Vocabulary : ........................................................................ 176
UNIT 40 ............................................................................................ 179
WHAT IS GOOD TEACHING ? ........................................................... 179
Helpful Vocabulary : ........................................................................ 181
UNIT 41 ............................................................................................ 184
THE AIMS OF EDUCATION ................................................................. 184
Helpful Vocabulary : ........................................................................ 186
UNIT 42 ........................................................................................... 189
TRAINING ......................................................................................... 189
X
Helpful Vocabulary : ........................................................................ 191
UNIT 43 ........................................................................................... 194
THE ART OF TEACHING .................................................................... 194
Helpful Vocabulary : ........................................................................ 196
UNIT 44 ........................................................................................... 199
ERRORS AS POSITIVE ........................................................................ 199
AID TO LEARNING ............................................................................ 199
Helpful Vocabulary : ........................................................................ 201
UNIT 45 ........................................................................................... 203
SOCIAL MOVEMENTS ........................................................................ 203
Text Sources .................................................................................... 208
ﻛﺗﺏ ﻟﻠﻣﺅﻟﻑ.......................................................................................... 212
XI
ﺑﺴﻢ اﷲ اﻟﺮﺣﻤﻦ اﻟﺮﺣﻴﻢ
PREFACE
ﻣـﻘــﺪﻣــﺔ
ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺎﺏ ﺗﺪﺭﻳﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﻧﺼﻮﺹ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻠـــــﻮﻡ
ﺍﻹﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ .ﻭﻟﺬﻟﻚ ،ﺟﺎءﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﻄﻊ ﻓﻴﻪ ﻣﺘﻨﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻋﺎﺗــﻬﺎ :ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺭﻳﺦ ،ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ
ﺍﻷﺩﺏ ،ﺍﻟﻠﻐﻮﻳﺎﺕ ،ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﺲ ،ﺍﻟﺠﻐﺮﺍﻓﻴﺎ ،ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﺔ ،ﻋﻠــــﻢ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﺔ ،ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺴﻔﺔ ،ﻭﻋﻠﻢ
ﺍﻹﺟﺘﻤﺎﻉ .ﻭﻗﺪ ﺗﻮﺯﻋﺖ ﺍﻟﻘﻄﻊ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺿﻮﻋــــﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺴﻌﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﺎ ،ﺃﻱ ﺑﻤﻌﺪﻝ
ﺧﻤﺲ ﻗﻄﻊ ﻟﻜﻞ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻉ .
ﻭﻳﺸﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺎﺏ ﻓﻲ ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺘﺔ ﺟﺰءﺍً ﺗﻤﻬﻴﺪﻳﺎ ً ﻳﺘﻨﺎﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺒـــﺎﺩﺉ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ .
ﻭﻳﺤﺴﻦ ﺑﺎﻷﺳﺘﺎﺫ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻤﺒـــﺎﺩﺉ ﻟﻄﻼﺑـــﻪ ﻗﺒــﻞ ﺍﻟﺒــﺪء ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ .ﻭﺑﺎﻟﻄﺒﻊ ،ﻫﻨﺎﻙ
ﻟﻄﻼﺑﻪ ﻛﻠﻤﺎ ﺭﺃﻯ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺒﺎ ً . ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺉ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﻋﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﻸﺳﺘﺎﺫ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻮﺿــــﺤﻬﺎ
ﻭﻟﻘﺪ ﺟﻌﻠﺖُ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻮﺣﺪﺍﺕ ﺧﻤﺴــــﺎ ً ﻭﺃﺭﺑﻌﻴـــــﻦ ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﻟﺘﺴـــــﺎﻭﻱ ﻋــــــﺪﺩ
ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﺿﺮﺍﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﻲ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺣﺪ ،ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺳــــﺎﺱ ﺛـــــﻼﺙ ﻣﺤـــــﺎﺿﺮﺍﺕ
ﺃﺳﺒﻮﻋﻴـــــﺎ ً ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺪﻯ ﺧﻤﺴــــﺔ ﻋﺸــــﺮ ﺃﺳﺒﻮﻋﺎ ً ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻔﺼــﻞ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳــــﻲ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺣﺪ .ﻫﺬﺍ ﺇﺫﺍ
ﺍﻓﺘﺮﺿﻨﺎ ﺗﺪﺭﻳﺲ 45ﻣﺤﺎﺿﺮﺓ .ﻭﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﺿﺮﺍﺕ ﺃﻗﻞ ،ﻓﺈﻥ ﻫﺬﺍ ﻳﻤ ﱢﻜﻦ ﺍﻷﺳﺘﺎﺫ
ﻣﻦ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺸﺎء ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻄﻊ ﻭﺍﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎء ﻣﺎ ﻳﺸﺎء .
1
ﻭﻣﻦ ﺃﻓﻀﻞ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻕ ﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤـﺔ – ﻓﻲ ﺭﺃﻳــــﻲ – ﻫـــﻲ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻘـــﻮﻡ
ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﻮﺑﺔ ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﺍﻟﺼﻒ ،ﺛﻢ ﻳﻘﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﺑﺘﺪﻗﻴﻖ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤـــﺔ ﺑﺈﺷﺮﺍﻑ
ﺍﻷﺳﺘﺎﺫ ﻓﻲ ﺃﺛﻨﺎء ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﺿﺮﺓ ،ﺛﻢ ﻳﻘﻮﻣﻮﻥ ﺑﻜﺘﺎﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤـــﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﺎﺋﻴــﺔ ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﺍﻟﺼﻒ .
ﺑﻌﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ،ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺛﻼﺙ ﻣﺮﺍﺣﻞ (1) :ﻛﺘﺎﺑـــﺔ ﺍﻟﻄــﻼﺏ ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺖ (2) ،
ﺗﺪﻗﻴﻖ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺑﺈﺷﺮﺍﻑ ﺍﻷﺳﺘﺎﺫ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺼﻒ (3) ،ﻛﺘﺎﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺖ
ﻻ ﺷﻚ ﺃﻥ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻁﺮﻗﺎ ً ﺃﺧـــﺮﻯ ﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ،ﻭﻟﻜﻨﻨﻲ ﺃﻋﺘﻘﺪ ﺃﻥ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻣﻦ .
ﺃﻓﻀﻞ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻕ .ﻭﻋﻠــﻰ ﺃﻱ ﺣﺎﻝ ،ﻳﺤﺴﻦ ﺑﺎﻷﺳﺘﺎﺫ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺠ ﱢﺮﺏ ﻋﺪﺓ ﻁﺮﻕ ﻭﻳﺨﺘﺎﺭ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﻣﺎ
ﻳﺮﻭﻕ ﻟﻪ .
ﻛـﻞ ﻭﺣــﺪﺓ ﻓـﻲ ﺍﻟﻜـﺘـﺎﺏ ﺗﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﻋـﻠﻰ ﻧـﺺ ﻣـﻦ ﺻـﻔﺤـﺘـﻴـﻦ ،ﻭﻫـﻲ ﻛـﻤـﻴـﺔ
ﻛـﺎﻓﻴـﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﻟﺐ ﻟﻤﻞء ﺳﺎﻋـﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺰﻣـﻦ ﻫﻲ ﻭﻗﺖ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﺿﺮﺓ .ﻭﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻴﻘﺔ ،ﻗﺪ ﻻ
ﻳﺘـﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻷﺳﺘﺎﺫ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺮﺟﻤـﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﺤﺘـﻴـﻦ ﺗـﺤﺖ ﺿﻐﻂ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺖ .ﺇﻥ ﺍﻷﻣـﺮ ﻳـﺘـﻮﻗـﻒ
ﻋـﻠﻰ ﺻـﻌـﻮﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﻨـﺺ ﻭﻋـﻠﻰ ﻣﺴــﺘـﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﻄــﻼﺏ ﻭﻋﻠـﻰ ﻣـــﺪﻯ ﺗﺤﻀـــﻴﺮﻫﻢ ﻭﻋﻠـــﻰ
ﻳـﻜﺘـﻔﻲ ﻁﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺗﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ .ﻻ ﺷﻲء ﻳﻠﺰﻡ ﺍﻷﺳﺘﺎﺫ ﺑﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﺤﺘﻴـــﻦ ،ﺇﺫ ﻗـــﺪ
ﺑﺒﻌـﺾ ﺍﻟﻔﻘـﺮﺍﺕ ﺃﻭ ﺇﺣـﺪﻯ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﺤﺘـﻴـﻦ .ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻣﺠـﺎﻝ ﻣﻔﺘـﻮﺡ ﻟﻠﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺩﺍﺋﻤـﺎ ً ﺃﻥ
ﻳﺘـﺮﺟـﻢ ﺃﻛﺜـﺮ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺴﺘﻄﻴـﻊ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨـﺺ ﻷﻥ ﻟﺪﻳـﻪ ﻣﺠـﺎﻻً ﺃﻭﺳــﻊ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﻗــــﺖ ﺧــﺎﺭﺝ ﺍﻟـﺼﻒ
ﻣﻤـﺎ ﻫـﻮ ﺍﻟﺤـﺎﻝ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺼـــﻒ ﺗﺤـــﺖ ﺿﻐـــﻂ ﺍﻟﻮﻗـــﺖ ﺍﻟﻤﺤـــﺪﻭﺩ ﻟﻠﻤﺤـﺎﺿـﺮﺓ .
ﺑﺎﻹﺿـﺎﻓــﺔ ﺇﻟــﻰ ﺍﻟﻨـــﺺ ،ﺗـﺤﺘـﻮﻱ ﻛـــﻞ ﻭﺣــــﺪﺓ ﻋـــﻠـﻰ ﻛـﻠـﻤـﺎﺕ ﻣﺴـﺎﻋـﺪﺓ
. Helpf Vocabularyﻭﺗـﻈـﻬـﺮ ﺗـﺤـﺖ ﻫـﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻌـﻨــﻮﺍﻥ ﺃﻫــﻢ ﺍﻟﻌـﺒـﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟـﻮﺍﺭﺩﺓ
ﻓـﻲ ﺍﻟﻨـﺺ ،ﻭﺗـﻈـﻬﺮ ﺃﻣﺎﻡ ﻛـﻞ ﻋـﺒـﺎﺭﺓ ﺗـﺮﺟـﻤـﺘـﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟـــــﻬﺪﻑ ﺣﺴـــــﺒﻤﺎ
ﻳﺘـﻄﻠـــــﺐ ﺍﻟﺴﻴــﺎﻕ ،ﻭﻫـﻲ ﻋـﺒﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﺻـﻄﻼﺣﻴﺔ ﻓـﻲ ﺍﻟﻐـﺎﻟﺐ .ﻫـﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺼـﻔﺤﺔ ﻣـﻦ
ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻤـــــﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﻻ ﺗﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺮﺩﺍﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﺒﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘـــﻲ ﻳﺤﺘﺎﺟـــﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻄـــﺎﻟﺐ
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ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ،ﺑﻞ ﺗﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺑﺮﺯﻫﺎ ﻓﻘﻂ .ﻭﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺴﺘﻌﻴﻦ ﺑــــﺎﻟﻤﻌﺠﻢ ﻛﻠﻤﺎ ﺭﺃﻯ ﺫﻟﻚ
ﺿﺮﻭﺭﻳﺎ ً .
ﺇﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﺺ ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺪﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺎﻋﺪﺓ ،ﺗﺤـــﺘﻮﻱ ﻛـــﻞ
ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻤﺮﻳﻦ ﻟﻐﻮﻱ ﺫﻱ ﺻﻠﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺺ .ﻭﺃﺷﻴﻊ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺎﺭﻳﻦ ﻫﻨﺎ ﻫﻮ ﺗﻤﺮﻳﻦ
ﺍﻻﺷﺘﻘﺎﻕ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﻋﺪﺓ ﻛﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﻭﺭﺩﺕْ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﺺ .ﻭﻫﻲ ﻣﺼﻨﻔﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﻓﻌﺎﻝ
ﺃﻭ ﺃﺳﻤﺎء ﺃﻭ ﺻﻔﺎﺕ ،ﻭﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺸﺘﻖ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻋﻴﻦ ﺍﻵﺧﺮﻳﻦ .ﻣﺜـــﻼً ،ﺇﺫﺍ
ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻤﺔ ﻓﻌﻼً ،ﻓﻌﻠﻴﻪ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺸﺘﻖ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﻻﺳﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﺼﻔﺔ .ﻭﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺻﻔـــﺔ ،
ﻓﻌﻠﻴﻪ ،ﺃﻥ ﻳﺸﺘﻖ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﻞ ﻭﺍﻻﺳﻢ ،ﻭﻫﻜﺬﺍ .ﻭﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ً ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﺘـــﺐ ﺍﻟﻤﻘـــﺎﺑﻞ
ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ ﺃﻣﺎﻡ ﻛﻞ ﻛﻠﻤﺔ .ﻭﺍﻟﻐﺎﻳﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺮﻳﻦ ﺇﺛﺮﺍء ﺣﺼﻴﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ
ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺮﺩﺍﺗﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻫﻲ ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﺪﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﻴﺔ .
ﻭﺑﻤﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﺼﻮﺹ ﻣﻘﺘﺒﺴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺘﺐ ﺃﻭ ﻣﺠﻼﺕ ﻣﺘﻨﻮﻋﺔ ،ﻓﻠﻘﺪ ﻅـــﻬﺮﺕ
ﻓﻲ ﺁﺧﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺎﺏ ﻗﺎﺋﻤﺔ ﺗﺒﻴﻦ ﻣﺼﺎﺩﺭ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺒﺎﺳﺎﺕ .
ﻭﺧﺘﺎﻣﺎ ً ،ﺃﺭﺟﻮ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺎﺏ ﺫﺍ ﻓﺎﺋﺪﺓ ﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﻭﻟﻜﻞ َﻣﻦْ
ﻟﻪ ﺍﻫﺘﻤﺎﻡ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ .
ﻟﺤﻤﺪ ہﻠﻟ ﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻴﻦ
ﺃ.ﺩ .ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻲ ﺍﻟﺨﻮﻟﻲ
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GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF
TRANSLATION
ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺉ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ
ﻓﻲ ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺔ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺎﺏ ،ﻳﺤﺴﻦ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺑﺄﻫﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﺩﺉ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﺠــﺐ
ﺃﻥ ﺗﺮﺍﻋﻰ ﻓﻲ ﺃﺛﻨﺎء ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ .ﻭﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﺩﺉ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻠﻲ:
.1ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻠﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺪﺭ Source Languageﻏﺎﻣﻀــﺔ
ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ ) ﺃﻱ ﻣﺘﻌﺪﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﻧﻲ ﻟﺴﺒﺐ ﻧﺤﻮﻱ ﺃﻭ ﺳﺒﺐ ﻣﻔﺮﺩﺍﺗﻲ( ،ﻓﻌﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ
ﺃﻥ ﻳﺤﺎﻭﻝ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﻏﻤﻮﺿﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﺪﻑ target languageﻛﻠﻤﺎ ﺃﻣﻜﻨﻪ ﺫﻟﻚ .
.2ﻳﺴﺘﺤﺴﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻨﻘﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻗﺼﺪﻩ ﺍﻟﻜــﺎﺗﺐ ﻓــﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐــﺔ
ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺪﺭ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﻣﺪﺭﻛﺎ ً ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﻴﺮ .ﻫﻞ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜـــﺎﺗﺐ ﺳــﺎﺧﻄﺎ ً ﺃﻡ
ﺳﺎﺧﺮﺍً ﺃﻡ ﻫﺎﺯﺋﺎ ً ﺃﻡ ﻏﺎﺿﺒﺎ ً ﺃﻡ ﻣﻨﻔﻌﻼً ...ﺍﻟﺦ ؟ ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﻻ ﻳﺘﺄﺗﻰ ﺇﻻ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻤﺎﺭﺳــﺔ
ﻭﺍﻟﺨﺒﺮﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﻳﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻐﺘﻴﻦ )ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺪﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﺪﻑ( .
.3ﻻ ﺑﺪ ﻟﻠﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻔﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﺺ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎ ً ﻛﺸﺮﻁ ﻣﺴــﺒﻖ ﻟﻠﺒــﺪء ﻓﻲ
ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ،ﺇﺫ ﻻ ﻓﺎﺋﺪﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﻣﺒﻨﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﻮء ﻓﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﺺ .
.4ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﻘﻴﺪ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟــﻬـﺪﻑ .
ﻭﺗﺰﺩﺍﺩ ﺃﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺪﺃ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺨﺼﺼﻴــﺔ ،ﺃﻱ ﺗﺮﺟﻤــﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺼــﻮﺹ
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ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺨﺼﺼﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺃﻭ ﺳﻮﺍﻫﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻓﺮﻭﻉ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ .ﻫﻨﺎ ﻻ ﻳﻔﻴــﺪ
ﺍﺧﺘﺮﺍﻉ ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎﺕ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺓ ،ﻻ ﺑﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﻟﺘﺰﺍﻡ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺤـــﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺸﺎﺋﻌـــﺔ
ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﺪﻑ ﻟﺘﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻫﻢ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﻮﻱ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺸﻮﺩ .
.5ﺍﻷﺻﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻴﺪ ﺑﻨﺺ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺪﺭ ،ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﻣـــﺎ ﻳﺪﻋـــﻰ
ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﻓﻴﺔ .ﻭﺇﺫﺍ ﺗﻌﺬﺭ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻟﺴﺒﺐ ﻣﺎ ،ﻓﻌﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﺤــــﻮﻝ ﺇﻟـــــﻰ
ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻨـــﻰ .
.6ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺍﻻﻟﺘﺰﺍﻡ ﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ ﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺢ ﻣﺎ .ﻓــﺈﺫﺍ ﺗﺮﺟــﻢ
ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺢ ﺱ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺹ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻤﻠﺔ ﻣﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻧﺺ ﻣﺎ ،ﻓﻌﻠﻴـــﻪ ﺃﻥ
ﻳﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺹ ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺱ ﻛﻠﻤﺎ ﻅﻬﺮﺕ ﺱ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺪﺭ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺟﻞ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ
ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺉ ﺍﻟﻮﺿﻮﺡ ﻭﺍﻟﺜﺒﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻻﺗﺴﺎﻕ . consistency
.7ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻤﻲ )ﻣﺜﻼً (3000ﻳﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺑﻌﺪﺩ ﺭﻗﻤﻲ ) . (3000ﻭﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ
ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺎﺑﻲ ﻳﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺑﻌﺪﺩ ﻛﺘﺎﺑﻲ ،ﻣﺜﻼً three hundredﺗﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺑـِـ ﺛﻼﺙ ﻣﺌﺔ .
.8ﻓﻲ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻻﺕ ،ﺃﻭ ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺢ ﻳﺒﻘﻰ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ .ﻣﺜﻼً phoneme ،
ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺒﻘﻰ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻲ )ﻓﻮﻧﻴﻢ( fax ،ﺗﺒﻘﻰ )ﻓﺎﻛﺲ( .
.9ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻤﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺭﺯﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺪﺭ ﻳﺤﺎﻓﻆ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﺮﻭﺯﻫﺎ ﻓﻲ
ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﺪﻑ ﺑﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ .ﻣﺜﻼً ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺋﻠﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﻮﺑﺔ ﺑﺤﺮﻑ ﺃﺳﻮﺩ ﻓﻲ
ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺪﺭ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺇﺑﺮﺍﺯﻫﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺫﺍﺗﻬﺎ ﺃﻭ ﺑﻮﺿﻊ ﺧﻂ ﺗﺤﺘﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ
ﺍﻟﻬﺪﻑ .ﻋﻨﻮﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﻮﺏ ﺑﺤﺮﻑ ﻣﺎﺋﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻹﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ ﻳﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺇﻟﻰ
ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﻭﻳﻮﺿﻊ ﺗﺤﺘﻪ ﺧﻂ ﺃﻭ ﻳﻄﺒﻊ ﺑﺤﺮﻑ ﻣﺎﺋﻞ .
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.10ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﺪء ﺑﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺃﻭﻝ ﺟﻤﻠﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﺺ ،ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﻓﻀــﻞ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻘــﺮﺃ
ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﺺ ﻛﻠﻪ ﻛﻲ ﻳﺄﺧﺬ ﻓﻜﺮﺓ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺿﻮﻉ ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﺴﻬﻞ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ
ﺃﺟﺰﺍﺋﻪ .
.11ﻛﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺺ ﻧﻮﻋﺎﻥ :ﻛﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﻣﺤﺘﻮﻯ content wordsﻭﻛﻠﻤﺎﺕ
ﻭﻅﻴﻔﻴﺔ .function wordsﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﻛﻠﻤــﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺤــﺘﻮﻯ ،
ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﻟﻴﺲ ﻣﻄﻠﻮﺑﺎ ً ﻣﻨﻪ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻮﻅﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮﺓ ﺩﺍﺋﻤــﺎ ً ﻷﻥ
ﺩﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻮﻅﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﻳﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻋﻦ ﺩﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺘﻮﻯ .ﻭﻣﻦ ﺃﻣﺜﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻤﺎﺕ
ﺍﻟﻮﻅﻴﻔﻴﺔ . to, a, an ,the,
.12ﺇﺫﺍ ﺃﺭﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺇﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻛﻠﻤﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻋﻨﺪﻩ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﺺ ﺍﻷﺻﻠﻲ ﻓﻌﻠﻴﻪ ﺃﻥ
ﻳﻀﻌﻬﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻗﻮﺳﻴﻦ ﻫﻜﺬﺍ ] [ .ﻣﺜﻼً ،ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺃﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﻋﺪﻳﺪﺓ ]ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳــﺎ[
ﺗﻌﻴﺶ ﻓﻲ ﺟﺴﻢ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ .ﺍﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻗﻮﺳﻴﻦ ﻳﻀﻴﻔﻬﻤﺎ ﺍﻟﻤـــﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﻣــﻦ
ﺃﺟﻞ ﻣﺰﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﺃﻭ ﻹﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻐﻤﻮﺽ ﺣﺴﺒﻤﺎ ﻳﺮﻯ ﺍﻟﻤــﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺍﻷﻣــﺮ
ﺿﺮﻭﺭﻳﺎ ً .
.13ﺇﺫﺍ ﺃﺭﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﺍﻟﻨﺺ ﺑﺈﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻁﻮﻳﻠﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴــﻖ ﻋﻠــﻰ
ﺍﻟﻨﺺ ،ﻓﻌﻠﻴﻪ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻀﻴﻒ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﺔ ﻫﺎﻣﺸﻴﺔ footnoteﻭﺃﻻّ ﻳﻀﻴـــﻒ ﺫﻟـــﻚ
ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﺺ ﺫﻟﻚ .ﺍﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﺺ ﺫﺍﺗﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻗﻮﺳﻴﻦ ] [ ﺗﻘﺘﺼﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ
ﺇﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻣﺤﺪﻭﺩﺓ ﺟﺪﺍً ﻻ ﺗﺰﻳﺪ ﻋﻦ ﻛﻠﻤﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﺛﻨﺘﻴﻦ .
.14ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﺪﻑ ﻋﺪﺓ ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻼﺕ ﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺢ ﻣــﺎ ﻓــﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐــﺔ
ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺪﺭ ،ﺗﻌﻄﻰ ﺍﻷﻓﻀﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﻸﺷﻴﻊ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻷﺩ ّ
ﻕ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ .
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.15ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻴﺔ ,ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺮﺍﺟﻊ ﺍﻟﻨﺺ ﻟﻠﺘﺄﻛﺪ ﻣــﻦ
ﺳﻼﻣﺘﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﻟﻨﺤﻮ ﻭﺍﻹﻣﻼء ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺮﻗﻴﻢ ﻭﻟﺘﺨﻠﻴﺺ ﺍﻟﻨﺺ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻳـــﺔ ﺭﻛﺎﻛـــﺔ
ﺃﺳﻠﻮﺑﻴﺔ ﻣﺤﺘﻤﻠﺔ .
.16ﻻ ﻳﺠــﻮﺯ ﻟﻠﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺨــﺘﺮﻉ ﻣﻦ ﻋﻨﺪﻩ ﺍﺧﺘﺼﺎﺭﺍﺕ ) ﻛﻠﻤــﺎﺕ
ﺃﻭﺍﺋﻠﻴﺔ( acronymsﻏـــﻴﺮ ﻣﺄﻟﻮﻓــﺔ ﻷﻥ ﺫﻟــﻚ ﻳﻌﻴــﻖ ﺍﻻﺗﺼــﺎﻝ ﺑﻴــﻦ
ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﺎﺭﺉ .ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﻳﺠﻮﺯ ﻟﻠﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻻﺕ ﻣﺤﺪﻭﺩﺓ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺴــﺘﺤﺪﺙ
ﺍﺧﺘﺼﺎﺭﺍً ﺑﻌﺪ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺤﻪ ﺍﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﺍً ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺗﻜﺮﺭ ﻅﻬﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺢ ﻋــﺪﺓ
ﻣﺮﺍﺕ ،ﻣﺜﻼً ﻡ ﺝ ﻉ )ﻣﻴﺜﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ( .
.17ﺇﺫﺍ ﻅﻬﺮﺕ ﻛﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﺃﻭﺍﺋﻠﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺪﺭ ،ﻓﻌﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺤﻮﻟﻬﺎ
ﺇﻟﻰ ﻛﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﺗﺎﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﺪﻑ .ﻣﺜﻼً V I P ،ﺗﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺇﻟﻰ )ﺷﺨﺺ ﻣﻬﻢ
ﺟﺪﺍً( N A T O ،ﺗﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺇﻟﻰ )ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﻫﺪﺓ ﺷﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻷﻁﻠﺴﻲ( .ﻭﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ
ﺍﻻﺧﺘﺼﺎﺭ ﺷﺎﺋﻌﺎ ً ﺟﺪﺍً )ﻣﺜﻞ ، ( AIDSﻓﻼ ﺩﺍﻋﻲ ﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺘﻪ ،ﺑﻞ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ
ﻳﺒﻘﻰ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺪﺭ )ﺃﻱ ﺍﻹﻳﺪﺯ( .ﻭﻳﺠﻮﺯ ﻓﻲ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻊ
ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﺼﺎﺭ ﻭﺗﺮﺟﻤﺘﻪ ،ﻣﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﺘــﻮ ) ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﻫﺪﺓ ﺷﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻷﻁﻠﺴﻲ (
.18ﻳﺤﺎﻓﻆ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﺪﻭﺩ ﺍﻟﻔﻘﺮﺍﺕ ﻭﻋﺪﺩﻫﺎ .ﺃﻱ ﺗﺒﺪﺃ ﺍﻟﻔﻘﺮﺓ ﻓــﻲ
ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﺪﻑ ﻣﻊ ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻘﺮﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺪﺭ ﻭﺗﻨﺘﻬﻲ ﻣﻊ ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺘﻬﺎ .ﻭﺑﺬﻟــﻚ ،
ﺗﺘﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺍﻟﻔﻘﺮﺍﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺪﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﺪﻑ ﻣﻦ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﻟﺒﺪﺍﻳــﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻬﺎﻳﺔ
ﻭﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ .
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.19ﻣﻦ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺭﺟﻲ ،ﻭﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺍﻟﻨﺼﺎﻥ )ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ
ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺪﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﺪﻑ( ﻓﻲ ﺗﺮﻗﻴﻢ ﺃﻭﺍﺧﺮ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻞ .ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﺗﺒﻘﻰ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ،ﻭﻛﺬﻟﻚ
ﻋﻼﻣﺔ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻔﻬﺎﻡ ﻭﻋﻼﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺠﺐ ﻭﻋﻼﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺒﺎﺱ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﺎﺻﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻘﻮﻁﺔ ،ﻣﻊ
ﻓﺮﻭﻕ ﻁﻔﻴﻔﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ ﺃﺣﻴﺎﻧﺎ ً .ﻣﺜﻼً ،ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻹﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ ﻧﺴﺘﻌﻤﻞ ؟ ﻭ ;
ﻭﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﻧﺴﺘﻌﻤﻞ ؟ ﻭ ؛ .ﻻﺣﻆ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺼﻮﺩ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺮﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺭﺟﻲ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻗﻴﻢ
ﻓﻲ ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻠﺔ .
.20ﻣﻦ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻠﻲ ) ﺃﻱ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻗﻴﻢ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻠﺔ ﻭﻟﻴــﺲ ﻓـﻲ ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺘﻬﺎ
( ،ﻗﺪ ﺗﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺃﺣﻜﺎﻡ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻗﻴﻢ .ﻣﺜﻼً ،ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﺻﻠﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ
ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﻻ ﻳﺘﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﻣﻊ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻣﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻹﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ .
.21ﻣﻦ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﺮﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻜﻼﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷﺮ ،ﻧﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺘﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ
. He said, ،، .‘‘ ،،.ﻛﻤﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﺎﺻﻠﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻹﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ .ﻣﺜﻼً ،ﻗﺎﻝ ‘‘ :
ﺃﻥ ﺍﺗﺠﺎﻩ ﻋﻼﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺒﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﺗﺤﺔ ﻳﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺘﻴﻦ :ﻧﺒﺪﺃ ﺑـــ ’’ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻹﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ
،ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﻧﺒﺪﺃ ﺑـــ ‘‘ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ .ﻭﻛﺬﻟﻚ ،ﺗﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻋﻼﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺒﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺗﻤﺔ .
.22ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺩﺓ ،ﺍﻻﺳـﻢ ﺍﻟ َﻌﻠَـﻢ ﻻ ﻳـﺘﺮﺟﻢ .ﻣﺜـﻼً ُ ،ﻣ َﺤ ﱠﻤـﺪ ﺗﺒﻘــﻰ
Muhammadﻭﻻ ﻳﺠﻮﺯ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺘﻬﺎ ﺇﻟﻰ peter ، the praisedﺗﺼﺒــﺢ
ﺑﻴﺘﺮ ﺃﻭ ﺑﻄﺮﺱ ﻭﻟﻴﺲ ) ﺍﻟﺼﺨﺮﺓ ( .ﺃﻣﺎ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﺳﻤﺎ ً ﺟﻐﺮﺍﻓﻴﺎ ً ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎ ً
ﻓﺎﻷﺷﻴﻊ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺘﻪ .ﻣﺜﻼً the Pacific Ocean ،ﺗﺼﺒﺢ ) ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻴـﻂ ﺍﻟﻬـﺎﺩﻱ ( ،
the Red Seaﺗﺼﺒـﺢ ) ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺮ ﺍﻷﺣﻤﺮ ( .
8
.23ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺮﺟﻊ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺟﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺨﺼﺼﺔ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻳﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﻧﺼﺎ ً
ﻣﺘﺨﺼﺼﺎ ً ،ﻣﺜﻼً ،ﻧﺼﺎ ً ﻁﺒﻴﺎ ً ﺃﻭ ﻫﻨﺪﺳﻴﺎ ً ﺃﻭ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﻴﺎ ً ،ﻷﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺟﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ
ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺩﺓ ﻻ ﺗﺴﻌﻔﻪ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺨﺼﺼﺔ .ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺠﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ﻳﻔﻴﺪ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ
ﺍﻟﻨﺼﻮﺹ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ .ﻭﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻣﻌﺎﺟﻢ ﻣﺘﺨﺼﺼﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺷﺘﻰ ﻓﺮﻭﻉ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺭﻑ .
ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻣﻌﺎﺟﻢ ﻣﺘﺨﺼﺼﺔ ﻋﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺇﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ ﻭ ﺇﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ ﻋﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎء
ﻭﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎء ﻭﺍﻷﺣﻴﺎء ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﻭﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﺲ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﻠﺴﻔﺔ ﻭﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ
ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﺳﺒﺔ ﻭﺍﻹﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﺎﺳﻮﺏ ﻭﻛﻞ ﻓﺮﻭﻉ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻢ ،ﺑﻞ ّ
ﺇﻥ
ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻣﻌﺎﺟﻢ ﻣﺘﺨﺼﺼﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻓﺮﻭﻉ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻭﻉ ،ﻣﻦ ﻣﺜﻞ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻱ ﻭﻋﻠﻢ
ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﻲ ﻭﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻷﺻﻮﺍﺕ .
.24ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﺤﺮﻯ ﺍﻟﺪﻗﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﻭﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺮﺟــﻤﺔ
ﺍﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻘﺎﺭﺑﺔ ،ﺃﻱ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘــﻲ ﻳﺘﻘﺎﺭﺏ ﻣﻌﻨـﺎﻫﺎ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺃﻥ
ﻳﺘﻄﺎﺑﻖ.
.25ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺃﻻ ﻳﺨﻤﻦ ﻣﻌﻨﻰ ﻛﻠﻤﺔ ﻻ ﻳﻌﺮﻓﻬﺎ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺮﺟــﻮﻉ ﺇﻟــﻰ
ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺠﻢ ،ﺇﻻّ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻮﻗﻒ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﻓﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺗﺘﺎﺑﻌﻴﺔ .ﻓﻲ ﻫــــﺬﻩ
ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ ،ﻻ ﻳﻮﺟﺪ ﺧﻴﺎﺭ ﺁﺧﺮ ﺃﻣﺎﻣﻪ ﺳﻮﻯ ﺧﻴﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺨﻤﻴﻦ .ﻭ ﻟﻜﻦ ،ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻓـــﻲ
ﻣﻮﻗﻒ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﻛﺘﺎﺑﻴﺔ ،ﻓﻼ ﻋﺬﺭ ﻟﻪ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻟﻢ ﻳﺮﺟﻊ ﺇﻟــﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺠــﻢ ﻟﻠﺘﺜﺒـﺖ ﻣــﻦ
ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ.
.26ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﻧﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺃﻳﺔ ﻟﻐﺔ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻤﺎﺕ ،ﻭﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻳﻨﺪﺭ ﺃﻥ ﻧﺠﺪ ﻛﻠﻤـــﺔ
ﺫﺍﺕ ﻣﻌﻨﻰ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ .ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﻣﺘﻌﺪﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﻧﻲ .ﻭﻣﻦ ﻭﺍﺟﺐ ﺍﻟﻤـــﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺃﻥ
ﻳﻔﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺼﻮﺩ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺪﺭ ﻛﻲ ﻳﺨﺘﺎﺭ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻘﺎﺑﻠﻪ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﺪﻑ .
9
ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺪﻱ ﺃﻷﻛﺒﺮ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ :ﻓﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﺺ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺪﺭ ﻭ
ﺇﻧﺸﺎء ﻧﺺ ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﺪﻑ.
.27ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻣﻤﻜﻨﺔ ﺃﺣﻴﺎﻧﺎ ً ،ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺮْ ﺿﻴﺔ ﻣﻤﻜﻨﺔ ﺩﺍﺋﻤﺎ ً ،
ﺇﻻّ ﺃﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﺍﻟﺪﻗﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﻳﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺨﺒﺮﺓ.
.28ﺍﻟﻨﺜﺮ ﻳﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻧﺜﺮ .ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺮ ﻓﻴﺠﻮﺯ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺇﻻ ﺷﻌﺮ ﺇﻥ ﺃﻣﻜﻦ ﺃﻭ
ﺇﻟﻰ ﻧﺜﺮ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺗﻌﺬﺭﺕ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺘﻪ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺷﻌﺮ.
.29ﻳﺘﻮﺟﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﻘﻦ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺘﻴﻦ :ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺼــﺪﺭ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻠﻐــــﺔ
ﺍﻟﻬﺪﻑ .ﻳﺘﻘﻦ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ ﻟﻴﻔﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﺺ ﻭﻳﺘﻘﻦ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻟﻴﻜﺘﺐ ﺑﻬﺎ .ﻭﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺿــﺢ ﺃﻥ
ﻋﺪﻡ ﺍﻹﺗﻘﺎﻥ ﻟﻸﻭﻟﻰ ﺳﻴﺠﻌﻞ ﺍﻟﻔﻬﻢ ﻣﺨﺘﻼً ﻭﺃﻥ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺍﻹﺗﻘﺎﻥ ﻟﻠﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺳﻴﺠﻌﻞ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺎﺑﺔ
ﻣﻠﻴﺌﺔ ﺑﺎﻷﺧﻄﺎء ﻣﻦ ﻛﻞ ﻧﻮﻉ .ﻭﺗﺼﻞ ﺍﻷﻣﻮﺭ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺣﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺭﺛﺔ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ
ﺿﻌﻴﻔﺎ ً ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺘﻴﻦ :ﻫﻨﺎ ﺗﻨﺸﺄ ﺃﺧﻄﺎء ﻋﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﻓﻲ ﻓﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺪﺭ ﻭﺃﺧﻄــــﺎء
ﻋﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﺪﻑ .
.30ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺨﺼﺼﺔ ،ﻣﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻬﻨﺪﺳﻴﺔ ،ﻳﻜﻮﻥ
ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﻓﻲ ﻭﺿﻊ ﺃﻓﻀﻞ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻋﺎﺭﻓﺎ ً ﺑﺎﻟﺤﻘﻞ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﻓﻴﻪ ،ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓـــــﺔ
ﺇﻟﻰ ﺇﺗﻘﺎﻧﻪ ﻟﻠﻐﺘﻴﻦ ﺑﻄﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻝ .ﻭﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻧﺪﻋﻮ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺑـــﺎﻟﺤﻘﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ
ﺍﻟﺘﺨﺼﺼﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺃﻥ ﻧﺪﻋﻮ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺘﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﻮﻳﺔ .ﻭﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺿﺢ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ
ﺍﻟﺘﺨﺼﺼﻴﺔ ﻻ ﺗﻐﻨﻲ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﻮﻳﺔ ,ﻓﺎﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﺔ ،ﻣﺜـــﻼً ،ﻻ ﺗﺠﻌﻞ
ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﺐ ﻣﺘﺮﺟﻤﺎ ً .ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ،ﻗﺪ ﺗﻐﻨﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﻮﻳﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺨﺼﺼﻴﺔ ،ﺇﺫ
ﻳﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺃﻥ ﻳــــﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﻧﺼــﺎ ً ﻁﺒﻴــﺎ ً ﺩﻭﻥ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜــﻮﻥ ﻣﺘﺨﺼﺼﺎ ً ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻄﺐ .
ﻭﻻ ﺷﻚ ﺃﻥ ﺧﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻤﻴﻦ ﻣﻦ ﻛــﺎﻧﺖ ﺗﺘﻮﻓــﺮ ﻟﺪﻳــﻪ .
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ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺨﺼﺼﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﻮﻳﺔ ﻣﻌﺎ ً ،ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﻗﻠﻴﻼً ﺑﻞ ﻧﺎﺩﺭﺍً ﻣﺎ ﻳﺘﻮﻓﺮ ﻣﺜﻞ
ﻫﺆﻻء ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻤﻴﻦ .
.31ﺇﻥ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺍﺗﺨﺎﺫ ﻗﺮﺍﺭﺍﺕ ﻓﻲ ﻛﻞ ﻟﺤﻈﺔ ،ﺇﺫ ﻻ ﺑﺪ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﺨﺬ
ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﻗﺮﺍﺭﺍً ﻋﻨﺪ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﻛﻞ ﻛﻠﻤـــﺔ ﻭﻋﻨـــﺪ ﺗﺮﺟﻤـــﺔ ﻛــﻞ ﺗﺮﻛﻴــﺐ .
ﻭﺑﺎﻟﻄﺒﻊ ،ﺣﺴﻦ ﺍﺗﺨﺎﺫ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﻳﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﺎ ً ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺪﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﻮﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﻭﻋﻠﻰ
ﺩﺭﺍﻳﺘﻪ ﺑﻔﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺃﻭ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ .ﻛﻤﺎ ﺃﻥ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ – ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ
ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﻗﻒ – ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﺴﺘﺪﻋﻲ ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﻭﻟﺔ ،ﺃﻱ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﺇﻟـــﻰ ﺍﻷﻣــﺎﻡ ﺛــﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﻮﺩﺓ
ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻒ ﺛﻢ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻷﻣﺎﻡ ،ﺣﺘﻰ ﻳﺤﺲّ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺘﻮﺝ ﻗﺪ ﺍﺳـــﺘﻮﻯ ﻭ ﺍﺳﺘﻘ ّﺮ
ﻭ ﺃﺻﺒﺢ ُﻣﺮﺿﻴﺎ ً ﻣﻦ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺒﻨﻰ .
.32ﻟﻠﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ ،ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻹﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺃﺳـﻬﻞ ﺑﻜﺜﻴﺮ ﻣﻦ
ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻹﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ ،ﻷﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻹﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ ﺗﺴﺘﺪﻋﻲ ﻓــﻬﻢ
ّ
ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺗﺴﺘﺪﻋﻲ ﻓﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻹﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ،
ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﺑﺎﻹﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ .ﺻﻌﻮﺑﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ ﻓﻬﻢ ﺍﻹﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ ،ﺃﻣﺎ ﺻﻌﻮﺑـــﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻓﻬﻲ
ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﺑﺎﻹﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ .ﻭ ﻻ ﺷﻚ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﺃﺻﻌﺐ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻔﻬﻢ ،ﻓـــﻲ ﺃﻏﻠﺐ ﺍﻷﺣﻴﺎﻥ .
11
UNIT 1
LEARNING AND ACQUIRING
There are a few questions which have occupied language teachers for
centuries and probably always will. Of these perhaps the most basic is 'How
does a person come to control a language anyway?' We all achieved this feat with
our first language, and many of us have gained some ability in other language by
studying them in school. The term 'acquisition' is sometimes used for the former,
and 'learning' for what goes on in the classroom. There has been considerable
discussion about whether these two processes are essentially the same, or essentially
the same, or essen- tially different. Unit very recently, however, people have gener-
ally assumed that one followed the other with perhaps a few years' overlap. The
ability to 'acquire' supposedly died out at about the age of puberty, while 'learning'
became possible only in the early school years as the necessary 'readiness's'
developed.
More recently , though, some research has indicated that the picture is not quite
like that. It my be that the same kind of acquisition we see in children can continue
well into adulthood – perhaps throughout life. Or it may be that what some people
call 'adult acquisition' is really a third process. Be that as it may, however, it is
becoming clear that adults and adolescents do have available to them at least two
modes of gaining control of a new language.
The better known of these two modes is (in a special, narrowed sense) called
'learning.' Here, learning .' begins with selection of some clearly defined element
which is to be learned. In helping someone else to learn, your job is to teach (again
in a specially restricted sense of that word). In teaching, you first present the new
item as clearly and interestingly as you can. Then you have your students practice
the item in one way or another until they seem to have got it. When the time comes,
you go on to test them on it. Finally, you may or may not get around to using it with
them in some communicative way.
In this kind of teaching and learning, then, the very act of selecting an item pulls
it out of the context of normal com- municative exchange. To compensate for this
severing of the normal interrelationship you may go to some length to provide
context as you present, drill and test it.
In acquisition, the person who is doing the acquiring meets words in the full context
of some kind of genuine human communication. There is no special presentation of
12
a new item, no organized drilling, and no testing in the academic sense.
Conversation is about things which the acquirer understands and which are already
clear in his mind. Because a teacher cannot read minds, this requirement commonly
means that in the beginning most of the conversation will be about what is present in
the classroom at the time. The language used is generally at a level which the
acquirer already controls or a little beyond that level. The acquirer follows the
discourse comfort-ably, drawing on context to fill in the meanings of new words and
constructions. In time he becomes able to produce new items correctly, but for a
while he may remain largely silent. When he does speak, those around him react in
terms of their attempts to communicate, and not in terms of the correctness or
incorrectness, and not in terms of the correctness or incorrectness of what he has
said.
This kind of acquisition takes time and patience. Until a student has acquired an
item, he will make numerous errors in its use. Learning by contrast, produces
correct forms almost immediately.
There are however some weighty advantages to acquisition as compared with
learned may forgot- ten after ( or before ! ) the next test, while what has been
acquired is relatively permanent. What has been acquired serves directly as the
basis for smooth production either of speech or of writing. Learned material is
useful for monitoring, correcting or translating what has originated from
material which has already been acquired either in the target language or in the
native language, but not for much else. Not least, learning will work only for
those items which can be stated fairly simply: English house corresponds to
Spanish casa, for example, and the ending-s is used only for English verbs which
are in the present tense with a third person singular subject. Acquisition works
for everything; for all of the matters that i‘ ve just mentioned. but also for
phonetic nuances, use of definite and indefinite articles, choice of just the right
preposition or verb tense, and so on. The essential difference between learning
and acquisition may lie in what the student does with what is put in front of
him, but many parts of a language simply defy anyone to perform learning on
them!
Over the centuries language teachers have used countless methods and
rechniques. Most of the time, by whatever method, we have concentrated on
trying to teach so that our students would learn. Acquisition has come- when it
has come at all-as a desirable but incidental by-product of good teaching and
good learning. Its recent identification as a separate process casts light on what
we have been doing all along.
13
Helpful Vocabulary :
learning and acquiring ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻭﺍﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ
to gain ability ﻳﺤﺼﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﺪﺭﺓ
considerable discussion ﺟﺪﻝ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ
essentially the same ﻣﺘﻤﺎﺛﻼﻥ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻲ
until very recently ﺣﺘﻰ ﻭﻗﺖ ﻗﺮﻳﺐ
one followed the other ﺃﺣﺪﻫﻤﺎ ﺕَ ◌َ ﺑِ َﻊ ﺍﻵﺧﺮ
age of puberty ِﺳ ّﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﻮﻍ
indicated that َﺩ ﱠﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﱠ
ﺃﻥ
perhaps throughout life ﺭﺑﱠﻤﺎ ﻁﻴﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺎﺓ
it may be that ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺘﻤﻞ ﱠ
ﺃﻥ
adult acquisition ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﻮﻍ
be that as it may ﻭﻣﻬﻤﺎ ﻳﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻣﺮ
the very act of selecting ﻓِﻌ ُﻞ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﺫﺍﺗُﻪ
communicative exchange ﺗﺒﺎﺩﻝ ﺍﺗﺼﺎﻟﻲ
present, drill, test ﻳﺨﺘﺒﺮ، ﻳﺪﺭﱢﺏ، ْﺮﺽ
ِ ﻳﻌ
special presentation َﻋﺮْ ﺽ ﺧﺎﺹ
in the academic sense ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ ﺍﻷﻛﺎﺩﻳﻤﻲ
a little beyond that level ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﻠﻴﻼً ﻣﻦ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﻯ
in time ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﺳﺐ
for a while ﻟﺒُﺮْ ﻫ ٍﺔ، ﻟﻔﺘﺮﺓ ﻭﺟﻴﺰﺓ
by contrast ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ
as compared with ِﻋﻨﺪ ﻣﻘﺎﺭﻧﺘﻬﺎ ﺑـــ
14
Exercise 1. Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2 . Fill in this table with the suitable English
derivatives whenever possible, and write down the
Arabic equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
forget
question
occupy
control
gain
learn
process
Available
acquire
adult
normal
indicate
restrict
test
communication
genuine
assume
language
Exercise 3. Translate these words related to the same
filed :
learn instruct
teach instructor
learner instruction ﺗﺪﺭﻳﺲ
teacher teaching ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻢ
15
UNIT 2
ENGLAND AND SHAKESPEAR
T HE winds that scattered the Spanish Armada blew English litera- ture, which
had been merely smouldering for generations, into a blaze of genius, Elizabeth,
who was to give her name to this glorious outburst, had in fact reigned for thirty
years before it arrived, and most of its supreme achievements in poetic drama and in
prose argument came in the reign of her successor, James the First. Neverthe- less,
we are right to call this great ago of literature ’Elizabethan’,for its greatness belongs
in spirit to that strange indomitable indomitable Queen, just as its decadence later
seems to share the stifling atmosphere of James's court. And clearly there are two
questions about this Elizabethan age we must ask and try to answer. Why did
it arrive so late, after the Queen herself had been reigning for thirty years, long after
the Renaissance in Italy and France hade come to an end come to an end? And why,
when it did arrive, when the sixteenth century had only twelve more years to run,
should it suddenly break into that firework display of poetic genius?
The first question is easily answered. Great literature demands a language that is
at once a powerful and very flexible instrument an organ with more than one
keyboard and many stops. This instrument was not ready; the organ was only being
assembled. English literary forms were either borrowed from Italy and France, as in
much of the verse of Surrey and Wyatt, or, as with the prose-men, also often busy
with translation, were still crudely experimenting with syntax, with the first
creaky wooden machinery of prose style. Nor is this surprising. The England of the
Tudors was a new country, even though in some respects it was more medieval and
traditional than most of Southern Europe; and it was a new country out on the edge
of things, as yet away from the main stream of civilization. Its famous long- bows
had been made obsolete by gunpowder; it had a militia but no real army; it had
plenty of ships, boldly exploring, trading and privateering, but as yet they hardly
constituted a navy. True. Its wealth was rapidly increasing, London. was growing
fast; its new social order, created by Henry the Eighth and confirmed and stabilised
by the adroit Elizabeth, was proving effective and a source of new energy, and the
nationalism of the age, nothing strange to these islanders, was triumphant and
irresistible here. But too much was happening all at once; enormous effort was
required, as nobody knew better than Elizabeth herself, to cope with every
immediate situation. So those first thirty years of her reign were years of effort, of
solemn endeavour. Of will and purpose,
all reflected in the writing of the time, in the didactic prose work of Ascham and
Elyot, even in the little that was done by the splendid Sidney in the earlier poetry of
16
the great Spenser. Then came the threat of the Spanish Armada, crammed with the
dreaded infantrymen of Spain; the ultimate challenge. The challenge was met, the
Armada defeated and, the very elements being on England's side (as they ought to
be, in English opinion), finally destroyed; the great black shadow of Spain suddenly
vanished; Elizabethan England had come through where the sun was out and the
bells were ringing.
This explains the sudden release of release of energy, the nation in flower. But it
it does not provide a complete answer to our second question- why this flowering
should reach, in a few years, such a dazzling height of poetic genius. Perhaps a
complete answer cannot be found, the zeitgeist, then as now, having too many secret
operations. But some contribu- tions towards it are possible. First, the energy was
there, ready to be released into art. Next, this was a nation highly conscious of itself
as a nation; a late Elizabethan, a subject of the magnificent old Queen, was very
much an Elizabethan. Now to this release of energy and this national self-
consciousness we must add a third factor. Within the national unity of this
comparatively small society there was astonish-ing variety; it contained, for example
not only Anglicans but also Catholics, puritans, skeptics and atheists. It was grimly
ascetic and wildly licentious; it reached extremes of brutality and refinement, and a
building that offered bear-baiting on Wednesday would be playing Romeo and Juliet
on Thursday. A merchant might invest his money in wool or in a search for El
Dorado; good advice might be sought from Francis Bacon, the father of scientific
method. or Dr. Dee, the necro- mancer; capitalism in a black sit rubbed elbows with
the velvet or rags of dying feudalism; the great Queen's court seemed equidistant
between the Tower, with its thumbscrews and scaffolds, and fairyland. The life of
this London was an incredible medley of lutes and lice, silks and ordure, madrigals
and the plague, industrious apprentices and pimps and harlots, white-faced puritan
preachers and red-faced drunken poets. During this brief period, each class had
something almost theatrical about it, appeared to be over-playing its part: the great
nobles moved in an unending pageant, and the lesser sold estates to buy a suit and
three sets of livery for possible appearances at Court; the new middle class counted
its money, donned clean linen to listen to sermons, ate beef and pudding, locked up
its daughters, all suddenly and tremendously bourgeois; the common folk, the
crowd, the mob, shook its fists or threw up its caps, rioted or rollicked, like the
chorus in an opera. To this ago, we feel, everything was titanic.
17
Helpful Vocabulary :
blaze of genius َﻭﻫَ َﺞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺒﻘﺮﻳﺔ
poetic drama ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺮﺣﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺮﻳﺔ
supreme achievements ﺇﻧﺠﺎﺯﺍﺕ ﺭﺍﺋﻌﺔ
reign of her successor ُﺣ ْﻜﻢ ﺧﻠﻴﻔﺘﻬﺎ
age of literature َﻋﺼْ ﺮ ﺍﻷﺩﺏ
stifling atmosphere َﺟﻮ ﺧﺎﻧِﻖ
as in much of ﻛﻤﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻛﺜﻴﺮ ﻣﻦ
prose-men ﻧﺎﺛﺮﻭﻥ،ﺭﺟﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﺜﺮ
prose style ﺍﻷﺳﻠﻮﺏ ﺍﻟﻨﺜﺮﻱ
in some respects ﻓﻲ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺣﻲ
nationalism of the age ﻗﻮﻣﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺼﺮ
didactic prose ﻧﺜﺮ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻤﻲ
in the little that ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ
the ultimate challenge ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺪﻱ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﺎﺋﻲ
release of energy ﺍﻧﻄﻼﻕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ
highly conscious of itself ﻣﺪﺭﻛﺔ ﺟﺪﺍً ﻟﻨﻔﺴﻬﺎ
poetic genius ﻋﺒﻘﺮﻳﺔ ﺷﻌﺮﻳﺔ
capitalism and feudalism ﺍﻟﺮﺃﺳﻤﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻹﻗﻄﺎﻋﻴﺔ
new middle class ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﺳﻄﻰ ﺍﻟﺠﺪﻳﺪﺓ
to this age ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻬﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻌﺼﺮ
moral order ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺃﺧﻼﻗﻲ
brutality and refinement ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻮﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻬﺬﻳﺐ
18
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English derivatives
whenever possible, and write down the Arabic
equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
arrive
genius
answer
successor
poetic
end
queen
try
year
great
demand
instrument
stabilize
syntax
triumphant
challenge
strange
immediate
Exercise 3. Translate this group of words related to the same
semantic field :
drama song
dramatist novel
play novelist
sonnet poet
poem eulogy
19
UNIT 3
WHAT IS LITERATURE,
And WHY DO WE STUDY IT?
We use the word literature, in a broad sense, to mean compositions that tell stories,
dramatize situations, express emotions, and analyze and advocate ideas. Before the
invention of writing, literary works were necessarily spoken or sung and were
retained only as long as living people performed them. In some societies, the oral
tradition of literature still exists, with many poems and stories designed exclusively
for spoken delivery. Evan in our modern age of writing and printing, much literature
is still heard aloud rather than read silently. Parents delight their children with
stories and poems; poets and storywriters read their works directly before live
audiences; and plays and scripts are interpreted on stages and before cameras for the
benefit of a vast public.
No matter how we assimilate literature, we gain much from it. In truth, readers
often cannot explain why they enjoy reading, for goals and ideals are not easily
articulated. There are, however, areas of general agreement about the value of
systematic and extensive reading.
Literature helps us grow, us grow, both personally and intellectually. It
provides an objective base for knowledge and understanding. It links us with the
broader cultural, philosophic, and religious world of which we are a part it enables
us to recognize human dreams and struggles in different place and times we would
never otherwise know existed. It helps us develop mature sensibility and compassion
for the condition of all living things- human, animal, and vegetable. It gives us the
knowledge and perception to appreciate the beauty of order and arrangement,
just as a well- structured song or a beautifully painted canvas can. It provides
the comparative basis from which we can see worthiness in the aims of all
people, and it therefore helps us see beauty in the world around us. It exercises
our emotions through interest, concern, tension, excitement, hope, fear, regret,
laughter, and sym- pathy. Through our cumulative experience in reading,
literature shapes our goals and values by clarifying our own identities- both
positively through acceptance of the admirable in human beings, and negatively,
through refection of the sinister. It enables us to develop a perspective on
20
events occurring locally and globally, and thereby it give us understanding and
control. It encourages us to assist creative, talented people who need recognition and
support. It is one of the shaping influence of life. Literature makes us human.
TYPES OF LITERATURE: THE GENRES
Literature may be classified into four categories or genres: (1) prose fiction, (2)
poetry, (3) drama, and (4) nonfiction prose. Usually the first three are classed as
imaginative literature.
The genres of imaginative literature have much in common. but they also have
distinguishing characteristics. Prose fiction, or narrative fiction includes myths,
parables, romances, novels, and short stories. Originally, fiction meant anything
made up, crafted, or shaped, but today the word refers to prose stories based in the
author's imagination. The essence of fiction is narration, the relating or recounting
of a sequence of events or actions. Works of fiction usually focus of one or a few
major characters who undergo a change of attitude or character as they interact with
other characters and deal with problems. While fiction, like all imaginative
literature, may introduce true historical details, it is not real history. Its main purpose
is to interest, stim-ulate, instruct, and divert, not to create a precise historical record.
Poetry expresses a conversation or interchange that is grounded in the most
deeply felt experiences of human beings. Poetry exists in many formal and informal
shapes, from the brief haiku to the extensive epic. More eco- nomical than prose
fiction in its use of words, poetry relies heavily on imagery, figurative language,
and sound.
Drama is literature designed to be performed by actors. Like fiction, drama
may focus on a single character or a single character or a small number of
characters, and it enacts fictional events as if they were happening in the present, to
be wit- nessed by an audience. Although most modern plays use prose dialogue, in
the belief that dramatic speech should be as lifelike as possibly, many plays from the
past, like those of ancient Greece and Renaissance England, are in poetic form.
Nonfiction prose is the literary genre that consists of news reports, fea- ture
articles, essays, editorials, textbooks, historical and biographical and the like, all of
which describe or interpret facts and present judgments and opinions. Major goals of
nonfiction prose are to report truth and to pre-sent logic in reasoning. Whereas in
imaginative literature the aim is it show truth in life and human nature, in nonfiction
prose the goal is to reveal truth in the factual world of news, science, and history.
21
Helpful Vocabulary :
in a broad sense ﺑﻤﻌﻨﻰ ﺃﻭﺳﻊ
literary works ﺃﻋﻤﺎﻝ ﺃﺩﺑﻴﺔ
spoken delivery ﺇﻟﻘﺎء ﺷﻔﻬﻲ
live audience ﻣﺴﺘﻤﻌﻮﻥ ﺃﺣﻴﺎء
no matter how ﺑﻐﺾ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﻋﻦ ﻛﻴﻒ
in truth ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻴﻘﺔ
extensive reading ﻗﺮﺍءﺓ ﻣﻮﺳﻌﺔ
personally and intellectually : ًﺷﺨﺼﻴﺎ ً ﻭ ﺫﻫﻨﻴﺎ
objective base ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻋﻴﺔ
mature sensibility ﺇﺣﺴﺎﺱ ﻧﺎﺿﺞ
cumulative experience ﺧﺒﺮﺓ ﺗﺮﺍﻛﻤﻴﺔ
perspective on events ﻭﺟﻬﺔ ﻧﻈﺮ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻷﺣﺪﺍﺙ
locally and globally ً ﻣﺤﻠﻴﺎ ً ﻭ ﻋﻠﻤﻴﺎ
prose fiction ﻗﺼﺺ ﻧﺜﺮﻱ
nonfiction prose ﻧﺜﺮ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﺼﺼﻲ
imaginative literature ﺃﺩﺏ ﺧﻴﺎﻟﻲ
narrative fiction ﺧﻴﺎﻝ ﻗﺼﺼﻲ
extensive epic ﻣﻠﺤﻤﺔ ﻣﻄﻮﻟﺔ
figurative language ﻟﻐﺔ ﻣﺠﺎﺯﻳﺔ
prose dialogue ﺣﻮﺍﺭ ﻧﺜﺮﻱ
biographical works ﺃﻋﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻟ ﱠﺴﻴَﺮ
factual world ﻋﺎﻟﻢ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻴﻘﺔ
22
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English derivatives
whenever possible, and write down the Arabic
equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
dramatize
express
benefit
broad
analyze
parent
silent
advocate
enjoy
admirable
articulate
local
perceive
acceptance
compare
shape
Exercise 3. Translate this group of words related to the
same field :
silent reading
intensive reading
supplementary
oral reading
model reading
extensive reading
23
UNIT 4
ARABIA AND HER
NEIGHBOURS
T HE peninsula of Arabian may be described as a vast tectangle ofmore
thanmillion square miles in extent, placed between Africa and the
main land-mass of Asia. The Red Sea, which forms its western
boundary, is part of the great rift vally which continues northwards
through the Gulf of Akaba, the Dead Sea, and the River Jordan: the
hug convulsions which produced it have piled up mountain ridges
which rise steeply along the coast from the Hijaz to the Yemen, and
the land thus slopes down from west to east towards the gentle
declivity of the Persain Gulf. On three sides Arabia faces the sea; her
only land frontier is the Syrian Desert and as the corssing of these
sandy wastes was at least as difficult as landing on her almost
harbourless coasts, the long remained an isolated and inaccessible
country, whose inhabitants aptly styled her Jazirat al- Arab, the
island of the Arabs.
The climate of Arabia is distinguished chiefly by high tempera- ture and
the absence of moisture. The autumn monsoon deposits heavy showers on
the coastline of Oman and the Yemen, but the steep hills force the rain-
laden clouds to ascend rapidly and dis- charge their contents before they
have passed over the inland slops; the winter and spring rains of the
Mediterranean region are scattered sparsely over the northern deserts, the
Nufud, where the wilderness blossoms like a rose for a short season, but the
southern interior is beyond their range, and is in consequence a dreadful
waterless waste, the Rub al- khali, the Empty Quarter, which until recent
times has rarely been crossed by European travelers. Arabic is destitute of
lades, forests and prairies; scarcely a perennial stream is found in the land:
the wadis or rivers. Which become raging tor- rents in the short wet period,
are for most of the year dry and emp- ty and a man might cross their beds
without being aware of their existence. Except in the high country. The heat
of the summer is in- tense, yet the climate is not on the whole injurious to
human health the dryness of the atmosphere mitigates the strength of the
sun's
24
Rays; the nights are cool; in winter snow often lies in the highest valleys of
the Jabal Shammar, a chain of gills immediately south of the Nufud, and frost
is not unknown not unknown in the highlands of the Yemen.
Western Arabia. the mountainous region fronting the Red Sea, consists of three
clearly defined areas: a hot, narrow coastal plain. Known as the Tihama. Or lowland;
hills, with peaks rising to several thousand feet, which bear the name of Hijaz, or
barrier and beyond these, a great plateau which dips eastwards to the central deserts.
In the north, the land of Midian, the mountains are wild and deso- late, but in the
Yemen, the Arabia felix of the ancients, the hill- sides receive a substantial rainfall,
and grain crops and (since the sixteenth century) the coffe bean are grown in the
fertile valleys. Here, in the extreme south- west corner of the peninsula, arose the
earliest civilizations of old Arabia, those of the Munaeans and Sabaeans. Southern
Arabic presents an inhospitable front to the Indian Ocean; its long coastline has few
natural harbours, and its inhabited valleys lie inland and free from prying strangers.
Its prin- cipal division, the Hadramawt, was famous in remote antiquity as the land
of incense; the gum from the incense- trees was a prized article of commerce, and
vast quantities of it were bought and burnt on the altars of Egyptian and Babylonian
temples. Easten Arabia is a land of contrasts. The shores of the Persian Gulf are flat,
bar- ren and humid, the natives deriving a scanty living from fishing and pearl-
diving, bit the province of Oman is filled with well- watered vales which run back to
the foothills of the Jabal Akhdar, or Green Mountains, and whose palm-orchards
support a substantial population. The interior of Arabia is by no means all desert;
many oases provide food and water for consider-able settlements: springs and wells
afford refreshment to the travel-ler and some large fertile depression, such as the
Wadi Hadra- mawt in the south and the Wadi Sirhan in the north- west, have ser-
ved for ages as channels of commerce.
The name 'Arab, which may possibly be connected with the Hebrew root, abhar, to
move or pass, to move or pass, has been often restricted to the desert- dwellers. The
Badw or Bedouins. And repudiated by the townsmen and peasants, a practice which
reminds us that the majority of the inhabitants of the peninsula have since historic
times been pastoral nomads. The pattern of their life has remained unchanged
through the centuries since the days of Abraham.
25
Helpful Vocabulary :
the peninsula of Arabia ﺷﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﺰﻳﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ
In extent ﻣﻦ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﻻﺗﺴﺎﻉ، ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺔ
Syrian desert ﺻﺤﺮﺍء ﺍﻟﺸﺎﻡ
Sandy wastes ﺍﻟﻘﻔﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﻠﻴﺔ
harbourless coasts ﺳﻮﺍﺣﻞ ﺩﻭﻥ ﻣﻮﺍﻧﺊ
isolated country ﺑﻠﺪ ﻣﻨﻌﺰﻝ
destitute of lakes ﺧﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﻴﺮﺍﺕ
distinguished chiefly by ﺗﺘﻤﻴﺰ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﺎ ً ﺑِـــ
absence of moisture ﻏﻴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﺮﻁﻮﺑﺔ
autumn monsoon ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺡ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺳﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﻳﻔﻴﺔ
rain-laden clouds ﺳﺤﺐ ﻣﺤ ﱠﻤﻠﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻄﺮ
inland slopes ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺤﺪﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻠﻴﺔ
beyond their range ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﺪﺍﻫﺎ، ﻭﺭﺍء ﻣﺪﺍﻫﺎ
The Empty Quarter ﺍﻟﱡﺮﺑْﻊ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﻟﻲ
Chain of hills ﺳﻠﺴﻠﺔ ﺗﻼﻝ
mountainous region ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺟﺒﻠﻴﺔ
coastal plain ﺳﻬﻞ ﺳﺎﺣﻠﻲ
central deserts ﺍﻟﺼﺤﺎﺭﻯ ﺍﻟﻮﺳﻄﻰ
in remote antiquity ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ ﺍﻟﺒﻌﻴﺪ
land of incense ﺃﺭﺽ ﺍﻟﺒﺨﻮﺭ
Babylonian temples ﻣﻌﺎﺑﺪ ﺑﺎﺑﻠﻴﺔ
Channels of commerce ﻣﻤﺮﺍﺕ ﻟﻠﺘﺠﺎﺭﺓ، ﺧﻄﻮﻁ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﺓ
26
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English derivatives
whenever possible, and write down the Arabic
equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
place
rectangle
difficult
continue
ascend
inhabitant
travel
season
gentle
blossom
style
heavy
force
sand
hill
grow
rage
dry
Exercise 3. Translate this group of words related to the
same field :
gulf shore
range island
mountain peninsula
plain strait
coast ocean
27
UNIT 5
SOME INTELLECTUAL
FOUATIONS OF POLITICAL
SOCIOLOGY
IN THIS CHAPTER we shall set out and examine a number of different
theories or perspective on the nature and working of social processes political
sociologists place themselves within a number of traditions of thought which go
back almost to the origins of self-conscious reflection about man and his social
relationships. What we shall do in this chapter is to spell out some of the
contributions these various traditions make to a discussion of the problem of
order, a problem we thirik of as being central to the concern of political sociology.
Briefly, what we understand by social order is that process whereby the interactions
of members of social groups become patterned, that is to say the interactions are
relatively stable over time and the form which they from time to time is relatively
predict- able.
social order. The problem of endurance and change, has always been
seen as problematic, as something that needs to be understood either for its
own sake or because it was felt that enquiry was likely to lead to controlled
change. Perhaps the major difference between Plato and Aristotle was concerned
with detached observation. Whatever the case, it is certainly true that the problem of
order is not necessarily one which is the sole concern of the more conservative-
minded theorist. Social order can hardly be imagined without its opposite, social
disorder, and any useful explana- tion of the one well contain, at least implicitly,
an explanation of the other although, as in the cases of functional analysis and
conflict theory, some theoretical perspectives are biased towards order and
breakdown respec- tively. However, the traditional emphasis on order has a
strong, if rather
imprecise, empirical content since it is ’obviously' true that most societies mcst of the
time display order rather than chaos! If, then, we begin with the assumption of order
we are not making a prescriptive judgement (lest the philosophical heavens fall) but
we are simply beginning the discussion on the basis of a rather commonplace
observation.
28
it is easy to explain why the concern with order has been a central question in the history
of social though: if society is to persist for any length of time the people making up that
society must live without undue threat or likelihood of death. Perhaps the tag line from
Hobbes. familiar to all students of the history of ideas, that in the state of nature the life of
man is 'solitary,brings, out this concept most vividly. The fact that the human frame is
fragile and easily destroyed makes norms or laws prohibiting violence, except under
special circum- stances, a necessity for any type of social order is almost certainly
necessary so that social life may continue, in the sense that without it, people may
reproduce, but they will not be able to train or induct children since there will be nothing
into which they can be in-ducted; in other words, there would be no society. Although this
is very little more than the most glaring of truisms, it is still true that the problem of
producing and maintaining order is a real one. Order is not something that the social
scientist can take as a ‘given‘, the product, say, of man's biological or genetic make-up,
and hence a problem for the biologist or biochemist but not for the sociologist. It is. To
repeat ourselves, problem-atic in at least the practical sense that all societies at some time
display symptoms of a breakdown of order.
Broadly speaking, social thought has suggested three lines of attack on the problem of
order which we shall present in a slightly abbreviated and exaggerated from in order to
isolate the main themes of the three argu-ments. We shall also attempt to outline the
defects and strength of each perspective and outline the kind of image of man and society
upon which they are founded. We shall investigate the intellectual problem areas
connected with each of these three perspective that have been brought out by the various
proponents. Coercion theories of one sort or another have from the beginning of
systematic thinking about society stressed the primacy of force as the agency underlying
social order and obedience. Secondly, society has been envisaged as some sort of mutual
interest organization within which a sensible or rational (that is in terms of calcu-lating)
appraisal of the casts and benefits of social actions lead men to remain peaceful members
of society. Equally venerable is the tradition that argues the priority of some sort of
popular commitment to the norms or goals of the state or society.
29
Helpful Vocabulary :
social processes ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ
Political sociologists ﻋﻠﻤﺎء ﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻲ
Problem of order ﻣﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ
stable over time ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺮﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺪﻯ ﺍﻟﺰﻣﻦ
relatively predictable ً ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﻟﻠﺘﻨﺒﺆ ﻧﺴﺒﻴﺎ
controlled change ﺗﻐﻴﱡﺮ ُﻣ َﺴ ْﻴﻄَ ٌﺮ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ
whatever the case ﻣﻬﻤﺎ ﺗﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ
sole concern ﺍﻻﻫﺘﻤﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻮﺣﻴﺪ
social disorder ﻓﻮﺿﻰ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ
at least implicitly ً ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﻗﻞ ﺿﻤﻨﺎ
functional analysis ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﻭﻅﻴﻔﻲ
conflict theory ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﺮﺍﻉ
respectively ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﻟﻲ
prescriptive judgment ﺣﻜﻢ ﻣﻌﻴﺎﺭﻱ، ﺣُﻜﻢ ﻓَﺮْ ﺿﻲ
social thought ﻓِ ْﻜﺮ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ
breakdown of order ﺗﺼﺪﻉ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ
in the practical sense ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻲ
genetic make-up ﺍﻟﺘﻜﻮﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﺭﺍﺛﻲ
in the sense that ﺑﻤﻌﻨﻰ ﱠ
ﺃﻥ
popular commitment ﺍﻟﺘﺰﺍﻡ ﺷﻌﺒﻲ
norms of the society ُﻣﺜُﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ
30
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English derivatives
whenever possible, and write down the Arabic
equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
examine
different
conscious
conflict
brief
found
bias
central
relative
attempt
norm
necessary
calculate
man
popular
concept
display
Exercise 3. Translate this group of words related to the same
field :
Psychology methodology
sociology biology
anthropology zoology
politics botany
31
UNIT 6
GAMES AND LANGUAGE
TEACHING
There are hundreds of games that can be used in some connection with
language teaching. In this book we shall be looking at ways in which
they can be integrated with teaching so that they be-come a
positive part of it rather than a time-filler or, worse, a time-waster.
An effective user of games in the language classroom is not
necessarily the teacher who has a long list of them in his head, but
someone who has really thought about them and knows their
ingredients and how they can be varied to cal l forth different
activities and skills from the players. A teacher who understands
games in this way is much more likely to be able to find or create
games that will help his students to learn something as they play.
The most obvious way of classifying games from a language
they prac-tise: listening games, spelling games, games to help students
build vocabulary, games that bring in a structure or a function and so
on. Figure 1 groups some of the games mentioned in this book under
headings like this.
Looking at the language skills involved is a good start when
considering whether a particular game will be suitable for a particular
purpose, but other features may be just as important Does the game
need the teacher or someone else to act as leader or master of
ceremonies, for example, or can it be played by groups of students on
their own ? Are the players competing, and, if so, in teams or
individually, or is it a game in which players can co-operate ? Is it an
active noisy game or one which can be played
32
quietly sitting at desks? These and other factors make different games
practically as well as pedagogically suitable for different
circumstances.
But, first of all, what is a game? How do games and learning fit
together? Looking at games in general, with examples from the
everyday world well as from games specially designed with teaching
in mind, may help us to pick out features that will be useful in
language teaching and to see what other features will be less useful or
even a waste of time.
A game consists of play governed by rules. Kicking a ball
around in the park is play : adding rules about how and were you
can kick the ball and giving your efforts an objective (like getting
it between two goalposts) turn this play into a game. This is summed
up very well in Gibbs' definition (1978 : P. 60) of a game as ' an
activity carried out by cooperating or competing decision-makers,
seeking to achieve, within a set of rules, their object-tives'.
Applying this to teaching, one can see how students play-ing a game
are encouraged to use language to some purpose. The purpose may be
an artificial one determined by the game, but the skills exercised to
achieve that purpose may be applied in everyday life just like the
skills used in 'ordinary' games. These are many and varied :
coordination of hand and eye in games like netball and tennis,
memory in a game like pelmanism, tactics in draughts or chess.
Whatever the game, the skills employed in it are developed and
improved through the repeated use they get, and, most important, the
players want to improve the skills necessary for a game they enjoy.
Both these principles apply to language games too.
For language- teaching purposes we need to make sure that the
skills needed in any game are heavily enough weighted on the
language side. For example, chess is an excellent game in itself, but it
is almost useless from the language- teaching point of view. The
obvious reason is that players need not communicate with one another
during the game- at least not with words. The skill used in chess are
intellectual and tactical and not linguistic. This
33
Helpful Vocabulary :
in some connection with ِﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﻳﺘﺼﻞ ﺑــــ
language teaching ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ
integrated with ﻣﺘﻜﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻣﻊ
so that they become ﺑﺤﻴﺚ ﺗﺼﺒﺢ
effective user ﻣﺴﺘﺨ ِﺪﻡ ﻓﻌﱠﺎﻝ
way of classifying ﻁﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻟﺘﺼﻨﻴﻒ
his point of view ﻭﺟﻬﺔ ﻧﻈﺮﻩ
listening games ﺃﻟﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻤﺎﻉ
spelling games ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﺘﻬﺠﺌﺔ
language skills ﻣﻬﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﻟﻐﻮﻳﺔ
pedagogically suitable ً ﻣﻼﺋﻢ ﺗﺮﺑﻮﻳﺎ
fit together ً ﺗﺘﻼ َءﻡ ﻣﻌﺎ
with teaching in mind ﻣﻊ ﺍﺳﺘﻬﺪﺍﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ
play governed by rules ﻟَ ِﻌﺐٌ ﻣﺤﻜﻮﻡ ﺑﻘﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ
competing decision-makers ﺻﺎﻧﻌﻮ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻨﺎﻓﺴﻮﻥ
artificial purpose ﻫﺪﻑ ُﻣﺼْ ﻄَﻨَﻊ
many and varied ﻛﺜﻴﺮﺓ ﻭﻣﺘﻨﻮﻋﺔ
coordination of hand and eye ﺗﻨﺎﺳﻖ ﺍﻟﻴﺪ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻴﻦ
language- teaching purposes ﺃﻫﺪﺍﻑ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ
weighted on the language side ﺗﻤﻴﻞ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ
intellectual skill ﻣﻬﺎﺭﺓ ﺫﻫﻨﻴﺔ
considerable adaptation ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ
34
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English derivatives
whenever possible, and write down the Arabic
equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
connection
integrated
positive
play
necessary
spell
involve
suitable
noisy
ceremony
particular
purpose
encourage
cooperate
artificial
govern
excellent
repeat
Exercise 3. Translate these abbreviations :
TEFL ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﺍﻹﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ ﻛﻠﻐﺔ ﺃﺟﻨﺒﻴﺔ TOEFL
TESL ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــLI
TENL ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــL2
TESOL ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﺍﻹﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ ﻟﻤﺘﻜﻠﻤﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ FL
FLT ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــSL
35
UNIT 7
CHANGES IN GEOGRAPHY
TEACHING
The scientific attempt to understand the geography of the world is less than a
century old. It is not surprising that geography should have evolved and developed
as people spread over the world and took possession of its various parts. Since these
times. The world has changed as well as the educational milieu in which geography
is taught.
Changes in the teaching environment
A century ago. the teaching of geography was aidea by wall maps: photographs
were not normaily available. Thirty years ago audio- visual aids. Including a
erial photographs and television. Were in their infancy. Today potential resources
seem almost unlimited in number from census data to computerized data banks,
from maps to various visual illustrations. Such as a erial photography from
remote sensing equipment (see Fig. 7.2). At the present time we can look at
photographs which show us the earth as a whole without needing the mediation
of a cartographer. We are now. therefore. much more familiar with such view of
the earth. from which results a new relationships between man and his planer.
whether or not he is conscious of this. to see the earth as a whole. to see it daily
being transformed. change in colour in a way that one is used to seeing the moon,
will be events as familiar to the pupils of tomorrow as is today their view of the
street outside their home; all this owing to satellite photography.
Changes in the students
The students and pupils of today live in a cultural context very different from that
of 20 years ago. let alone 50 years ago. School. the teacher. the textbook and
teaching aids are no longer the only sources of information: numerous channels
of information are available and used outside the school: magazines and newspapers.
radio, television. All bombard the students each day with a mass of
36
Information, to such an extent that sometimes their reaction is to reject it. Such
information consists either of descriptions of events which have been consciously
or unwittingly or unwittingly distorted, or of interpret- tation of these events
containing value judgements. Such interpreta-tions clearly mediate the reality that
the reader or viewer would have perceived and judged. It is therefore necessary to
teach the young to examine such information critically. To get them to sort out facts
from opinion, which can only be done through their having a wide cognitive
perspective.
But students. the world over, have an unequal experience of space and spatial
relations. Millions of children have never seen the sea, a mountain . a cliff, a glacier.
a skyscraper or farm. In adult life. however, many young people will experience
varied environments. for example the rural and urban landscapes experi-enced by
migrants. Visits to relations in other parts of the world. Holidays, school journeys,
travel grants- all are now faceletating the acquisition of knowledge about a world
which is becoming more and more accessible for some students. Yet. It is still true
that a gulf is growing between the vicarious experience of the world made possible
by the mass media and direct experience made possible by travel. further, such
direct contact with distant parts is becoming more discontinuous. Because it is
possible to fly from once place to another rapidly, personal knowledge of places
separated by long distances may be better than knowledge of intervening areas.
Including areas close to one's home. Direct experience of the world is also made
unequal by income difference. whether these be on a national scale or at the
individual scale within a nation.
Geographical education must be seen. Therefore, as an integral part of the process
of education, since such an education must make the student better able to
understand life on earth by making evident spatial relations and the organization of
space by man. Geographical education cannot be limited to those who in some form
or other hope to practice geography professionally. It seems normal to us that all
children should learn to read. to write. To count and calculate, that is to acquire the
means of communicating with others, so that they may ask questions and give
answers, that they may listen and also be heard, so that they may cope with daily
life, so that they may exploit their aptitudes and develop their personalities. Is it less
natural that students should learn to operate competently in space. To develop the
habit of looking at the spatial aspects of problems. In order that they may better
understand the environments in which they live?
Changes in geographical knowledge
A little more than a century ago. men were still exploring the coasts of certain
continents and wondering about the possible existence of an Antarctic land mass.
The interiors of Africa. Australia and south America were little known to
geographers.
37
Helpful Vocabulary :
not normally available ﻟﻴﺴﺖ ﻣﺘﻮﻓﺮﺓ ﻋﺎﺩﺓ
audio-visual aids ﻭﺳﺎﺋﻞ ﺳﻤﻌﻴﺔ ﻭﺑﺼﺮﻳﺔ
aerial photographs ﺻﻮﺭ ﺟﻮﻳﺔ
census data ﺑﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺇﺣﺼﺎء ﺍﻟﺴﻜﺎﻥ
computerized data ﺑﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ُﻣﺤﻮْ َﺳﺒﺔ
whether or not ﺃﻡ ﻟﻢ ﻳﻜﻦ... ﺳﻮﺍء ﺃﻛﺎﻥ
satellite photography ﺗﺼﻮﻳﺮ ﺍﻷﻗﻤﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ
cultural context ﺳﻴﺎﻕ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﻲ
let alone ﻧﺎﻫﻴﻚ ﻋﻦ
teaching aids ﻭﺳﺎﺋﻞ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻤﻴﺔ
channels of information ﻗﻨﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ
to such an extent that ﺇﻟﻰ ﺣ ّﺪ ﱠ
ﺃﻥ
value judgments ﺃﺣﻜﺎﻡ ﻗِﻴَ ِﻤﻴﱠﺔ
congnitive perspective ﻣﻨﻈﻮﺭ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﻲ
the world over ﻓﻲ ﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﺃﻧﺤﺎء ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ
adult life ﺣﻴﺎﺓ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﻮﻍ
rural and urban landscapes ﻣﻨﺎﻅﺮ ﺭﻳﻔﻴﺔ ﻭﻣﺪﻳﻨﻴﺔ
school journeys ﺭﺣﻼﺕ ﻣﺪﺭﺳﻴﺔ
acquisition of knowledge ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ
mass media ﻭﺳﺎﺋﻞ ﺍﻹﻋﻼﻡ
direct contact ﺍﺗﺼﺎﻝ ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮ
direct experience ﺧﺒﺮﺓ ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮ
38
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English derivatives
whenever possible, and write down the Arabic
equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
map
photograph
television
limited
visual
mediation
remote
live
colour
distort
familiar
judge
event
separated
perceive
evident
migrant
experience
integral
Exercise 3. Translate these expressions :
little by little year by year
day by day hour by hour
step by step dollar by dollar
one by one city by city
39
UNIT 8
THE USE OF THIS
COMPASS
W
E have seen how it is possible to find direction by means
of landmarks the sun. and the stars. But it may easily
happen on a foggy day or a cloudy night that none of
these can be seen. How does the traveler on land, or the sailor on the
sea, find his way then ? He uses an instrument called a compass.
Long ago the Chinese found that a little bar of magnetic iron
always pointed in the same direction if it were allowed to swing
freely. Even a bar of ordinary iron ــ�ـsay, a small poker ــ�ـwill always
come to rest pointing in the same direction if suspended by a string
about its middle. But if the bar is also magnetized, it will come to
rest much more quickly.
At first the little ’’ bar " or needle was floated on water, but men
found it more useful to suspend it on fine pivot, so that it could swing
freely and easily. The Arab borrowed the idea from the Chinese, and it
was the Arabs who passed on the knowledge to Europeans.
The compass needle, then, points always in the some direction.
Why, it is difficult to explain perhaps when you know more science,
and learn more about the laws obeyed by magnets, you will begin to
understand why a magnetic needle always points to the same spot on
the earth's surface.
40
Simple exercises may now be devised to prove that a magnetised
needle always comes to rest pointing in the same direction. Any
number of needles may be sufficiently magnetised by rubbing them on
a large bar or horseshoe magnet. Children may than experiment with
their needles both at school and at home. They will discover the ad-
vantage of the pivoted over the floated needle, and the value of
marking the north-pointing end. It is now easy to understand the value
of the compass card which rides on the black of the needle, and is
carried by it in its swing.
The teacher, of course. Has for school use a large mariner's
compass. Which readily takes to pieces to show the parts. He shows
the needle (from which the card has been removed) and the pivot on
which it swing. He allows it to come to rest side by side with a
magnetised needle floating in a basin of water. Both point in the same
direction He next fixes a blank circular card on the needle's back, and
shows the advantage of it by marking on it the cardinal points, which
children will readily give him.
CONSTRUCTION OF SIMPLE COMPASS CARDS
On a card let children draw a large circle, and through its centre
two diameters at right angles to each other. Name the points N., S., E,.
W. A few exercises will show that these four alone are very
inadequate. Insert N.E., NW., S.W., by drawing thinner diameters
midway between each pair of those already drown. After further
41
Helpful Vocabulary :
use of the compass ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﺒﻮﺻﻠﺔ
traveler on land ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺎﻓﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺒﺮ
sailor on the sea ﺍﻟﺒﺤﱠﺎﺭ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺮ
magnetic iron ﺣﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻐﻨﺎﻁﻴﺴﻲ
will come to rest َﺳﻴﺴْﺘﻘ ّﺮ
if suspended َ ﺇﺫﺍ ُﻋﻠﱢ
ﻖ
compass needle ﺇﺑﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺒﻮﺻﻠﺔ
magnetic needle ﺇﺑﺮﺓ ُﻣﻤ ْﻐﻨَﻄﺔ
horseshoe magnet ﻣﻐﻨﺎﻁﻴﺲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺣﺬﺍء ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺱ
experiment with ﻳُ َﺠﺮﱢﺏ
floated needle ﺍﻹﺑﺮﺓ ﺍﻟ ُﻤ َﻌ ﱠﻮﻣﺔ
north-pointing end ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻑ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﻴﺮ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟ ﱠﺸﻤﺎﻝ
for school use ﻟﻼﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺭﺳﻲ
mariner's compass ﺑﻮﺻﻠﺔ ﺑﺤﺮﻳﺔ، ﺑﻮﺻﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺒَ ﱠﺤﺎﺭ
take to pieces ﺗﻨﻘﺴﻢ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﺟﺰﺍء
basin of water ﺣﻮﺽ ﻣﺎء
42
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English derivatives
whenever possible, and write down the Arabic
equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
sun
direction
possible
star
foggy
sail
cloud
travel
use
magnet
swing
Arab
suspend
law
easy
allow
pass
exercise
Exercise 3. What are the two translations of each verb, as a verb
and as a noun ?
rest point
sun surface
land number
iron show
43
UNIT 9
The PERIOD OF THE
WEARRING STATES
INSTEAD of progressing towards the ideals of a Great Com- monwealth as
conceived by the k ’ung school, the Chinese kingdom further degenerated in
the days of Tseng Ts’an and Tzu-ssu. The Chou sovereign remained on the
throne, but his authority was disregarded and his prerogative as the son of
Heaven was confined to religious matters alone. In conse- quence, even his
norminal kingship was challenged by the feudal lords of the great states. In
the course of time these rulers assumed one after another the presumptuous
title of king, thus making themselves equals of the Chou sovereign not only
in fact but also in name. what a severe blow it would have been to master
k’ung, the feudal torch-bearer had he lived on to these unruly times !
The period after Master k’ung is known in history as that of the Warring
states. An appropriate name, it speaks elo-quently of the turbulent conditions
of the age. As a result of the continuous wars the political situation in China
was greatly changed, and seven big states now emerged to over-run
practically the whole country. These were Ch’I in the east, Ch’u in the south,
Ch’in in the north-west, yon, a new power, in the north-east, and Hen, wei,
and Chao, off- spring of the mighty Tsin, in the north. At the same time,
those small principalities that had flourished in Master k’ung's time had been
either eliminated from the scene or squeezed between their strong
neighbours with barely any space for a lingering existence. The entire
history of the period was therefore on of endless struggle for supremacy
among the great powers.
In an ago where might was right, the rulers of these con- tending states
all strove to build up a powerful army for the
44
Pursuit of their selfish ends. Their desire for conquest was insatiable; their
ambitions were overwhelming. Wars, moreover, were no longer governed by
a feudal code of honour as in the olden days, but fought to a finish in the
most devastating manner possible with a great deal of blood-shed. Lands
were annexed and subjects enslaved. while enemy soldiers were massacred
by the thousands. On the debris of fallen cities and the mounds of the dead
there rose to eminence and power intriguing politicians. Ruthless gene-rals,
and autocratic rulers, who all wallowed in wealth at the expense of the
common people.
With increasing riches and power the kings of the War-ring states
indulged themselves to such an extent that their lusts and dissipations
belittled even the licentious excesses of the earlier days. In almost every
state the rulers lived in great pomp. They wore gorgeous garments
ornamented with pearls and jade; owned carved boats and embroidered
carriages; lived in magnificent places with porches and pavilions. They also
indulged in feasting and carousing. The lord of a large state was served with
a hundred courses, so much so that ’eyes could not see all the dishes, hands
could not handle them all, and the mouth could not taste them all.' Even the
minister of a small principality like Wey, ac- cording to a contemporary
witness, had in his house hun-dreds of decorated vehicles, hundreds of
horses fed with grain, and several hundred concubines clothed in finery.
From these stories the extravagance of a great king can be well imagined.
The above picture affords a striking contrast to the sad plight of the
peasants, who were weighed down by the trip burdens of war, taxation. And
conscription. Their miseries were graphically described by Meng K’o, who,
speaking of his time, asserted that while there was fat meat in the lord's
kitchen and three were fat horses in the lord's stable the people were a
picture of hunger and privation. Meng K’o further stated that in times of
plenty immense stores of provisions were consumed by armies ingaged in
war, while in calamitous years the old and feeble died by the thousands in
valleys and ditches, and the able-bodied were scattered about to the four
quarters of the globe. Such disorganization of the rural community
constituted a serious threat to the very fabric of feudal society
45
Helpful Vocabulary :
warring states ﺩﻭﻝ ﻣﺘﺤﺎﺭﺑﺔ
Chinese kingdom ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻨﻴﺔ
Was confined to ﻛﺎﻥ ﻣﻘﺘﺼﺮﺍً ﻋﻠﻰ
nominal kingship َﻣﻠﻜﻴﺔ ﺍﺳﻤﻴﺔ
in the course of time ﻣﻊ ﻣﺮﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺖ
severe blow ﺿﺮﺑﺔ ﻗﺎﺳﻴﺔ
had he lived ﻟﻮ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻋﺎﺵ
turbulent conditions ﻅﺮﻭﻑ ﻣﻀﻄﺮﺑﺔ
political situation ﺍﻟﻮﺿﻊ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻲ
struggle for supremacy ﺻﺮﺍﻉ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺩﺓ
might was right ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﻖ ﻟﻠﻘﻮﺓ
selfish ends ﺃﻫﺪﺍﻑ ﺃﻧﺎﻧﻴﺔ
desire for conquest ﺍﻟﺮﻏﺒﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﻮﺣﺎﺕ
in the most devastating manner possible ﺑﺄﻛﺒﺮ ﺗﺪﻣﻴﺮ ﻣﻤﻜﻦ
… subjects enslaved … ﻣﻮﺍﻁﻨﻮﻥ ﺍ ْﺳﺘُﻌﺒﺪﻭﺍ
Debris of fallen cities ﺃﻧﻘﺎﺽ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻬﺰﻭﻣﺔ
Increasing riches ﺛﺮﻭﺍﺕ ﻣﺘﺰﺍﻳﺪﺓ
Great pomp ﺃُﺑﱢﻬَﺔ ﻋﻈﻴﻤﺔ
magnificent palaces ﻗﺼﻮﺭ ﺭﺍﺋﻌﺔ
so much so that ﺇﻟﻰ ﺣ ّﺪ ﱠ
ﺃﻥ
contemporary witness ﺷﺎﻫﺪ ﻣﻌﺎﺻﺮ
trip burdens ﺙ
ِ ﺃﻋﺒﺎء ﺛﺎﻟﻮ
46
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English derivatives
whenever possible, and write down the Arabic
equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
degenerate
disregard
nominal
assume
feudal
might
eloquent
flourish
power
strive
conquest
dead
ambition
magnificent
decorate
witness
extravagant
belittle
Exercise 3. These words can be used as verbs and nouns Translate
them, showing the two usages .
name neighbor
age struggle
spring end
war finish
47
UNIT 10
THE HUMANITY
OF ASIA
The need today is for philosophers and schoolsــــwhether in
Asia or Europe or Africa or the Americasــــwho will address
Themselves to the human situation. The need now is to talk not
About geographic destiny but about human destiny.
ـــــNORMAN COSINS
Asia is people. People till Asia's earth, write Asia's poetry, make
Asia's laws, fight Asia's ware, and dream Asia's dreams. Asians are people
with a destiny. Few Westerners grasp the meaning of this destiny, because
few outside Asia fully comprehend the humanity of Asian. They think of
them first as inhabitants of a region called Asia, and only second as fellow
human beings.
The humanity which Asians share with the rest of mankind and which
nourishes the seeds of Asian destiny is overlooked by most foreigners in
their preoccupation with the cultural differences which distinguish Asians
from themselves. This preoccupation with eye-catching differences blinds
them to the basic human needs, human drives, and human aspirations of the
Asian people. They do not see the dynamic human forces which move Asian
to act. They see only the acts, and these are acts Westerner would not
normally perform. The Asian mother who sells her daughter, the Asian
laborer who smokes his pipe of opium, the two Japanese lovers who commit
suicide together, the Indian who wanders off to become an ascetic leaving
his family behindـــthese are some of the acts often head-lined in Western
minds as the peculiar substance of Asian humanity
Most people cannot imagine the anguish of this Asian mother pushed to a
decision by the spectre of famine. They do not under-stand the harshness of
the laborer,s life relieved only by a better world given him by the opium
pipe. Many cannot appreciate the despair that grips those Japanese lovers
when they find every avenue of a future happiness together closed to
them. Few people in the
48
World outside of India comprehend the spirit that moves an Indian
ascetic to live a life of constant sacrifice. Thus, most Westerners
are led to think of Asians in terms of the mysterious and the in-
scrutable. People who act so differently seem alien, even frighten-ing.
It becomes easy to reduce Asians to stereotypes. Indians are ascetic to
live a life of constant sacrifice. Thus, most westerners are led to think of
Asians in terms of the mysterious and the in-scrutable. People who act so
differently seem alien, even frighten-ing.
It becomes easy to reduce Asians to stereotypes. Indians are "mystical,"
"cow-worshippers," and, until recently, "a peaceful peo-ple." Japan is a land
where is a land where all men have buck teeth and all women wear beautiful
kimonos. It is also the land of the cherry blossom festivals, people with
soldiers who always fight fanatically and make suicide charges. Tow
prominent writers about Asian people have commented with insight upon
these stereotypes with regard to Japan. Frank Gibney in five Gentlemen of
Japan writes:"it is hard to pour them [ the five Japanese individuals he is
describing ] into the rigid casts of ' Japanese character' which foreigners at
different times have constructed… it is hard to fit them into the land of
Madame Butterfly and never-ending cherry blossom festivals, faith-fully and
gullibly described by generations of Western tourists." James A. Michener in
the floating World states: "about the only generalization I could accept about
the Japanese is that they will all have black hair."
Thinking in terms of stereotypes has influenced Americans ـــand othersــــ
to draw a line separating 'Eastern' man from" Western" man. On one side of
the line there is an "Eastern" way of life ـــalien, quaint, and mysterious. On
the other side of the line there is a "Western" way of life ـــhuman, normal,
and understandable. This belief is classically expressed in Kipling,
statement: "East is East, and West is West. And never the twain shall meet."
Kipling, like many today, was unfamiliar with the process known as
cultural diffusion. Both "Both "Easterners" have bor-rowed material
products, as ideas, mores, and other intangi-bles, from each other and
adapted them to their own cultures. Many non-Asians have learned to taste
and like the many spices that come from Asia, enjoy the coolness of silk
pajamas upon the skin, and delight in the green depths of their jade rings.
Pajamas are a cultural import from India, while silk and jade rings originated
in china and southeast Asia.
49
Helpful Vocabulary :
till Asia's earth ﻳﺤﺮﺛﻮﻥ ﺃﺭﺽ ﺁﺳﻴﺎ
grasp the meaning ﻳﻔﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ
humanity of Asians ﺇﻧﺴﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺍﻵﺳﻴﻮﻳﻴﻦ
rest of mankind ﺍﻟﺒﺶ
َ ﺑﺎﻗﻲ
cultural differences ﻓﺮﻭﻕ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﻴﺔ
blind them to ﺗُﻌْﻤﻴﻬﻢ ﻋﻦ
human drives ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺍﻓﻊ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻧﻴﺔ
human aspirations ﺍﻟﻄﻤﻮﺣﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻧﻴﺔ
harshness of life ﻗﺴﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺎﺓ
Indian ascetic ﺯﺍﻫﺪ ﻫﻨﺪﻱ
suicide charges ﻫَﺠْ ﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻧﺘﺤﺎﺭﻳﺔ
Japanese character ﺍﻟﺸﺨﺼﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻴﺎﺑﺎﻧﻴﺔ
Eastern man ﺍﻟﺮﺟﻞ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻗﻲ
cultural diffusion ﺍﻧﺘﺸﺎﺭ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﻲ
cultural import ُﻣﺴْﺘﻮﺭ َﺩ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﻲ
human needs ﺣﺎﺟﺎﺕ ﺇﻧﺴﺎﻧﻴﺔ
East is East ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻕ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻕ
West is west ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺏ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺏ
50
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English derivatives
whenever possible, and write down the Arabic
equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
write
war
dream
destiny
nourish
Asia
differ
region
peculiar
aspire
suicide
sell
recent
despair
mysterious
Exercise 3. How do you translate these pairs ?
Austria Australia `
Venus Venice
the west the West
the east the East
carton cartoon
stationery stationary
effect affect
fact fiction
51
UNIT 11
LITERATURE AS A
SPECIALIST SUBJECT
The main difference between the use of representational materials as part or language
learning. and the use of literature as a specialist discipline for L2 students, is one of
focus. Where in language learning the emphasis has been on theme or subject matter for
the specific aim of language development, in literature study the emphasis will be on
text , author and period. There is no need for the communicative and interactive
principles, already found, suddenly to be discarded as we move into the realm of
specialisation. English for Academic purposes need present no more difficulties, or
arcane mysteries, than any other kind of English study.
The methodology so far discussed in this book is wholly applicable to the context of
academic English studyــsay for a degree in English, or for a teacher-training
qualification. The approaches we have seen are indeed an indispensable introduction to
the study of literature. Too often in university all over the world, literature study is not
related to language learning; one is considered something of a superior discipline, the
other an inferior exercise (often entrusted to lower-level personnel). Language learning
and literary study are interdependent and in a specialist context, should be seen as
complementary at all stages in the educational process.
Only in this way can the situation be avoided whereby an L2 learner at beginner or
false-beginner level finds that Chaucer is the first author on the programme. The
absurdity of learning the different usages of the simple present and present Continuous
tenses while battling through the 'Nun's priest's Tale' may seem far-fetched, but is, in
fact, a not uncommon occurrence in English L2 degree courses.
The emphasis on the historical study of literature in an academic contexi is not
threatened by a contrastive approach to selected passages from major and minor writers.
The approach is a necessary introduction not only to a wide range of writers, styles and
content, but also to ways of looking at text and of examining them in depth.
Where the exploitation of a text for non-specialist learners may stop short of close
examination of, say, metonymy and metaphor, stylistic devices or the historical context of
the writing, the teacher of a more specialized class can move on with the same texts to
investigate those elements that will bring the students into contact with such features of
historical language, authorial style and period context that are required in history of
literature curriculum at tertiary level.
52
The emphasis on the test as the starting-point for all literature study is of paramount
importance. The metalanguage of literary study which can comfortably be avoided in
non-specialist use of representational materials, has here to be integrated into the
apparatus. Basically, the teachniques applied in terms of text selection and grading,
apparatus, and classroom practice will remain the same: the variable is the teaching aim.
whether the level is secondary school or university does not actually make a great
difference in the initial stages; beginners are beginners whether they are fourteen,
twenty, or sixty years old. There is, of course, the question of students being mature
enough to handle the themes presented, but, to all intents and purposes, if a group of
texts is going to work at all with L2 students. the maturity level and the intellectual level
tie closely with the basic question of accessibility and the importance of what the
readers are required to do with the text .
A literature study curriculum has to make greater demands on students. Quite simply,
the learning objectives include literary aspects as well as the language-learning aspects
which interest the non-specialist teacher and learner. So, in addition to the deeper study
of individual texts, there will necessarily be more texts from aider range of periods and
contexts in a specialized programme. The structure of such a programme will move
more rapidly to extended reading: from extract to short story to novel, for example; or
from a scene to a complete play; or from one poem to reading of several. The thematic
content of one text is thus seen in comparison with an extended thematic and stylistic
range. Back-ground, historical context and literary developments, however, are always
best related to the text the students start from. To return to an example quoted in
Chapter 6, specialist students who have read complementary passages from Animal
Farm and paradise Lost can refer their reading to the historical, social and political
context in which these two very different works (which, we have seen, share the theme
of rebellion) were written.
I deliberately underline this example in order to show now precon-ceived notions
about author, period or text can come between the student and an interactive reading of
the text. Million, thought of as the creator of an epic poem on the Fall of Man-which
was intended to explain Man's 'disobedience' and his place in the great scheme of
things-is a considerably more daunting Milton than the one students can alternatively be
introduced to, who wrote about the violent rebellion of some independent angels in
Heaven. Similarly, the Orwell who is seen writing a sharp allegory against
totalitarianism is quite different from the author of a passage where animals take over a
farm from humans. The tale, not the teller, must come first-or, as Brecht put it to his
actors, 'show me, don’ts tell me. The text is the showing, all the rest is input which
comes between the reader and the text. Of course, it is highly relevant and, indeed,
useful input. But when information about the text is give before the reader has the
chance to experience the text for him-or herself, it gets in the way, it impedes direct
interaction, conditions the reader's reactions and responses, destroys the innocence of
reading.
53
Helpful Vocabulary :
L2 students ﻁﻼﺏ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ
language development ﺍﻟﻨﻤ ّﻮ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﻮﻱ
literature study ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺍﻷﺩﺏ
realm of specialization ﻣﺠﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﺨﺼﺺ
English for Academic Purposes ﺍﻹﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ ﻷﻫﺪﻑ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﻴﺔ، ﺍﻹﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ ﻷﻫﺪﺍﻑ ﺃﻛﺎﺩﻳﻤﻴﺔ
Indispensable introduction ﻣﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﻻ ﻏﻨﻰ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ
contrastive approach ﻧﻬ ٌﺞ ﻣﻘﺎ َﺭﻥ، ﻧﻬﺞ ﺗﻘﺎﺑﻠﻲ
examine in depth ﻳﺘﻔﺤﺺ ﺑﻌﻤﻖ
non-specialist learners ﻣﺘﻌﻠﻤﻮﻥ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺨﺘﺼﻴﻦ
authorial style ﺃﺳﻠﻮﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﺆﻟﱢﻒ
period context ﺍﻟﺤ ْﻘﺒﺔ
ِ ﺳﻴﺎﻕ
literature curriculum ﻣﻨﻬﺞ ﺍﻷﺩﺏ
of paramount importance ﺫﻭ ﺃﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﻓﺎﺋﻘﺔ
text selection ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﺼﻮﺹ
specialized program ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﻣﺘﺨﺼﺺ
extended reading ﻗﺮﺍءﺓ ﻣﻮﺳﱠﻌﺔ
complementary passages ﻗِﻄَ ٌﻊ ﺗﻜﻤﻴﻠﻴﺔ
preconceived notions ﺃﻓﻜﺎﺭ ُﻣ ْﺴﺒَﻘﺔ
come between ﺗَﺤُﻮ ُﻝ ﺑﻴﻦ
epic poem ﻗﺼﻴﺪﺓ ﻣﻠﺤﻤﻴﺔ
violent rebellion ﺗﻤﺮﺩ ﻋﻨﻴﻒ
direct interaction ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮ
54
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English derivatives
whenever possible, and write down the Arabic
equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
represent
literature
interact
emphasis
mystery
applicable
superior
context
occur
superior
battle
require
minor
extend
question
human
begin
author
sharp
Exercise 3. Translate these pairs :
examiner examinee
trainer trainee
payer payee
employer employee
55
UNIT 12
THE PURPOSES AND
FUNCTION OF
THE STATE
For what purposes does the state exist. This question has been asked many times
in every ago from the beginning of political society. It is indeed the fundamental
question of politics. Should the state do a certain thing, or refrain from doing it ?
Different answers have been given by patricians and plebeians, cavaliers and
puritans, and individualists and socialists as each group has urged that the adoption
of its own ideas would best subserve the interests of society as a whole. The building
of irrigation works in ancient Mesopotamia, the protection of commerce in
Carthage , the development of the cultured man in Athens ـــall must have appeared
to be essential lunctions of the state along with protection from invasion and
maintenance of order. In more recent times, state action for the enhancement of
resources for the proper distribution of wealth, and for social services have seemed
important. There is no single best theory concern-ing the purposes of the state that
will be valid at all times and for all societies. The political scientist should consider
how far advanced in civilization a society is, the stage of its political development,
the nature of the problems that it faces, and its needs and aspiration. Changes in
social conditions beget altered concepts of the purposes of the state.
THE PURPOSES OF THE STATE
A brief analysis of purposes provides a useful frame of refer-ence for evaluating
theories of state functions. The purposes or ends of the state are the ultimate aims for
which it exists.
Establishment of Order. A primary end of the state is to in-sure freedom from
invasion and to secure domestic tranquility
56
and justice for its people. The existence of the state can hardly be justified unless it
succeeds reasonably will in achieving this end. The attainment of all other objectives
depends on the suc- cess of the state in securing the highest degree of order
consistent with the liberties of individuals and of groups in the society.
Promotion of Individual Welfare. Nearly all modern theory stresses the
importance of the individual. The very existence of the state creates a condition in
which individual progress can be realized. Whether the individual fares best through
decisions "made for him" or through decisions "or through decisions" mad by him
"constitutes an essential difference between totalitarian and democratic theory.
Democratic theory recognizes the inherent worth of the individual and seeks to
provide the most favorable conditions, consistent with the interests of society as a
whole, under which he may complete the fulfillment of his personality. Among
these conditions are the protection of personal rights and effective participation in
government.
Promotion of General Welfare. A third end of the state is the development of
public capacities. This involves care for the common interests of the society and
provision for united ac- tion in achieving goals which individuats or associations
can not achieve by themselves. It involves the reconciliation of interests among
groups and between individuals or groups and the society as a whole.
Promotion of Morality. One of the oldest and must persistent theories declares
that an essential purpose of the state is to pro- mote morality among its people.
Applications of the theory in various ages have usually been attempts to impose
upon a citi- zenry one standard of morality, one code of conduct, or one religion.
There is something incongruous in the use of force with resulting loss in the
maintenance of order (moral action depends upon voluntary behavior). However.
The state is not oliged to remain neutral on such maters. It may punish vicious and
criminal conduct by criminal laws and it may en-courage good conduct by means of
various reward.
THE FUNCTIONS OF THE STATES
Theorists may be in substantial agreement concerning the pur-poses of the state and
yet be poles apart in their ideas of state function. The functions of the state may be
defined in terms of the particular activities in which it engages.
57
Helpful Vocabulary :
political society ﻣﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﺳﻴﺎﺳﻲ
protection of commerce ﺣﻤﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﺓ
cultured man ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﻘﻒ
maintenance of order ﺣﻔﻆ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ
enhancement of resources ﺗﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺭﺩ
distribution of wealth ﺗﻮﺯﻳﻊ ﺍﻟﺜﺮﻭﺓ
single best theory ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺜﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻮﺣﻴﺪﺓ
altered concepts ﻣﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﻣﺘﻐﻴﺮﺓ
frame of reference ﺇﻁﺎ ُﺭ ﻣﺮﺟﻌﻴ ٍﺔ
evaluating theories ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻴﻴﻢ
state functions ﻭﻅﺎﺋﻒ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ
ultimate aims ﺃﻫﺪﺍﻑ ﻧﻬﺎﺋﻴﺔ
individual welfare ﺭﻓﺎﻫﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩ
the very existence of the state ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺫﺍﺗﻪ
personal rights ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺷﺨﺼﻴﺔ
effective participation ﻣﺸﺎﺭﻛﺔ ﻓﻌﱠﺎﻟﺔ
general welfare ﺍﻟﺮﻓﺎﻫﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ، ﺍﻟﺨﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ
reconciliation of interests ﺍﻟﺘﻮﻓﻴﻖ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺎﻟﺢ
criminal conduct ﺳﻠﻮﻙ ﺇﺟﺮﺍﻣﻲ
applications of the theory ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ
attempts to impose ﻣﺤﺎﻭﻻﺕ ﻟﻔﺮﺽ
resulting loss ﺧﺴﺎﺭﺓ ﻧﺎﺟﻤﺔ
58
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English derivatives
whenever possible, and write down the Arabic
equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
exist
Protect
function
social
beget
politics
evaluate
free
end
invade
do
aspiration
individual
wealth
favorable
alter
consider
progress
Exercise 3. Translate these words , showing two different meanings
:
purpose answer
question interest
function change
single stage
aim state
59
UNIT 13
CHANING STUDENT NEEDS
AND A TEACHER'S
ROLE
There is little doubt that educators face more intense challenges with
students today than they did 30 years ago. Students come to school socially
and emotionally depleted and ill-prepared to learn. At home, students live
with parental indifference, social isolation hopelessness, and even physical
and emotional abuse and neglect Some students deal with even more
difficult home situations such as parental mental illness, alcoholism, drug
addiction, or criminal be- havior. All these unfavorable social conditions
place young people at risk of becoming involved in unproductive or even
self-destructive behavior. An at-risk or high-risk youth is defined as one who
is facing two obstacles to healthy development: the inner obstacle of unmet
needs and the outer obstacle of increasing environmental stresses (Burns,
1994). Even young people who come from loving, supportive homes can
become at risk, especially during adolescence, because of negative peer
pressure or antagonistic environmental conditions. Adverse living conditions
are threatening the healthy emotional and social development of children.
They are obstacles that young people must successfully overcome if they are
to grow up to be productive well-adjusted adults. Unfortunately, many
young people simply survive these adverse situations by engaging in their
own self-destructive activities, such as drug and alcohol abuse, dropping out
of school, or gang activities. Such self-destructive behaviors place these kids
at risk for perpetuating the cycle of poverty, abuse, or criminal activity with
which they grew up. The door to what other-wise may have been bright
futures close.
As educators, we are all too familiar with the adverse situations students
deal with daily and with the feelings of hopelessness and powerlessness as
we watch young people set themselves on a path-
60
way to self-destruction. We know the problems. Frustrated,disheat-ened, and
sometimes overwhelmed. we want answers. We need to learn effective,
appropriate ways to deal with the complicated hu-man situations we must
face daily in the classroom.
This book describes appropriate effective ways for teachers to help
students deal with the adverse situations they face. It illustrates ways
teachers can make a difference for the growing number of students living in
high-risk situations or living at-risk lives. Based on a qualitative study
completed in 1994 (Deiro, 1994), this book illus- trates an appropriate role
teachers can assume to help these students. This role is not another add-on to
further overload a teacher's current busy schedule. The suggested role
involves teacher behaviors that are natural, intrinsic parts of a teacher's
responsibilities. In essence, this book suggest ways for teachers to
simultaneously improve their teaching skills and help at-risk students.
The book begins with a discussion about ways teachers can make a
difference for students by presenting evidence that demonstrates the
importance of building meaningful connections with young peo-ple. It
affirms that the most powerful and effective way teachers can help young
people overcome the negative impact of adverse situ-ation and become
productive citizens is by developing a close and trusting relationship with
their students. The book first establishes that the healthy development of
children in today,s society is de-pendent on more adults becoming
meaningfully involved in chil-dren's lives. Then using this premise, it
explores an appropriate role teachers can assume that allows them to become
meaningfully in-volved in the lives of their students.
Bonding as a key to
Healthy Adolescent Development
Bounding with prosocial adults has been identified as the key protective
factor buffering children against the influence of adverse situations
(Benard,1991;Brook, Brook, Gordon, Whiteman,&Cohen, 1990;
Hawkins,Catalano, & Miller,1992). Prosocial here refers to individuals who
obey the laws of society and respect our social norms. For example, bonds
with a parent who smokes marijuana or who disrespects the law do not foster
healthy social and emotional development, whereas bonds with a parent who
61
models good work habits, chooses not to abuse drugs, and shows active
concern for the welfare of others do promote healthy development.
Helpful Vocabulary :
intense challenges ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺎﺕ ﺷﺪﻳﺪﺓ
parental indifference ﻻ ﻣﺒﺎﻻﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﻟﺪﻳﻦ
social isolation ﻋ ُْﺰﻟﺔ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ
home situations ﻅﺮﻭﻑ ﻣﻨﺰﻟﻴﺔ، ﺃﻭﺿﺎﻉ ﻣﻨﺰﻟﻴﺔ
mental illness ﻣﺮﺽ ﻧﻔﺴﻲ
drug addiction ﺇﺩﻣﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺪﺭﺍﺕ
self-destructive behavior ﺳﻠﻮﻙ ﻣﺪﻣﺮ ﻟﻠﺬﺍﺕ
healthy development ﻧﻤﻮ ّﺻ ﱠﺤ ّﻲ، ﻧﻤ ّﻮ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ
unmet needs ﺣﺎﺟﺎﺕ ﻏﻴﺮ ُﻣ ْﺸﺒَ َﻌﺔ
increasing environmental stresses ﺿﻐﻮﻁﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﺌﻴﺔ ﻣﺘﺰﺍﻳﺪﺓ
negative peer pressure ﺿﻐﻂ ﺍﻷﻗﺮﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﺒﻲ
well-adjusted adults ﺑﺎﻟﻐﻮﻥ ﺣﺴﻨﻮ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﻴﻒ
gang activities ﻧﺸﺎﻁﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺼﺎﺑﺎﺕ
cycle of poverty ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻔﻘﺮ
hopelessness and powerlessness ﺍﻟﻴﺄﺱ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﺠﺰ
appropriate role ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﺳﺐ
disrespect the law ﻻ ﻳﺤﺘﺮﻡ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ
prosocial adult ً ﺑﺎﻟﻎ ﻣﺘﻮﺍﺋﻢ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺎ
trusting relationship ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺛﻘﺔ
busy schedule ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﺰﺩﺣﻢ
62
overload the teacher ﻳ ُْﺜﻘﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﱢﻢ
63
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English derivatives
whenever possible, and write down the Arabic
equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
face
intense
behavior
emotion
powerless
base
hopeless
illustrate
answer
frustrated
factor
indifferent
health
explore
improve
situation
involve
concern
Exercise 3. Translate these pairs :
student ﻁﺎﻟﺐ pupil ﺗﻠﻤﻴﺬ
little few
some several
much many
child infant
adolescent adult
64
UNIT 14
TEACHING METHOD
COMPARED
WITH OTHER EDUCATIONAL
CONCEPTS
As we have already said. it would be irrational to examine one educational phe- nomenon in
isolation from another: when examining a concept it is incumbent upon the examiner to
determine its proper position and its principal associations with other concepts. The
deceptively simple daily scholastic routine is a process at once so complex and dynamic as to
rule out an examination of the concept of teaching methods in isolation lest the reality should
be distorted. In view of this. we purport to inscribe' the concept of teaching methods into the
'circumference' of education as such and bind it closely to the current problems of Soviet
education theory and daily school practice
It may be appropriate to in invoke an analogy between the linkages between educa-tional
categories applied to teaching and that of the components used in building construction.
The builders first come out with an idea or a design for the future edifice. as do the
educationists in relation to the educational goal. The principles of building each-nology and
architecture govern the realization of a design in much the same way as the theoretical
principles of teaching govern the realization of teaching goals. The building materials
specified in the architectural plans evoke analogy with the sub-stance or content of education.
The methods and teachniques of construction, pre-supposing the use of specific technical and
other equipment, may be compared with the methods and techniques of teaching. The detailed
organization of the works, designers and engineers on the site is another essential component
of construction similar to the organization of the educational process. The above analogies
serve to emphasize the integrity of the main components introduced into the process of
education similar to the integrity of the main components introduced into the process of
education similar to the integrity of building components introduced into the process of
construction. However. The provision of all the components making up a modern human
being is a much more challenging enterprise than the creation of an edifice, no matter how
grandiose.
65
Goals and methods
Teaching methods are first and foremost connected with teaching goals, either directly or
indirectly, through the content of education. In a modern socialist
society [1] :
The purpose of public education in the USSR is to train highly educated. Comprehensively
developed and active builders of communist society, reared on the ideas of Marxism-Lenin- ism, in the
spirit of respect for Soviet laws and socialist law and order, communist attitude to work, physically
healthy and capable of successfully working in different areas of economic, social and cultural
construction, actively participating in social and state activities, ready to selflessly defend their socialist
Homeland, to preserve and augment her material and culture wealth, protect and preserve nature. Public
education in the USSR is called upon to ensure the development and the satisfaction of the cultural and
intellectual requirements of Soviet man.
Proceeding from the Marxist-Leninist propositions with regard to the all- round and
harmonious development of the personality, one can describe the goals of educa- tion as
ideological and political, moral and ethical, intellectual, aesthetic and phy- sical; the
interconnections are sufficient for them to be viewed as a whole. Personal qualities may in
turn be described as living in the areas of competence, skills. Convictions. behaviours,
attitudes and action patterns. One of the principal object-tives of education is to inculcate
communist ideology and moral principles, which presupposes a scientific understanding of
nature. an understanding closely linked with daily life. Attitudes to work are also considered
vitai- an honest attitude to work; an ardent desire to work for the common good; not merely
for personal profit but as long as work is identified with public benefits-such are the qualities
highly cherished by the communists. It is at work and through study that one develops a sense
of being part of a community-an organized entity- a sense of discipline and duty. Basically, it
amounts to the formation of such universally cherished human qualities as mutual respect,
mutual aid, loyalty, sincerity, self-criticism and mod-esty.
It is by motivating every school boy and girl to participate in collective socially-useful
work, in working out socialist standards of mutual attitudes and behaviours that one should be
able to mould a personality worthy of a new socialist society. Marx emphasized the
importance of encouraging the individual to interact actively and creatively with his social
environment, as well as of motivating children to participate (as far as educational goats are
concerned) in the work of adults. The process of making a man involves the assimilation and
careful processing of human cultural heritage, since it is man who creates the world and his
own self. Combining productive work with study is understood by Marxists as the only means
of moulding a harmoniously developed personality' [2]. Also of importance to all- round
personality development are proper education. good health, and honest morals and ethics.
Thus, education takes its bearings from a profoundly humanistic approach. Viewed from this
humanistic stance, the goals of formal education pre- suppose an active cognitive effort on the
part of the pupils so that they have a scientific method of acquiring knowledge which can be
used to acquire more knowledge in the future.
It is already at the school desk that a foundation is laid for continuous learning, involving
the development from an early age of a lifelong quest for knowledge, which may assume the
many and varied forms of self-instruction and. as a rule, go hand-in-hand with social and
66
productive activities; or else, continuous learning may be combined with formal education in
colleges and universities. The soviet Communist Party programme states: … the education of
the younger generation should be closely linked with daily life and productive work. While
the adults could combine work in the sphere of production with continuous study, which can
only be of benefit to society [3] .
Helpful Vocabulary :
educational phenomenon ﻅﺎﻫﺮﺓ ﺗﺮﺑﻮﻳﺔ
principal associations ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺭﺋﻴﺴﻴﺔ
teaching methods ﺃﺳﺎﻟﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ
daily scholastic routine ﺍﻟ ﱠﺮﺗَﺎﺑَﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺭﺳﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻣﻴﺔ
in view of this ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻹﻁﺎﺭ
current problems ﺍﻟﻤﺸﻜﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﻴﺔ
building construction ﺇﻗﺎﻣﺔ ﺑﻨﺎﻳﺔ
theoretical principles ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺉ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ
realization of teaching goals ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺍﻷﻫﺪﺍﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻤﻴﺔ
educational process ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻮﻳﺔ
above analogies ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﻛﻮﺭﺓ ﺃﻋﻼﻩ
integrity of components ﺗﻜﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ
intellectual requirements ﻣﺘﻄﻠﺒﺎﺕ ﺫﻫﻨﻴﺔ
action patterns ﺃﻧﻤﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺘﺼ ّﺮﻑ
moral principles ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺉ ﺃﺧﻼﻗﻴﺔ
closely linked with ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺑﺸﺪﺓ ﺑـــ
the common good ﺍﻟﺼﺎﻟﺢ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ
67
sense of discipline ﺇﺣﺴﺎﺱ ﺑﺎﻻﻧﻀﺒﺎﻁ
mutual respect ﺍﺣﺘﺮﺍﻡ ﻣﺘﺒﺎﺩَﻝ
social environment ﺑﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ
cultural heritage ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺍﺙ ﺍﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻲ
all-round personality development ﻧﻤﻮ ﺍﻟﺸﺨﺼﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻜﺎﻣﻠﺔ
lifelong quest for knowledge ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻲ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﻢ ﻭﺭﺍء ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ، ﻁﻠﺐ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻣﺪﻯ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺎﺓ
68
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English derivatives
whenever possible, and write down the Arabic
equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
distort
complex
examine
introduce
provision
challenge
construction
productive
emphasize
equipment
continuous
motivate
education
profound
acquire
foundation
sufficient
presuppose
Exercise 3. Translate these words related to the same field of
education :
school college
university institute
institution kindergarten
nursery high school
69
UNIT 15
SOCIAL AND MORAL
DEVELOPMENT
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
1 describe and evaluate psychodynamic, learning theory and cognitive
approaches to development;
2 compare and contrast these three developmental approaches;
3 describe psychodynamic. Social learning theory and cognitive
approaches to moral development;
4 evaluate these approaches in the light of empirical evidence;
5 briefly describe some research into
(a) the effects of parental discipline and
(b) peer-group influences on moral development.
INTRODUCTION
Three major theoretical approaches have contributed to out knowledge of social and
moral behaviour:
1 the psychodynamic approach which arises from Freud's theory of personality
development;
2 the learning theory approach, which is based on the work of the early
Behaviourists such as Watson, Pavlov and Thorndike, and currently upheld by
psychologists such as Skinner and Bandura;
3 the cognitive approach which is derived largely from Piaget's theory of
cognitive development.
Each approach will be considered in turn.
SECTION I: PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH
INTRODUCTION
Freud's psychoanalytic view of child development has had a profound
70
effect on psychological thinking since its introduction in the early part of this
century.
Originally trained as a doctor, Freud's interest in neurology led him to specialize in
nervous disorders. He noted that many neurotic disorders exhibited by his patients
appeared to stem from former traumatic experiences rather than from physical
complaints. Freud gradually developed his now famous psychoanalytic treatment of
emotional and personality disorders.
Psychoanalysis involves the use of three major techniques:
1 'free association' ـــencouraging patients to express the free flow of thoughts
entering their minds;
2 analysis of dreams;
3 interpretation of 'slips of speech' and other 'accidental events'.
Each of these techniques, Freud believed, would penetrate the unconscious mind
of the patient and reveal thoughts, feelings and motivations of which the patient was
not consciously aware.
From this early work emerged Freud's monumental theory of the human mind and
personality. Central to the theory are his belief in:
- the importance of early childhood experiences for later personality and emotional
development:
- the existence of the unconscious mind harbouring repressed memories
which motivate and influence conscious thoughts and behaviour;
- the existence of instinctual drives which motivate and regulate human
behaviour even in childhood. The source of these drives is psychic energy, and
the most important, the libido, is sexual in nature. Libido is a force which
compels humans to behave in ways
which are likely to reproduce the species.
- the importance of defence mechanisms such as repression (removing painful
experiences from conscious memory); regression (reverting back to earlier
ways of behaving in order to escape form stressful events ); projection
(expressing one's own disturbing feeling or attitudes as though they arose from
another person); sublimation (expressing basic drives, for example aggressive
tendencies, in a substitute activity ـــsuch as art).
An important concept introduced by Freud is that of identification, a psychological
mechanism which aims to explain the increasing similarity between the behaviour of
children an older generations.
71
Helpful Vocabulary :
learning theory ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﱡﻢ
cognitive approaches ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻫﺞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ
moral development ﻧﻤﻮ ﺃﺧﻼﻗﻲ
empirical evidence ﺩﻟﻴﻞ ِﺣ ﱢﺴ ّﻲ، ﺩﻟﻴﻞ ﺗﺠﺮﻳﺒﻲ
parental discipline ﺗﺄﺩﻳﺐ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﻟﺪﻳْﻦ
peer-group influences ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﺟﻤﺎﻋﺔ ﺍﻷﻗﺮﺍﻥ
moral behaviour ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻮﻙ ﺍﻷﺧﻼﻗﻲ
personality development ﻧﻤ ّﻮ ﺍﻟﺸﺨﺼﻴﺔ
psychoanalytic view ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﺴﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴﻠﻴﺔ
nervous disorders ﺍﺿﻄﺮﺍﺑﺎﺕ ﻋﺼﺒﻴﺔ
personality disorders ﺍﺿﻄﺮﺍﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺸﺨﺼﻴﺔ
neurotic disorders َ ﺍﺿﻄﺮﺍﺑﺎﺕ ُﻋ
ﺼﺎﺑﻴﺔ
free association ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺍﻋﻲ ﺍﻟﺤ ّﺮ، ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺮﺍﻥ ﺍﻟ ُﺤ ّﺮ
analysis of dreams ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﺍﻷﺣﻼﻡ
slips of speech ﺯﻻّﺕ ﺍﻟﻠﺴﺎﻥ، ﺯﻻّﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﻼﻡ
unconscious mind ﺍﻟﻌﻘﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﻁﻦ
early childhood experiences ﺧﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻮﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﻜﺮﺓ
instinctual drives ﺩﻭﺍﻓﻊ ﻏﺮﻳﺰﻳﺔ
psychic energy ﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﻧﻔﺴﻴﺔ
defence mechanisms ﺣﻴ ٌﻞ ﺩﻓﺎﻋﻴﺔ
repression and regression ﺍﻟﻜﺒﺖ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻜﻮﺹ
projection and sublimation ﺍﻹﺳﻘﺎﻁ ﻭ ﺍﻹﻋﻼء
72
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English derivatives
whenever possible, and write down the Arabic
equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
develop
derive
cognitive
approach
parental
evidence
contribute
earning
moral
analysis
painful
reveal
dream
express
influence
conscious
escape
Exercise 3. Translate these psychological terms:
personality ego
Id superego
morals values
attitudes motives
instincts feelings
emotions ideals
73
UNIT 16
LAW AND POLITICS
Law VERSUS Power
INTERNATIONAL LAW, like the 'United Nations, is often treated in an all- or-
nothing-at-all fashion. Either students of international politic put all of the delicate,
fragile eggs of peace and security in to the basket of international law, or they assert
that paramountcy of power re-duces the significance of international law in world
politics to negli-gible proportions. The majority of textbooks on international
relations leans toward the latter, "realist" view. Some of the works do not deal
with international law at all, while many of them discuss it as per-forming a
peripheral role in regulating relations among states . on the other hand, the "realists"
dub as "idealists" those who urge substitution of the rule of law for the rule of force
in world politics. For a time in the 1950's, this division between realists and
"idealistic legalists" was particularly acute in the United States because of what was
briefly called "The Great Debate on the National Interest."
The debate was initiated by students and practitioners of United states foreign
relations, including Hans J. Morgenthau, the political scientist, and George Kennan,
a career diplomat, who criticized the emphasis upon universalized democratic ideals
and international law which, in their view, had been introduced into American
foreign policy by Woodrow Wilson. They urged that the United States use its "na-
tional interest" as the lode star of its foreign policy, instead of trying to make the
world safe for democracy and from communism through observance of international
law or through the attempted imposition of international law upon relations among
states. At the time, each side to this argument was generally identified with fairly
specific substan- tive foreign policies. Protagonists of the concept of national
interest took a relatively "hard" line, defenders of Wilsonian idealism and
logalism a relatively "soft" line on United States- Sovict relations. A
74
decade later, however, these substantive positions had become blurred, especially on
the side of the realists, where George Kennan and Hans J. Morgenthau favored more
relaxed American postures vis-à-vis the communists. Kennan, the author of the
policy of containment, could claim consistency in view of the loosening process that
was taking place within what was not longer a monolithic communist "bloc." Mor-
genthau, in his opposition to what he termed the overextension of American power
in Southeast Asia, could claim consistency because of the redistribution of world
power that followed the communist revolu-tion in China . Neither of them favored
any heavier reliance upon in-ternational law or the United Nations in 1965 than in
1955. On the other side of the fence, advocates of "world peace through world law"
thought that their claim to intellectual consistency was stronger than that of the
realists, because they continued to couch their criticism of the foreign policies of
their own or other governments in the same in-ternational-legal terms in the 1960's
as in the 1950's For instance, they charged the United states with multiple violations
of international law in Vietnam and Cuba, and the Soviet Union in Hungary or in the
UN, over nonpayment of special assessments.
Because protagonists of international law and their critics in the Great Debate
were identified with definite substantive foreign policies, the gulf between these two
major schools of international relations was widened and the inadequacies of both
approaches were made [Link] suffer from an excessively narrow and static
conception of the origins, the functions, and the scope of law in political systems,
and from false analogies of the role of law, so misconceived, in national states and
international relations.
The "realists" return to what they consider the basic, crucial, and irreducible
difference between these two levels of politics: presence and absence of a
"sovereign," i.e., of some institution that can say the last wordـــby force, if
necessary. Only if "law" is regularly observed, partly because of the possibility of
enforcement, is it truly law. Within sovereign states, law is habitually observed,
because it can be enforced and because most law is known to have been "made"
by the sovereign.
75
Helpful Vocabulary :
international law ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻲ
paramountcy of power ﻫﻴﻤﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ
negligible proportions ﻧِ َﺴﺐ ﻻ ﻭﺯﻥ ﻟﻬﺎ
world politics ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻴﺔ
lean toward ﺗﻤﻴﻞ ﺇﻟﻰ
peripheral role ﺩﻭﺭ ﻫﺎﻣﺸﻲ
rule of law ُﺣ ْﻜﻢ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ
rule of force ُﺣ ْﻜﻢ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ
idealistic legalists ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻧﻴﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﺎﻟﻴﻮﻥ
democratic ideals ﺍﻟﻤﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻤﻘﺮﺍﻁﻴﺔ
national interest ﺍﻟﻤﺼﻠﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻣﻴﺔ
observance of international law ﺍﻻﻟﺘﺰﺍﻡ ﺑﺎﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻲ
attempted imposition ﻣﺤﺎﻭﻟﺔُ ﻓَﺮْ ﺽ
Wilsonian idealism and legalism ﺍﻟﻮ ْﻟ ُﺴﻨِﻴﱠﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻧﻴﺔ
ِ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﺎﻟﻴﺔ
vis-à-vis ِﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﻳﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑــــ
policy of containment ﺳﻴﺎﺳﺔ ﺍﻻﺣﺘﻮﺍء
communist bloc ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﻴﻮﻋﻴﺔ
overextension of power ﺑﺴﻂ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻮﺫ
advocates of world peace ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺍﻓﻌﻮﻥ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻼﻡ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻲ
schools of international relations ﻣﺬﺍﻫﺐ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻴﺔ
possibility of enforcement ﺇﻣﻜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻔﻴﺬ
for a time in the 1950's ﻟﻔﺘﺮﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺨﻤﺴﻴﻨﻴﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﺸﺮﻳﻦ
76
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Choose the proper preposition to fill in these
blanks : from, into, for, on, upon, for,
between, to, on ,with, on.
1. Don't put all the eggs one basket .
2. It can be reduced zero .
3. This is a book politics
4. It is difficult to deal him
5. the other hand, coeducation has many disadvantages .
6. The division realists and idealist is a real one .
7. There was a hot debate this issue last year .
8. The USA puts a great emphasis the so-called
national interests as a pretext aggression.
9. How can we make our world safe us all ?
10. Nowadays, millions of people suffer AIDS .
Exercise 3. Translate these political terms :
party alliance
coalition opposition
rightist leftist
policy plan
77
UNIT 17
THE CENTRAL STATUS
OF LEARNING IN
PSYCHOLOGY
T here are many branches and divisions of psychology and,
while psychologists are engaged in many kinds of func-
[Link] appears to be a basic agreement among them that the principles
of learning are the fundamental theoretical tools of mod- ern psychology.
The science of psychology has developed around the S→R formula in one
modification or another. Organisms are presumed to rect in certain ways
because they are stimulated into doing so. The reaction is either native or
learned. If learned, it is because some stimulus which did not originally
bring out a certain response now has come to do so because of "past
experience" or "learning."
In civilized societies many natural reactions are found undesirable we
frown on people who spit in the street or cough in our faces. The organism
must not react "naturally" but in some other way, a way dictated by society.
Attaching a different response to a stimulus is again "learning." From
infancy on. the to-be-civilized human being is subjected to a training process
calculated to make him an accept-able member of society. He is taught
where and when to sleep, eat, wash behind the ears. read, write, and
calculate, to earn his living, and even to grow old gracefully or die nobly,
depending upon how the great divisions of society are getting along with
each other at the time.
If the subject of all this training turns out delinquent, stupid, mal-
adjusted, or otherwise a nuisance, it is usually assumed that the train- ing
process went wrong somewhere, and retraining is usually recon- mended by
the more enlightened segments of society.
Psychologists, in general, have adopted as their sphere of interest this
process of training and retraining. Putting this interest in other terms, we can
think of psychologists as basically concerned with the role of the
environment in determining behavior. While there are exceptions. And
many of them. most psychologists operate with the
78
open avowal or tacit assumption that behavior can be predicted, con-trolled, or
altered by manipulating the environment. This assump-tion, of course, is basic to
many educational and child-rearing prac-tices.
The environmentalist bias was first put in its boldest form by John Locke
(1690), the English philosopher, when he described the hu-man mind as a blank
table on which experience would write the biography of the subject. Locke can be
described as an "empiricist" as opposed to a "nativist." The nativists since Plato
have held to the belief that humans, al least. come equipped by nature with some
basic ideas emotions, and reactions which are used on suitable oc-casions. The
more extreme among them would endorse the common man's assertion, "you cant
change human nature."
The history of psychology, to some extent, can be described in terms of a
controversy between supporters of "nature" as against "nurture." As with most
black-white controversies, the searchers for truth have found themselves forced
to compromise from time to time with occasional swings of the pendulum from
one extreme to the other.
The nature-nurture controversy still persists. In an interesting and disturbing
article, Verplanck (1955) asked, "Since learned behavior is innate, and vice versa,
what now?" This quotation, which is the title of his paper, expresses a question
that is intriguing more and more psychologists since the publication of Hebb's
(1949) mono- graph, the organization of Behavior.
Learning psychologists are beginning more and more to recognize the role of
the organism in behavior. Because of the nature of their tools and techniques
they are pretty much limited to the manipula- tion of stimuli. The preoccupation
with stimuli sometimes leads learning psychologists to forget about "nature" and
act as if learning is all that matters.
It is basic to our needs to attempt an outcome which will place learning in its
proper role in the total behavior pattern. Propaganda about how important
learning is does not actually make it so, how-ever much it pleases the
psychologist. In his presidential address to the American Psychological
Association, Guthrie (1946a) states: "In the two fields of learning and of
motivation will be worked out the basic theory that will eventually make the
science of psychology a much more powerful instrument than it now is. When we
are able to state the general principles which govern human learning we shall
have the most important tool needed for the prediction and control of human
behavior. "Guthrie may be right.
79
Helpful Vocabulary :
modern psychology ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻳﺚ
S → R formula ﺻﻴﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﻴﺮ ﻭﺍﻻﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺔ
native or learned reaction ﺭ ّﺩ ﻓﻌﻞ ﻓﻄﺮﻱ ﺃﻭ ﻣﻜﺘ َﺴﺐ
from infancy on ًﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻮﻟﺔ ﻓﺼﺎﻋﺪﺍ
training process ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﺪﺭﻳﺐ
to earn his living ﻳﻜﺴﺐ ﺭﺯﻗﻪ
to get along with each other ﺗﻨﺴﺠﻢ ﻣﻊ ﺑﻌﻀﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺒﻌﺾ
enlightened segments ﻗﻄﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﻣﺴﺘﻨﻴﺮﺓ
sphere of interest ﻣﺠﺎﻝ ﺍﻫﺘﻤﺎﻡ
role of environment ﺩﻭﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ
child rearing ﺗﻨﺸﺌﺔ ﺍﻷﻁﻔﺎﻝ
determine behavior ﻳﺤﺪﱢﺩ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻮﻙ
blank tablet ﻟﻮﺣﺔ ﻓﺎﺭﻏﺔ
human nature ْ ِ ﺍﻟﻔ، ﻁﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ
ﻄﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮﻳﺔ
nature against nurture ﺍﻟﻔﻄﺮﺓ ﺿﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﺔ
searchers for truth ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺣﺜﻮﻥ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻴﻘﺔ
compromise from time to time ﻳﻘﺒﻞ ﺑﺤﻞ ﻭﺳﻂ ﻣﻦ ﻭﻗﺖ ﻵﺧﺮ
learning psychologists ﻋﻠﻤﺎء ﻧﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﱡﻢ
role of the organism ﺩﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺋﻦ
manipulation of stimuli ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺜﻴﺮﺍﺕ
process of training and retraining ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺐ ﻭﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺐ
open avowal ﺇﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺻﺮﻳﺢ
80
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English derivatives
whenever possible, and write down the Arabic
equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
engage
division
appear
reaction
modern
presume
response
civilized
cough
stimulus
noble
manipulate
extreme
graceful
disturb
Exercise 3. Translate these psychological terms:
Stimulus response
habit psychological clinic
psychological counseling
psychological development
psychological health
psychological maturity
psychological need
psychological test
81
UNIT 18
THE NATURE AND SCOPE
OF PSYCHOLOGY
Nurses are increasingly aware of the need to base their actions on a
sound knowledge of scientific principles. They have always made use
of scientific knowledge derived from physiology and bacteriology. for
example, but only in recent years have they discovered the relevance
and usful-ness of the behavioural sciences, for example of
psychology.
Many people use the term psychology very loosely. They do not
really know what psychology is about and tend to confuse it with
psychiatry, the study of mental disorder. Some people think that
anyone who is good at coping with his fellow men is a psychologist.
Some people are afraid of psychologists, believing that they have
some special facility to see into the depths of that part of people's
personality which they would prefer to conceal from others.
In the chapters which follow, it will become clear what psychology
is really about and how nurses can use psycho- logical knowledge.
It is important to remember that knowledge of the subject matter
does not make the reader a psychologist, any – more than knowledge
of same basic physiology makes one a physiologist. Psychologists are
scientists who, by the use of scientific research, push out the frontiers
of psychological knowledge, which is then available for others to
apply. Scientist construct theories based on objective facts derived
from systematic observation and experiment.
Theories lead to hypotheses, which, after further observa- tion or
experiment, will be confirmed or refuted, thus modi- fying the theories
82
In a young science, hypotheses are more frequently refuted than
confirmed. What makes psychology a science is not that facts have
been firmly established, but that the scientific method is applied to the
subject matter to be studied .
Psychology is of interest to nurses because its subject matter is that
of human behaviour. Nurses meet people every moment of their
working day. The relationships with other, into which nurses enter in
the course of their work, make the job interesting and rewarding.
Some of the people the nurse meets may behave in a manner which is
difficult to under-stand. Some may not be immediately likable. When
the nurse has taken the time and the trouble to try to understand
such people's behaviour, she will find it much easier to gain
cooperation and to deal effectively with the problems which may
arise.
Human behaviour is only one part, however, of the sub- ject
matter of psychology. Psychologists are also concerned with animal
behaviour and with the neurophysiological pro-cesses which
accompany or give rise to behaviour . They study not only human
behaviour, but also human experience, language and other forms of
communication they are in-terested in individual differences, be they
genetically deter- minted or occurring as a result of learning, they
study how individuals and society interact, how they behave as
members of small and large groups.
No one psychologist can research into the entire range of the subject
of psychology. The work of each psychologist must be restricted to
one small section of the science. Some psychologists are concerned
with the study of learning; some are interested in the phenomena of
perception, namely the law which govern how stimuli arriving at the
sense organs are interpreted into something meaningful, how past
knowledge affects perception.
Some study the behaviour of animals; others are con- carned with
the study of child behaviour or development; some are concerned
with investigation of the effect of early childhood experiences; and
others are interested in the inter-action of people with each other in
small and large groups.
83
Helpful Vocabulary :
increasingly aware of ُ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﺘﺰﺍﻳﺪ ﻣﺪﺭ
ﻙ ِﻝ
sound knowledge ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺳﻠﻴﻤﺔ
behavioral sciences ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻮﻛﻴﺔ
mental disorder ﺍﺿﻄﺮﺍﺏ ﻧﻔﺴﻲ
see into the depths َ ﻳَ ْﺴﺒِ ُﺮ ﺃَ ْﻏ
ﻮﺍﺭ
push out the frontiers of ﻳﻮﺳﱢﻊ ﺣﺪﻭ َﺩ
objective facts ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻋﻴﺔ
systematic observation ﻣﻼﺣﻈﺔ ﻣﻨﺘﻈﻤﺔ
theories and hypotheses ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﺮﺿﻴﺎﺕ
confirm or refute ﻳﺆ ﱢﻛﺪ ﺃﻭ ﻳﺮﻓﺾ
young science ِﻋ ْﻠ ٌﻢ ﺣﺪﻳﺚ ﺍﻟﻨﺸﺄَﺓ
firmly established facts ً ﺣﻘﺎﺋﻖ ﺭﺍﺳﺨﺔ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎ
human behavior ﺳﻠﻮﻙ ﺑﺸﺮﻱ
in the course of their work ّ
ﻋﻤﻠﻬﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺃﺛﻨﺎء
subject matter of psychology ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻉ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﺲ، ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﺲ
animal behavior ﺳﻠﻮﻙ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻮﺍﻥ، ﺳﻠﻮﻙ ﺣﻴﻮﺍﻧﻲ
accompany or give rise to ﺗﺼﺎﺣﺐ ﺃﻭ ﺗﺜﻴﺮ
individual differences ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻭﻕ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩﻳﺔ
genetically determined ً ﻣﺤﺪﺩﺓ ﻭﺭﺍﺛﻴﺎ
be restricted to ﻳﻘﺘﺼﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ
phenomena of perception ﻅﻮﺍﻫﺮ ﺍﻹﺩﺭﺍﻙ
sense organs ّﺃﻋﻀﺎء ﺍﻟﺤﺲ
84
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English derivatives
whenever possible, and write down the Arabic
equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
nurse
remember
need
use
loose
derive
research
real
refute
special
experiment
confirm
systematic
result
clear
perceive
behavior
entire
Exercise 3. Translate these psychological terms:
abnormal psychology child psychology
adolescent psychology clininal psychology
analytical psychology war psychology
animal psychology comparative psychology
applied psychology crowd psychology
85
UNIT 19
GEOGRAPHY IN
AFTER-SCHOOL
LIFE
1. SOME knowledge of Geography is required from can-didates in
many of the qualifying examinations held by the professional
association, but as the possession of almost any kind of school
Certificate exempts its holder from the professional preliminary tests
of the associations of secretaries, accountants, and banking officials,
there is no guarantee that the fully-fledged professional man shall
have more than a slight acquaintance with the prin-ciples of
Geography and their application to the work in which he is engaged.
Judged by the syllabuses of these qualifying examinations, the
majority of the professional associations regard Geography as being
an essential ele- ment of school work, but with the exception of the
Institutes of Banking, Insurance, and Transport. Geogra-phy is not
included among the subjects which candidates may offer at
subsequent examinations. It should be obvious, however, that many
commercial posts require a detailed knowledge either of the industrial
and commer- cial development of some particular area or of the manu-
facturing and marketing of some specific commodity. In any case, a
training in. Geography offers a valuable basis for the successful
analysis of a given economic region and for its commercial
exploitation. In the higher branches of secretarial practice, both
commercial and political, a knowledge of economic and political
Geography should associations concerned have refused to include
Geography among the professional subjects.
86
2. Unfortunately it is not generally recognised that a
Knowledge of Geography is a necessary preliminary to the solution of
many of the urgent problems which affect political and economic
development throughout the world. At every stage of development
there is a very definite need for the services of skilled geographers,
ex- perts who able to survey the natural resources of a country and
thereby to discover for what purposes each region is best suited, so
that the maximum of production may be maintained. In certain
countries steps have been taken to carry out the preliminary
investigations which will lead to the establishment of reserves of land
rich in timber and oil; but through the greater part of the world
exploitation continues without consideration of the necessity of
maintaining future supplies.
3. In addition to the practical application of geographical training
to the everyday problems of economic and social development, there
is a field of pure research. exploration, and survey which calls for
special qualities of physical endurance, meticulous accuracy of
observation and habits of mind which enable an individual to select
and organize the data on which his judgments are based. An excellent
example of the value of technical skill supported by a background of
geographical knowledge is found in the work of the Ordnance Survey
of Great Britain and the official survey departments of the colonies
and protector-ates. The reputation for accurate work enjoyed by these
institutions is such that, in a large number of cases of boundary
limitation, the technical survey of the frontier to be established is
carried out in collaboration . with British official survey officers.
4. In the past, political frontiers have been defined by politicians,
lawyers, and soldiers, possessing little know- areas through which the
boundaries they have fixed may pass. In many cases the results have
been extremely unfortunate, and the political condition of Europe at
the present time is largely the result of faulty frontier-making.
87
Helpful Vocabulary :
after –school life ﺣﻴﺎﺓ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺭﺳﺔ
qualifying examinations ﺍﻣﺘﺤﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﻫﻴﻞ
professional associations ﺟﻤﻌﻴﺎﺕ ِﻣﻬ ْﻨﻴﺔ
school certificate ﺷﻬﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﺪﺭﺳﻴﺔ
to exempt its holder from ﻳﺴﺘﺜﻨﻲ ﺣﺎﻣﻠﻬﺎ ِﻣ ْﻦ
no guarantee that ﻻ ﺿﻤﺎﻧﺔ ﺃَﻥ
essential element ﻣﻜ ﱢﻮﻥ ﺟﻮﻫﺮﻱ، ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻲ
with the exception of ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎء
commercial posts ﻭﻅﺎﺋﻒ ﺗﺠﺎﺭﻳﺔ
detailed knowledge ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺗﻔﺼﻴﻠﻴﺔ
marketing of a commodity ﺗﺴﻮﻳﻖ ﺳﻠﻌﺔ
in any case ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻱ ﺣﺎﻝ
economic region ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ
commercial exploitation ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﻱ
neverthess, hitherto ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻭﺣﺘﻰ ﺍﻵﻥ
stages of development ﻣﺮﺍﺣﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ
definite need ﺣﺎﺟﺔ ﺃﻛﻴﺪﺓ
natural resources ﻣﻮﺍﺭﺩ ﻁﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ
consideration of the necessity ﻣﺮﺍﻋﺎﺓ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﺓ
colonies and protectorates ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻌﻤﺮﺍﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺤﻤﻴﺎﺕ
boundary limitation ﺗﺮﺳﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻭﺩ
in collaboration with ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﻣﻊ
88
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Add a suitable preposition if necessary :
1. it is required you to know some facts .
2. There is no guarantee that he will come back .
3. God does not judge you your shape, but by
your deeds.
4. any case, you have to do what you have to do .
5. you may include this option the other options .
6. Does X affect Y ?
7. addition, this factor may cause a
rise in prices
8. success calls effort and persistence .
9. He has a good reputation honesty .
10. He enjoys a good skill .
Exercise 3. Translate these worlds, showing two different
meanings of each :
kind ﻧﻮﻉ ﻟﻄﻴﻒ area
test case
bank branch
world survey
subject mind
89
UNIT 20
THE NEED FOR
MODELS
In the middle of the twentieth century there was a geography teacher who, because
he was young, inexperienced and under- paid, was naturally expected to teach all
branches of geography with equal knowledge and skill. His lectures on landforms,
cyclones and soils were magnificent. He would enter the class-room looking forward
to explaining a cycle of erosion or the process of leaching. His logical exposition
was a delight to follow, and his multicoloured diagrams were a joy to behold.
Many of his pupils, the girls included, were inspired to become geologists,
meteorologists even soil scientists.
His lectures on the farming, manufacturing and the distribu-tion of population in
different parts of the world were in-describably dull. Although he believed this part
of geography to be the more interesting and important, his pupils endured the
boredom, and went away convinced that human geography was just a matter of
learning one damned fact after another. There was no logical exposition, there were
no systems to illustrate by diagram, little to give any kind of intellectual stimulation
and satisfaction.
Imagine, in another time and another place, this fictional geographer, perhaps
older and shrewder, has specialised in the branch of human geography which
preoccupies him most. For many years he has been dictating the facts of urban
growth to student who couldn't care less: between 1951 and 1961
Manchester grew by so many thousand, Bradford by so many, and so on. By a
mistake on the part of his employers he gets some time off to think, and he begins to
wonder why these towns are growing, at exactly what rate they are growing, and
whether all towns are growing at the same rate.
So the research geographer has a problem or question about the distribution and
movement of people over a particular part of the earth's surface. His problem
contains certain elements which will be essential to the discussion of models to be
pursued in this book. Namely, he has certain phenomena. in this case the
individuals of the population and the cities of different.
90
size; secondly there is some movement or interaction between the phenomena, in
this case migration of people to cities. In fact he has tentatively identified what he
believes to be a system on the earth's surface, and his aim is to describe and explain
the functioning of that system as accurately as he can.
This geographer now follows the ideal course of action. Having observed some
of the facts of a very complicated system, which is made infinitely more
complicated by being inextricably interconnected with countless other systems, he
proceeds to set up an hypothesis about the structure of the system and the way it
works. Together with a verbal description and explanation, this hypothesis may will
take the form of a diagram to illustrate the structure. and ,mathematical equation
to represent the functioning.
For the moment. Being interested only in the growth of towns, the elements of the
system are defined as the native populations of the cities and the non-city population
of the rest of the country. The growth of any city's population is then
hypothesised as a function of both the size of the native popula- tion and the strength
of the attraction of that city for the non-city population surrounding it. The
geographer may decide to simplify and isolate further. in order to describe and
understand one particular aspect of this. For agument's sake, he puts for-
ward the hypothesis that the size of the migration to cities depends directly on the
sizes of the cities; in other words, that a city of 1 million inhabitants attracts twice as
many immi- grants as a city of 500 000 inhabitants over the save period of time
A diagram may be redundant in this example, but two things are essential: first, a
mathematical equation to express the magnitude of migration to towns of different
size, and secondly, a suggested or hypothetical explanation of why people behave in
this manner. Such an explanation might run along the lines that many more people
are attracted to they city of 1 million rather than the city of 500 000 because the
former offers a greater variety of employment, a better chance of housing, a greater
variety of shops and services, possesses colleges, theatres and other amenities which
the other does not possess.
With his hypothetical diagram, equation and explanation, our geographer has
crated a model of the real-life system he is studying. The model is a simplified
hypothetical description and explanation of the interaction of phenomena on the
earth's surface, and because the geographer is following the ideal course of action,
his one aim in life is now to test his model. to test his hypothesis, until he proves it
wrong. If this story were true, of course, he would simply select evidence to show
that his hypothesis was a true description and explanation of what a actually happens
in real life!
91
Helpful Vocabulary :
look forward to ﻳﺘﻮﻕ ﺇﻟﻰ، ﻳﺘﻄﻠﱠﻊ ﺇﻟﻰ
logical exposition َﻋﺮْ ﺽ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻲ
soil scientists ﻋﻠﻤﺎء ﺍﻟﺘﱡﺮْ ﺑﺔ
distribution of population ﺗﻮﺯﻳﻊ ﺍﻟﺴﻜﺎﻥ
endured the boredom ﺗﺤﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻞ
convinced that ﻣﻘﺘﻨﻌﻮﻥ ﺃَ ﱠﻥ
intellectual stimulation ﺗﺤﻔﻴﺰ ﺫﻫﻨﻲ
urban growth ﻧُ ُﻤ ّﻮ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻥ، ﻧﻤ ّﻮ ﻣﺪﻳﻨّﻲ
research geographer ﺍﻟﺠﻐﺮﺍﻓ ّﻲ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺣﺚ، ﻋﺎﻟﻢ ﺍﻟﺠﻐﺮﺍﻓﻴﺎ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺣﺚ
interaction between phenomena ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻈﻮﺍﻫﺮ
having observed … ﺑﻌﺪ ﺃﻥ ﻻﺣﻆ
verbal description ﻭﺻﻒ ﻟﻔﻈ ّﻲ
mathematical equation ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺭﻳﺎﺿﻴﺔ
for the moment ً ﺣﺎﻟﻴﺎ
non-city population ﺳﻜﺎﻥ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻥ، ﺍﻟﺴﻜﺎﻥ ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻥ
native population ﺍﻟﺴﻜﺎﻥ ﺍﻷﺻﻠﻴﻮﻥ
magnitude of migration ﺣﺠﻢ ﺍﻟﻬﺠﺮﺓ
chance of housing ﻓﺮﺻﺔ ﺇﺳﻜﺎﻥ
hypothetical description ﻭﺻﻒ ﺍﻓﺘﺮﺍﺿﻲ
his one aim ﻫﺪﻓﻪ ﺍﻟﻮﺣﻴﺪ
to test the hypothesis ﻳﻔﺤﺺ ﺍﻟﻔَﺮْ ﺿﻴﱠﺔ
put forward the hypothesis that ﻳﻘﺪﱢﻡ ﻓﺮﺿﻴﺔً ﻣﻔﺎﺩﻫﺎ ﺃﻥ
92
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Add the suitable preposition if necessary .
1. He did it great skill .
2. He gave a lecture globalization .
3. Many the enjoyed the work .
4. They endured the boredom .
5. He has specialized medicine .
6. The city is growing a high rate .
7. this case, you have to do some more
re-calculations .
8. the time being, he is the acting dean .
9. agument's sake, let us assume that he is not
coming .
10. other words, heat causes expansion .
Exercise 3. Translate these psychological terms :
developmental psychology
educational psychology
experimental psychology
functional psychology
general psychology
individual psychology
industrial psychology
occupational psychology
93
UNIT 21
THE POLITICIAN'S
PROBLEM
The politician want power. Whether his intention is puplic service, or private gain,
or private gain, or both, the first step is accession to a position of power: to be
elected a Member of the Legislative Assembly. Broadly speaking there are three
ways in which he can do the job. He may try to make a "mass contact"; he may use
existing groups, nonpolitical as well as political; or, thirdly he may build up an
organization of new groups.
To say that a politician his a "mass contact" is, in Orissa, to pay a high
compliment. Such a manــــand there are very fewــــhas risen above the ordinary run
of politicians who rely on cliques and factions for support. If a constituency con-
sisted exclusively of the members of one caste and they all supported a candidate
because he came from their caste, then, in the opinion of those with whom I
discussed this question it would be wrong to call this "mass contact." An essential
part of this relationship seem to be that it should transcend traditional loyalties.
Many difficulties stand in the way. The candidate who has a message for every
household in his constituency has, in most cases, no means of delivering it.
Secondly, even if he had the means, it would be difficult to compose a message
which seemed constructive to everyone, still less a message that would please
everyone.
Orissa has a population of over fourteen and on-half mil-lion (1951Census) and
an Assembly of 140 members, one member to every 100,000 people. The area of the
state is 60,000 square miles. Some constituencies are very large in area. particularly
the rural double-member constituencies. The Assembly constituency in which
Bisipara lay in the 1952 elec-tion covered 2,000 square miles; Keonjhar, in the
district of the same name, covered 1,256 square miles; and Malkangiri in Koraput
covered 2,288 square miles. The first two are
94
double-member, and Malkangiri is a single-member constitu-ency. Only in those
very few constituencies which consist of towns (for example Cuttack City covering
22 square miles) of which contain towns (like Puri) is the area small.
Size is not the only obstacle. Communications are bad-Even the ubiquitous jeep
cannot reach many places and candi-dates must walk or, at best, use a bicycle. In
western Orissa there are mountains and thick jungle; in the coastal plain there are
many unbridged streams. Asuccessful candidate in Cuttack district canvassed all the
major villages in his con-stituency. He travelled on foot and on cycle. He arrived in
the afternoon in a village; addressd a meeting in the evening; in the morning he
talked with those who showed interest and then moved on to the nest village. His
constituency is not largeــــabout 140 square miles, but the task took six months.
In more developed countries a politician can "put himself across" through the
press, radio, and television. There is no television service and there are few radio
sets in Orissa. As yet newspapers hardly reach the peasant. I have no figures for
newspaper distribution, but one may make an estimate of their impact by looking at
literacy figures. For the whole state literacy in Oriya is 15 pet cent; the highest rate
is found in Cuttack (23 per cent); the lowest is in Koraput (5 per cent) Literacy is, of
the press. A literate man in a village may share his pleasure by reading aloud to an
audience. On the other hand not every literate man reads newspapers; nor are
literates evenly spread through the population, for they tend to be concen-trated in
the few towns. At least this may be safely said: up to now no politician in Orissa has
been made or broken by what voters have read about him in the newspapers.
In short, a candidate who decides to treat his electors as a socially
undifferentiated mass of rational minds, to be con-tacted and persuaded of the
rightness of his cause, is not being realistic. He must find other means of
communication
THE SIZE OF VOTE-BANKS
The candidate, therefore, has to take his electorate in groups. In a system which
employs universal adult franchise it seems obvious that the larger the groups of
voters, the better for the candidate who commands their allegiance.
95
Helpful Vocabulary :
public service ﺧﺪﻣﺔ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ
private gain ﻣﻨﻔﻌﺔ ﺷﺨﺼﻴﺔ
accession to a position of power ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﺳ ُْﻠﻄﺔ
ِ ﺍﻟﻮﺻﻮﻝ ﺇﻟﻰ
broadly speaking ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺎﻡ
do the job ﻳﻨﺠﺰ ﺍﻟﻤﻬ ﱠﻤﺔ
Legislative Assembly ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻌﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﺮﻳﻌﻴﺔ
mass contact ﺍﺗﺼﺎﻝ ﺟﻤﺎﻫﻴﺮﻱ
transcend traditional loyalties ﺗﺘﺠﺎﻭﺯ ﺍﻟﻮﻻءﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻠﻴﺪﻳﺔ
area of the state ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ
not the only obstacle ﻟﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﺣﻴﺪﺓ
thick jungles ﻏﺎﺑﺎﺕ ﻛﺜﻴﻔﺔ
at best ﻓﻲ ﺃﻓﻀﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻻﺕ
coastal plain ﺳﻬﻞ ﺳﺎﺣﻠﻲ
unbridged streams ﺃﻧﻬﺎﺭ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺟﺴﻮﺭ
newspaper distribution ﺗﻮﺯﻳﻊ ﺍﻟﺠﺮﺍﺋﺪ
literacy figures ﺃﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍءﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺘﺎﺑﺔ
highest rate ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻴﺎ
high compliment ﺇﻁﺮﺍء ﻭﺍﺳﻊ
in most cases ﻓﻲ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻻﺕ
double-member ﺫﺍﺕ ﻋﻀﻮﻳﻦ
addressed a meeting ً ﺧﺎﻁﺐ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﺎ
developed countries ﺑﻠﺪﺍﻥ ﻣﺘﻘﺪﻣﺔ
96
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English
derivatives whenever possible, and write down the
Arabic equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
intend
power
deliver
contact
support
exclusive
elect
compliment
constructive
cover
tradition
consist
place
distributed
show
bridge
political
Exercise 3. Translate these pairs
message massage
faction fiction
contact contract
cm2 cm3
steam stream
task tusk
97
UNIT 22
THE FOUNDATIONS OF
MODERN POLITICS
W HATEVER the world's political systems may have come to be in thirty years'
time, the one thing certain is that they will be considerably unlike the systems under
which most of us have been used to living. For better or worse we are in for
comprehensive changes in the funda-mental structure of society ; and it will depend
on us and on other men and women much like ourselves what is made of the
objective conditions on which the States and societies of the future will have to be
built. Of this we are one and all in varying degrees aware. We cannot help seeing
that if we do not take part in shaping the society of to-morrow other people will
shape it for us and we shall have to submit to the results of their political activity.
Whether we play an active part or not, our lives and the lives of our children are
being decided for us by the contentions of those who are active in a political sense.
We can, if we wish, stand aside from the struggle at any rate for the moment, though
we cannot be sure it will not forcibly drag us in before long. But even if we do stand
aside we can by no possibility escape its consequences. For the political battle, while
it assumes many different forms from place to place, is being carried on over the
whole world, and there is no spot on earth to which a man can withdraw in the
confidence that there at any rate it will pass him by and leave him to live his life
unaffected. We are all in this thing up to the neck, however indifferent to it we may
feel or wish to feel. It may matter little enough to us which political party controls
the Government as long as the rival parties are divided only on minor issues and are
at one in desiring to leave the essential structure of society intact. The position is
very different when the questions at issue in politics go down to the very roots of
human and social relationships, and the entire basis of our living together in society
comes within the area of dispute.
Ours, then, is a political age. It is so in the main not because most of us want to be
politically-minded but be-
98
cause we are being forced up against political problems by influences which we
cannot escape. We have to shape things or let them be shaped for us by forces which
we have renounced all attempt to control. To a certain extent these forces are
impersonal, objective, material, and there is no getting away from them. But the
shaping of human life within conditions set by these forces is a work for men, and if
we play no part in to others will, and what they do will affect us. If we refuse to take
an interest in politics to-day we are either cynics despairing of a world gone mad or
less than intelligent human beingsــــmere living tools who will allow our future to be
settled for us without making any attempt to control our fate.
Pre-war Politics. To most of us, who are old enough to remember the early years
of the twentieth century, this new world of decisive political struggle still seems
strange. Not that the existence of such a world is new, for in fact it is very old, but
we have met with it until quite lately only in the history books and not in real life.
For societies alternate between periods in which men jog along staidly, mounted
upon political and social systems which it hardly occurs to most of them to question
and, and periods in which men swop political horses, most often in the middle of the
stream. It was the fortune of the nineteenth century to live through a period which,
over most of the civilized world, combined an unprecedented rapidity of technical
change with a remarkable stability of political and social institu-tions. Between 1789
and 1917 and, though the material face of civilization was changed beyond all
recognition, not a single challenging new idea of primary political importance suc-
ceeded in getting itself embodied in a practical shape. This was not because no new
ideas were born. Socialism, for example, both came into being as a doctrine and took
shape in a world-wide propagandist movement during the nineteenth century. But up
to 1917, apart from the one short-lived local adventure of the pairs commune,
Socialism was never able to express itself concretely in the institutions of any
Socialist community. One idea of revolu-tion came to practical expression in France
in 1789 and the following years, and thereafter the influence of that idea spread
round the whole world. Socialism had to wait till 1917 to make its practical
declaration of the droits del' home et du citoyen by means of an actual Socialist
revolu-tion, and we are living to-day under the eye of that new declaration.
99
Helpful Vocabulary :
considerably unlike ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺟﺪﺍً ﻋﻦ
for better of worse ﺳﻮﺍء ﺃﻛﺎﻥ ﻟﻸﻓﻀﻞ ﺃﻡ ﻟﻸﺳﻮﺃ
fundamental structure ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺒﺔ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ
objective conditions ﻅﺮﻭﻑ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻋﻴﺔ
one and all ﻓﺮﺍﺩﻯ ﻭﻣﺠﺘﻤﻌﻴﻦ
of this… aware ﻣﺪﺭﻛﻮﻥ... ﻟﻬﺬﺍ
active part ﺩﻭﺭ ﻧَﺸﻴﻂ
for the moment ً ﻣﺆﻗﺘﺎ
before long ﻗﺒﻞ ﻣﺮﻭﺭ ﻭﻗﺖ ﻁﻮﻳﻞ
escape consequences ﻳﺘﺠﻨﺐ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ
being carried on ﺗﺴﺘﻤﺮ
pass him by ﺗﺘﺠﺎﻭﺯ، ﺗﺘﻌﺪﺍﻩ
may matter little ًﻗﺪ ﻳﻬ ّﻢ ﻗﻠﻴﻼ
rival parties ﺃﺣﺰﺍﺏ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻓﺴﺔ
minor issues ﻣﺸﻜﻼﺕ ﺻﻐﺮﻯ
are at one ﻣﺘﺤﺪﻭﻥ
area of dispute ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﻧﺰﺍﻉ
so in the main ﻫﻜﺬﺍ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺭﺋﻴﺴﻲ
shape things ﻧﺼﻮﻍ ﺍﻷﺷﻴﺎء، ﻧ ﱠﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻷﺷﻴﺎء
no getting away from them ﻻ ﻣﻬﺮﺏ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ
to a certain extent ﺇﻟﻰ ﺣ ٍﺪ ﻣﺎ
politically-minded ﺫﻭ ﻋﻘﻞ ُﻣ َﺴﻴﱠﺲ، ً ُﻣ َﺴﻴﱠﺲٌ ﻋﻘﻠﻴﺎ
100
101
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Add the suitable preposition if necessary : of ,
for , from , to , for , to , in , to , on .
1. Better or worse, change is coming .
2. He depend his parents .
3. They are aware dangers .
4. You must take part the plan .
5. If you do not decide, someone will decide you .
6. I'm sure that he'll come.
7. It differs place place .
8. This is true a certain extent .
9. Time does not await the lazy .
10. Such a thing has never occurred me .
Exercise 3. Translate these words, showing their meanings
as verbs and nouns :
help ﻳﺴﺎﻋﺪ ﻣﺴﺎﻋﺪﺓ spot
change leave
play matter
wish dispute
battle shape
102
UNIT 23
THINKING ABOUT
POLITICS
MANY PEOPLE have only a vague idea of what is meant by the term "political
science." Often they confuse it with politi-cal economy, which is economics; or they
conceive it to be the discussion of current events, although there is no more reason
for a political scientist to know offhand the present situation in the Near East than
for a professor of physical machanics to be able to describe the pilings of any bridge
in North Carolina. They often believe that political science is civic ethics, that is, a
system of moral exhortations that tell student what is good and bad about the
political conduct of various presons and groups .
Political science is fundamentally none of these things. It is scientific method
applied to political events. Like any other science, it is an attempt to reduce, by ever-
broader state-ments, the facts with which it deals to a number of clear, precise,
descriptive principles. Of course, in a science called political, these facts and
principles are political. A principle of political science might be: "Third parties have
a difficult time getting on the ballot in most states"; or "The system of filling
committee chairmanships by seniority in the Congress operates on the whole to the
advantage of the conservative Southern faction of the Democratic party when that
party is in the majority."
The Science and Art of Politics
POLITICS IS AN ART
However confused some people may be about political science, they seem to
have clear-cut and dogmatic ideas about politics. To many voters, politics is a
racket, a game, or a disgrace; but to those they elect to office, who are "in poli-tics,"
it may be a noble profession. Such epithets, however can only express emotional
reactions, not the realities of politics. Practical politics actually resolves itself into
the ad-justments of human relations. It calls for a practical skill that distinguishes
one man from anotherــــan art. Long training,
103
even if only self-training or experience, elevates one man above another, and when
training and aptitude increase a skill, we have conditions that are typical of an art,
whether it be bad or good, plain or fancy art. A few men seem to be born to the
political art.
Science presents the principles: the corresponding art applies them. So, in theory,
should the political scientist pro-vide the principles for the political artistــــthe
politician, the administrator, the active citizen. It would be false, however, to
conceal the fact that the co-ordination between the scientist and the politician, in
practice, is slight.
This situation is by no means peculiar to political science. Knowing the principles
of anatomical mechanics hardly helps one walk better, and he who trys consciously
to operate by them may well fall on his face. On the other hand, without a science of
anatomy and engineering, artificial limbs could not be employed successfully. Even
in those areas where science and art are indispensable to one another, co-ordination
can-not be perfect. The engineer learns mechanics in school and even takes courses
in the art of bridge building, that is, "applied" courses; but he does not learn how to
build the bridge of real life. The bridge is unique; it is his individual solution of a
special bridging problemــــa problem of scien-tific principle, aesthetic principle,
climate, public opinion, and perhaps even politics.
POLITICS AND COMMON SENSE
Certainly, to the neutral observer and to the artist of poil-tics the political world
seems so confused and complex that most of the descriptions of it over the last two
thousand years appear to be monstrous oversimplifications, completely use-less as
guides for political practical practice. Everything seems to be done according to
homely sayings that people have ac-quired during their individual life experiences or
by reason of some complex "feeling" for the particular situation that cannot be
broken down into a statement of scientific principle or taught to others. When one
asks a politician whether there are principles of political science that underlie his
activities, he snorts in derision or else emits several heavy dogmas that he would
never in his right mind pursue implacabley: "Never offend anybody;" Always vote
for appropriations and against taxes;" "Be loyal;" or "God is on the side with the
most votes. "
104
Helpful Vocabulary :
vague idea ﻓﻜﺮﺓ ﻏﺎﻣﻀﺔ
political science ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﺔ
civic ethics ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻷﺧﻼﻕ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻧﻲ
political events ﺍﻷﺣﺪﺍﺙ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﺔ
committee chairmanships ﺭﺋﺎﺳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻠﺠﺎﻥ
by seniority ﺑﺎﻷﻗﺪﻣﻴﺔ
on the whole ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺎ ّﻡ
in the majority ﻟﻪ ﺍﻷﻏﻠﺒﻴﺔ
to many voters ﻓﻲ ﻧﻈﺮ ﻛﺜﻴﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺼ ﱢﻮﺗﻴﻦ
emotional reactions ﺭﺩﻭﺩ ﻓﻌﻞ ﻋﺎﻁﻔﻴﺔ
in theory ً ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺎ
in practice ً ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎ
on the other hand ﻣﻦ ﻧﺎﺣﻴﺔ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ
science of anatomy ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﺮﻳﺢ
artificial limbs ﺍﻷﻁﺮﺍﻑ ﺍﻻﺻﻄﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ
indispensable to one another ﻻ ﻏﻨﻰ ﻷﻱ ﻣﻨﻬﻤﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻵﺧﺮ
bridge building ﺑﻨﺎء ﺍﻟﺠﺴﻮﺭ
aesthetic principle ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ
public opinion ﺍﻟﺮﺃﻱ ﺍﻟﻌﺎْﻡ
to the neutral observer ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺮﺍﻗﺐ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﻳﺪ
monstrous oversimplification ﺇﻓﺮﺍﻁ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺒﺴﻴﻂ
political practice ﺍﻟﻤﻤﺎﺭﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ
in his right mind ﻭﻫﻮ ﺳﻠﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﻞ
105
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English
derivatives whenever possible, and write down
the Arabic equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
confuse
vague
conceive
discussion
present
bridge
group
conservative
vote
advantage
resolve
professor
peculiar
distinguish
art
complex
simplify
problem
Exercise 3. Translate these pairs
involve revolve
elect select
human humane
must a must
face phase
106
UNIT 24
THE ART OF LITERATURE
L ITERATURE is an art by which ex-pression is achieved in
language. As a pre-liminary description, that statement will do well
enough; but it is evidently inade-quate as a definition of literature .
Not everything which might come under that description would be
called literatureـــــnot at least, if the word literature is to retain any
precision of meaning : and when we allow a word to become vague in
its mean-ing, we deprive it of its usefulness. Thus, conversation is not
literature; and yet we speak of the art of conversation. The word art,
in fact, appears to have many mean-ings : besides the so-called fine
arts, we speak of the art of cooking, the art of war, the art of
advertising, and a hundred other art. But the word has the same core
of meaning in all its contexts : it is always skill definitely and
deliberately designed to produce an intended result. Clearly, then we
cannot rely on the word art to define what we mean by literature; if
we at-tempted to do so, we should only beg the question, and say, in
effect, that art here means the art which produces literature On the
contrary, we can only define what we mean by art here when we know
what we mean by literature. Certainly, there are degrees of skill; we
may easily admit that
107
in literature there is a degree of verbal skill ـــــmore studied, more
con-sistent, more intent ـــــthan in conversa- only in words : in
conversation. the skill is also in the use of personality ــــsometimes
more than in the use of words. Poetry may be recited, of course, and
plays may be acted ; but the literary art is substantially the same
whether it is spoken aloud or read in silence.
We must not, therefore, define literature by referring it to the
written or printed or printed word. For the word intelligible to the eye
is only the symbol of the word intelligible to the ear ; and is in fact
heard (though it may be only mentally) at the same time that it is
visually read. Moreover, in a great deal of literatureـــــin all poetry, for
instanceــــit is as essential to the art of it that the words should be
vividly heard (though, once more, they need be only mentally heard)
as that they should be understood.
Precisely what we mean by art in the case of literature, then, must
be left to appear as we narrow . down the idea of literature. Art, we
say, is skill designed to produce an intended result. What is the result
aimed at in the art of literature ? we have described literature as a
species of expression. But this is only one side of the business.
Literature exists not only in expressing a thing; it equally exists in the
receiving of the thing expressed. If I tell you of something I have
experienced my words, on my side, express my experience ; but on
your side, my words represent my experience.
108
Helpful Vocabulary :
preliminary description ﻭﺻﻒ ﺃﻭﻟ ّﻲ، ﻭﺻﻒ ﻣﺒﺪﺋ ّﻲ
evidently inadequate ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺿﺢ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻛﺎﻓﻴﺔ
precision of meaning ﺩﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ
art of conversation ﻓﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﺩﺛﺔ
the so-called fine arts ﻣﺎ ﻳﺪﻋﻰ ﺍﻟﻔﻨﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻴﻠﺔ
intended result ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻣﻘﺼﻮﺩﺓ
we beg the question ﻧﺪﻭﺭ ﻓﻲ ﺣﻠﻘﺔ ﻣﻔﺮﻏﺔ
in effect ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻟﺬﻟﻚ
on the contrary ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻜﺲ
degrees of skill ﺩﺭﺟﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻬﺎﺭﺓ
read in silence ﻳﻘﺮﺃ ﻗﺮﺍءﺓ ﺻﺎﻣﺘﺔ
printed word ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻄﺒﻮﻋﺔ
word intelligible to the eye ﻛﻠﻤﺔ ﺗﺪﺭﻛﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﻴﻦ
word intelligible to the ear ﻛﻠﻤﺔ ﺗﺪﺭﻛﻬﺎ ﺍﻷﺫﻥ
mentally heard ً ﺗﺴﻤﻊ ِﺫﻫﻨﻴﺎ
easily admit ﻳﻌﺘﺮﻑ ﺑﺴﻬﻮﻟﺔ
and yet ﻭﻣﻊ ﺫﻟﻚ
art of advertising ﻓﻦ ﺍﻹﻋﻼﻥ
109
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English
derivatives whenever possible, and write down
the Arabic equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
achieve
literature
evident
state
word
easy
retain
precision
deprive
war
mean
cooking
peculiar
attempt
context
intelligible
product
Exercise 3. Translate these pairs :
intend attend
define refine
big beg
produce product
refer defer
fact factual
110
UNIT 25
LIFE AND WRITINGS OF
ARISTOTLE
Aristotle was born in 384/3 B.C. at Stageira in Thrace, and was the son
of Nicomachus, a physician of the Macedonian king, Amyntas II. When he was
about seventeen years old Aristotle went to Athens for purposed of study and
became a member of the Academy in 368/7 B.C., where for over twenty years he was
in constant intercourse with Plato until the latter's death in 348/7 B.C. He thus entered
the Academy at the time when Plato's later dialectic was being developed and the
religious tendency was gaining ground in the great philosopher's mind. Probably
already at this time Aristotle was giving attention to empirical science (i.e. at the
time of Plato's death) , and it may be that he had already de-parted from the Master's
teaching on various points; but there can be no question of any radical break
between Master and pupil as long as the former was still alive. It is impossible to
suppose that Aristotle could have remained all that time in the Academy had he
already taken up a radically different philosophical position to that of his Master.
Moreover, even after Plato's death Aristotle still uses the first person plural of the
representatives of the Platonic doctrine of Ideas, and soon after Plato's death
Aristotle eulo-gises him as the man "whom bad men have not even the right to
praise, and who showed in his life and teachings how to be happy and good at the
same time." The notion that Aristotle was in any real sense an opponent of Plato in
the Academy and that he was a thorn in the side of the Master, is scarcely tenable:
Aristotle found in Plato a guide and friend for whom he had the greatest admiration,
and though in later years his own scientific interests tended to come much more to
the fore, the metaphysical and reli-gious teaching of Plato had a lasting influence
upon him. In-deed, it was this side of Plato's teaching that would have perhaps a
special value for Aristotle, as offsetting his own bent towards empirical studies.
111
After Plato's death Aristotle left Athens with Xenocrates (Sepusippus, Plato's
nephew, had become head of the Academy, and with him Aristotle did not see eye to
eye; in any case he may not have wished to remain in the Academy in a subordinate
position under its new head), and founded a branch of the Academy at Assos in the
Troad. Here he influenced Hermias, ruler of Atarneus, and married his niece and
adopted daughter, Pythias. While working at Assos, Aristotle no doubt began to
develop his own in-dependent views. Three years later he went to Mitylene in
Lesbos, and it was there that he was probably in inter-course with Theophrastus, a
native of Eresus on the same island, who was later the most celebrated disciple of
Aris-totle. (Hermias entered into negotiations with Philip of Macedon, who
conceived the idea of an Hellenic defeat of the Persians. The Persian general,
Mentor, got hold of Hermias by treachery and carried him off to Susa, where he was
tortured but kept silence. His last message was:"Tell my friends and companions
that I have done nothing weak or unworthy of philosophy." Aristotle published a
poem in his honour. )
In 343/2 Aristotle was invited to Pella by Philip of Macedon to undertake the
education of his son Alexander, then thirteen years old. This period at the court of
Macedon and the endeavour to exercise a real moral influence on the young prince,
who was later to play so prominent a part on the political stage and to go down to
posterity as Alexander the Great, should have done much to widen Aristotle's hori-
zon and to free him from the narrow conceptions of the ordinary Greek, though the
effect does not seem to have been so great as might have been expected: Aristotle
never ceased to share the Greek view of the City-State as the centre of life. When
Alexander ascended the throne in now presumably at an end, and probably went for
a time to Stageira, his native city, which Alexander rebuilt as payment of his debt to
his teacher.
112
Helpful Vocabulary :
Macedonian king ﻣﻠﻚ ﻣﻘﺪﻭﻧﻴﺎ
in costant intercourse with ِﻓﻲ ﺍﺗﺼﺎﻝ ﺩﺍﺋﻢ ﺑــــ
the latter's death ﻣﻮﺕ ﺍﻷﺧﻴﺮ
religious tendency ﺍﻟﻤﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻨﻲ
was giving attention ً ﻛﺎﻥ ﻳﻌﻄﻲ ﺍﻫﺘﻤﺎﻣﺎ
empirical science ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺮﻳﺒﻲ
departed form ﻧﺄﻯ ﻋﻦ، ﺍﻓﺘﺮﻕ ﻋﻦ
radical break ﺍﺧﺘﻼﻑ ﺟﺬﺭﻱ، ﺍﻧﻔﺼﺎﻝ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ
had he taken up ﻟﻮ ﺃﻧﻪ ﺍﺗﺨﺬ
eulogise him ﻳَﺮْ ﺛﻴﻪ
opponent of Plato ﺧَﺼْ ﻢ ﻷﻓﻼﻁﻮﻥ
thorn in his side ﺷﻮﻛﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺧﺎﺻﺮﺗﻪ
lasting influence ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﺩﺍﺋﻢ
break to pieces ﻳﺘﺤﻄﱠﻢ
under the weight of facts ﺗﺤﺖَ ﻭﻁﺄ ِﺓ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﺎﺋﻖ
up to now ﺣﺘﻰ ﺍﻵﻥ
did not see eye to eye ﻟﻢ ﻳﺮﻩ ﻭﺟﻬﺎ ً ﻟﻮﺟ ٍﻪ
founded a branch ً ﺃﺳﱠﺲ ﻓﺮﻋﺎ
his adopted daughter ﺍﺑﻨﺘﻪ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺒﻨﱠﺎﺓ
independent views ﺁﺭﺍء ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻠﺔ
113
disciple of Aristotle ﺗﻠﻤﻴﺬ ﺃﺭﺳﻄﻮ
Hellinic defeat ﻫﺰﻳﻤﺔ ﻫﻠﻴﻨﻴﺔ
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English
derivatives whenever possible, and write down
the Arabic equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
purpose
old
use
praise
dialectic
radical
admire
position
good
opponent
real
expect
side
thorny
head
friend
scare
celebrate
Exercise 3. The suffix -ism is added to adjectives to make
abstract nouns, usually referring to
philosophies or trends. Translate these terms :
Platonism globalism
114
modernism imperialism
extremism idealism
existentialism fundamentalism
115
UNIT 26
ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY
1. SCIENTIFIC interest in ancient, especially in Greek, philosophy, is not confined to
the value that it possesses as a peculiar subject for historical research and for the study of the
growth of civilization. But it is also equally con-cerned in the permanent siguificance that the
content of ancient thought possesses by reason of its place in the development of the
intellectual life of Europe.
The emphasis falls primarily upon the lifting of mere knowing to. the plane of systematic
knowledge, or science. Not content with his storing of practical facts, and with his fantastic
speculations born of his religious needs, the Greek sought knowledge for its own sake.
knowledge, like art, was developed as an independent function from its involvement in the
other activities of civilization. So, first and foremost, the history of ancient philosophy is an
insight into the origin of European science in general.
It is, however, at the same time the history of the birth of the separate sciences, for the
process of differentia-tion, which begins with distinguishing thought from con-duct and
inythology, was continued within the domain of science itself. With the accumulation and
organic ar-rangement of its facts, the early, simple, and unitary science to which the Greeks
gave the name φιλοσοφ lai, and these then continued to develop on more or less independent
lines.
Concerning the history and meaning of the name of "phi-losophy, "see especially R.
Haym, in Ersch and Gruber's Eney-klopudie, III. division, vol. 24; Ueberweg, Grundriss, I. I;
Windelband, Praeludien, P. 1 ff. The word became a technical tern in the Socratic school. It
meant there exactly what sci-ence , the word philosophy had the sense of ethicho-religious
practical wisdom. See 2.
116
The beginnings of scientific life that are thus found in ancient philosophy are most
influential upon the entire development that follows. With proportionately few data,Greek
philosophy produced, with a kind of grand simplicity conceptual forms for the intellectual
elaboration of its facts, and with a remorseless logic it developed every essential point of view
for the study of the universe. Therein con-sists the peculiar character of ancient thought and
the high didactic significance of its history. Our present language and our conception of the
world are thoroughly permeated by the results of ancient science. The naïve ruggedness with
which ancient philosophers followed out single motives of reflection to their most one-sided
logical conclusions brings into elearest relief the practical and psychological necessity which
governs not only the evolution of the problems of philosophy, but also the repeated historical
tendencies toward the solution of these problems. We may likewise ascribe a typical
significance to the universal stages of development of ancient philosophy, in view of the fact
that philosophy at first turned with undaunted courage to the study of the outer world;
thwarted there, it turned back to the inner world, and from this point of view, with renewed
strength, it attempted to conceive the World-All. Even the manner in which ancient thought
placed its entire apparatus of conceptual knowledge at the service of social and religious
needs has a peculiar and more than historical value.
The real significance of ancient philosophy will be much ex-aggerated if one tries to draw
close analogies between the dif-ferent phases of modern philosophy and its exponents, and
those of the ancients. Read K. v. Reichin-Meldegg, D. Paral-lelismus d. alten u neuen
Philosophie, Leipzig and Heidelberg, 1865. A detailed parallelism is impossible, because all
the forms of the modern history of civilization have so much more nearly complete
presuppositions, and are more complicated than those of the ancient world. The typical
character of the latter is valid in so far as they have "writ large' and often nearly grotesquely
the simple and elemental forms of mental life, which among moderns are far more
complicated in their combinations.
117
Helpful Vocabulary :
not confined to ﻟﻴﺴﺖ ﻣﻘﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ
historical research ﺑﺤﺚ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺨﻲ
growth of civilization ﺗﻄﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺤﻀﺎﺭﺓ
content of ancient thought ﻣﺤﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﻔﻜﺮ ﺍﻟﻘﺪﻳﻢ
intellectual life ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺎﺓ ﺍﻟﻔﻜﺮﻳﺔ
mere knowing ﻣﺠﺮﱠﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ
not content with ِﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﺎﻧﻊ ﺑــــ
first and foremost ﺃﻭﻻً ﻭﻗﺒﻞ ﻛﻞ ﺷﻲء
domain of science ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻢ
ِ ﻣﺠﺎ ُﻝ
process of differentiation ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﱠﻤﺎﻳُﺰ
accumulation of facts ﺗﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﺎﺋﻖ
Socratic school ﻣﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﺳﻘﺮﺍﻁ، ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻘﺮﺍﻁﻴﺔ
ethico-religious practical wisdom ﺣﻜﻤﺔ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺃﺧﻼﻗﻴﺔ ﺩﻳﻨﻴﺔ
most influential on ﻣﺆﺛﺮ ﺟﺪﺍً ﻋﻠﻲ
grand simplicity ﺑﺴﺎﻁﺔ ﺭﺍﺋﻌﺔ
point of view ﻭﺟﻬﺔ ﻧﻈﺮ
peculiar character ِﺳ َﻤﺔ ﺧﺎﺻّﺔ، ِﺳ َﻤﺔ ﻣﻤﻴﱠﺰﺓ
conception of the world ﺇﺩﺭﺍﻙ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟ َﻢ
historical tendencies ﻣﻴﻮﻝ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺨﻴﺔ
stages of development ﻣﺮﺍﺣﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﻮﺭ
not only … but also … ... ً ﺑﻞ ﺃﻳﻀﺎ... ﻟﻴﺲ ﻓﻘﻂ
motives of reflection ﺩﻭﺍﻓﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﻜﻴﺮ، ﺩﻭﺍﻓﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﺄ ﱡﻣﻞ
118
119
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Add the suitable preposition if necessary: in , into ,
upon , toward , for , to , into , to , in ,
with , to
1. He has great interest science .
2. Factionalism has been a good reason civil
war in that country .
3. Research has succeeded lifting mythology
up the level of science .
4. This requires some insight the case .
5. philosophy later was divided separate
6. Islam has a great influence Muslims .
7. As a father, he always treats his children a lot
of mercy .
8. The tendency globalization may prove to be
very dangerous small countries .
9. His success may be ascribed his hard work .
10. Let bygones be bygones .
120
UNIT 27
INDUSTRIAL SOCOETY
AND INDEUSTRIAL
SOCIOLOGY
Probably the outstanding characteristic of contemporary West-ern societies is that
they have been forced into a situation where change is a constant phenomenon. So
dynamic is this pattern of change that it is irresistibly spreading to the entire world.
Usually the change is conceived as emanating from persistent. Techno-logical
innovations which come to constitute a cultural pattern.
While such an explanation is grossly correct, it is an oversim-plification, for
technological innovation are accompanied, if not preceded, by changes in values and
social organization. It is not an exaggeration to suggest that the so-called industrial
revolution was accompanied from the very beginning by an organizational
revolution, and that both accompanied a change in value systems. Today the
revolutions in technology, organization, and values are constantly altering both
traditional and industrial societies.
It is often overlooked that the revolution in manufacturing which gained impetus
in eighteenth-century western Europe was preceded by changes in the values of the
societies that composed it. While many different values became modified, the
underlying change was the invasion of rational though into many areas pre-viously
considered sacred. The area which felt the greatest ap-plication of rational systems
121
of though was economics, particu-larly in manufacturing. In an interdepedndent
society all other social institutions had to make corresponding adjustments. In this
particular sense. We can think of the industrial revolution as creating an industrial
society. The general purpose of industrial sociology is to study this broad process of
industrialization and its impact on various segments of the society by the application
of general sociological principles.
It is strange that industrial sociology emerged in the United states at a tine when
the number of people engaged in manu-facturing was surpassed by the number
employed in nonmanu-
facturing or service industries. Although less than a quarter of its population is
currently occupied in manufacturing the United States, like several western
European countries, is a mature indus-trial society. Apparently the structures of
industrializing societies exhibit a predictable pattern; the number of people engaged
in manufacturing increases until it surpasses the number engaged in agriculture. At a
further stage, the proportion of workers em-ployed in the so-called service
(nonmanufacturing) industries exceeds that of workers in manufacturing while the
proportion engaged in agriculture continues to decline. Obviously this con-dition
would be impossible without an increasingly efficient sys-tem of manufacturing
which can support a growing number of workers in "nonproduction" industries.
Thus, although a minor-ity of workers may be employed in manufacturing
industries, it is possible to have an industrialized economy. Moreover, the economy
may be characterized as "industrial" in the sense that nonmanufacturing work
organizations increasingly model their values and structures after manufacturing
organization. Marker-ing, wholesaling, retailing, transportation. Communication,
edu-cation, health care, banking, and other services are becoming "factories" in
marketing, wholesaling, retailing, transportation, communication, education, and so
on.
the impact of the industrial complex manifests itself also in the nonindustrial or
noneconomic realm. That is to say, other institutions of the society respond to the
demands and needs of the economic institutions, and this seems to be the case
irrespec-tive of the pattern of property ownership found in the society-
To be sure, although other institutions do have an impact on the functioning of the
economy, the reverse process, as Polanyi suggests, tends to be general in industrial
societies. Thus one of the main functions of government is to control the economy;
one of the main problems of education is to train people for technical and other roles
in the economy; one of the main functions of the family is to socialize individuals
for living in this type of econ-omy; one of the main problems of religion is to
reinterpret life meanings to people who are exposed to the economic instabilities;
122
and the main task of welfare is to provide for those cast adrift by the malfunctions of
the economy.
Helpful Vocabulary :
outstanding characteristic ﺳﻤﺔ ﺑﺎﺭﺯﺓ
contemporary societies ﻣﺠﺘﻤﻌﺎﺕ ﻣﻌﺎﺻﺮﺓ
constant phenomenon ﻅﺎﻫﺮﺓ ﺩﺍﺋﻤﺔ
technological innovations ﺍﺑﺘﻜﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺗِﻘَﺎﻧِﻴﱠﺔ
social organization ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ
value systems ﺍﻷﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻘَﻴِ ِﻤﻴﱠﻴﺔ
traditional societies ﻣﺠﺘﻤﻌﺎﺕ ﺗﻘﻠﻴﺪﻳﺔ
western Europe ﺃﻭﺭﻭﺑﺎ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺑﻴﺔ
rational thought ﺍﻟﻔﻜﺮ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﻼﻧﻲ
interdependent society ﻣﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﻣﺘﺒﺎﺩﻝ ﺍﻻﻋﺘﻤﺎﺩ
corresponding adjustments ﺗﻜﻴﱡﻔﺎﺕ ﻣﻤﺎﺛﻠﺔ
industrial sociology ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻲ
process of industrialization ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﻨﻴﻊ
service industries ﺻﻨﺎﻋﺎﺕ ِﺧ ْﺪﻣﻴﱠﻴﺔ
occupied in manufacturing ﻣﻨﺨﺮﻁﻮﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﻨﻴﻊ
123
predictable pattern ﻧﻤﻂ ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﻟﻠﺘﻨﺒﺆ
continue to decline ﻳﺴﺘﻤﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻬﺒﻮﻁ
nonproduction industries ﺻﻨﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺇﻧﺘﺎﺟﻴﺔ
wholesaling ﺍﻟﺒﻴﻊ ﺑﺎﻟﺠﻤﻠﺔ
irrespective of ﺑﻐﺾّ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﻋﻦ
efficient system ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﻛﻒء
in the sense that ﺑﻤﻌﻨﻰ ﱠ
ﺃﻥ
124
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English
derivatives whenever possible, and write down
the Arabic equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
force
phenomenon
western
emanate
change
resistible
simplify
innovation
persistent
exaggeration
compose
industrial
revolution
modify
segment
sacred
surpass
Exercise 3. The suffix -ism is added to adjectives to make
verbs. Translate these words :
europeanize islamize
westernize globalize
americanize italianize
anglicize jordanize
arabize nationalize
125
UNIT 28
RESEARCH IN THE
SOCIOLOGY OF
EDUCATION
The purpose of this collection of papers is to present evidence of the contemporary
contribution of research in the sociology of education to the understanding of
education and of society. The output of research in the sociology of education is
probably greater and certainly as great as that in any field of sociology. In the past
decade support from the research foundations has been generous and the number of
individual studies has increased rapidly. Yet the contribution of this output has been
minimized by a concentration of attention on a limited range of widely quoted
studies; by a theoretical orientation that is implicit rather than explicit and, at times,
an excessive and distorting use of its findings by pressure groups. Notwithstanding
these problems, however, the potential contribution of findings from research in the
sociology of education is considerable, and increasingly decisions on such matters as
school organization, teachers' roles, curriculum content and the like are made in the
belief that they are supported, or at least legitimated, by sociologically oriented
research. The fact that such legitimation may be assumed rather than actual presents
a further justification for the publication of his collection which, it is hoped, will
help to reduce the uncertainties and uninformedness about the nature and standing of
research in the field and draw attention to the complex interrelationship between
educational research and policy. It is not a guide for those who wish to produce
educational research; but rather a guide for those who seek access to the intellectual
and emotion-all core of research and, in so doing, wish to use it critically.
The collection contains a range of research studies that include a number that
have not been published previously and others that have been virtually unobtainable
outside their countries of origin (France, Finland and Sweden). A consideration of
their context, content and contribution forms the remainder of this general
introduction to the volume; there are also specific editorial introductions to the
various sections of the book in which the individual papers are discussed
A dominant feature of the context of all contemporary research in the
sociology of education is the controversy between scientific positivism and the
reaction to it, notably from phenomenological and ethnomethodological approaches;
the 'normative' and 'interpretative' perspectives. Alongside this there is the closely
related conflict between 'value free' and 'value oriented' sociology.
126
Both of these conflicts are central to the nature of research and its understanding and
use. But they are conflicts which dominate sociology as a whole and not just the
sociology of education. Accordingly it is necessary to consider briefly the condition
of sociological research generally before exploring the particularly educational
connotations or research in the discipline.
The establishment of sociological research
'pure' research in sociology is currently beset by a paradox; it has become both
established and disestablished more or less concurrently. The establishment is
unquestionable-recognition in universities and colleges throughout most of the
world for sociology as a subject with academic standing and with legitimate research
functions; a rapid growth in the range of accredited and well-funded research
institutes; definitive recognition through direct sponsorship from major funding
organizations and through public grant-awarding bodies.
The establishment of research in sociology has been a necessary condition of the
establishment of the discipline itself. Only by demonstrating, empirically, that there
are laws governing human behaviour in societies could sociology substantiate its
claim for a legitimate separate existence either from literature with its established
capacity to describe and interpret human interaction, or from history with its
established strategies of analyzing unique events and their consequences. The battle
for scientific recognition of this kind was first fought by the psychologists,
successfully but at considerable cost to the development of the subject-where the
crudities of behaviourism, having the manner of approved scientific method, were
tolerated, while the exciting but largely untestable hypotheses in the field of psycho-
analysis presented continuous embarrassment. The rigorous formalism of the British
Psychological Society, still largely modelled on the prestigious pure science
organizations, points to a continuing belief in a need for scientific respectability.
Sociology was spared some of these traumas. The recognition of psychology
opened the path for the recognition of sociology even though it was along a path that
had been laid down by the psychologists. But at least some of the exertions to
establish it could be avoided by sociologists who were able to devote somewhat
more of their time to exploring sociological as opposed to scientific perspectives. In
this they were helped by the standing of anthropological study as a distinct and
acceptable even if somewhat remote area of study. Yet the influence of the
psychological interpretation of the pure science model on sociology is regularly to
be seen, and Swift (1973) has noted that sociologists in Britain still find themselves
'forced into doing social psychology. He suggests that many of the problems in the
way of a fruitful relationship between sociology and psychology spring from the
psychologically determined path of recognition that has had to be trodden by
sociologists. There are many examples in present day sociology that reaffirm this
history. The almost universal use of Durkheim's Suicide2 and the compulsory
127
statistical course, both of which form part of the routine socialization of first year
sociology undergraduates, and the disfavor with which 'applied' social work students
are often viewed. are well-known phenomena.
Helpful Vocabulary :
to present evidence ﻳﻘﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﺪﻟﻴﻞ
sociology of education ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻮﻱ
output of research ُﻣ ْﺨ َﺮﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ
research foundations ﻣﺆﺳﺴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﻮﺙ
concentration of attention ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺰ ﺍﻻﻫﺘﻤﺎﻡ
at times ﻓﻲ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻷﻭﻗﺎﺕ
pressure groups ﺟﻤﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ
curriculum content ﻣﺤﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻬﺞ
further justification ﺗﺒﺮﻳﺮ ﺇﺿﺎﻓﻲ
educational research and policy ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻮﻱ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﺎﺕ
countries of origin ﺑﻠﺪﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺸﺄ
editorial introduction ﻣﻘﺪﱢﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺤ ﱢﺮﺭ
scientific positivism ﺍﻟﻴﻘﻴﻨﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ، ﺍﻟﻮﺿﻌﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ
normative perspective ﻣﻨﻈﻮﺭ ﻣﻌﻴﺎﺭﻱ
interpretive perspective ﻣﻨﻈﻮﺭ ﺗﻔﺴﻴﺮﻱ
"value-free" society ﺧﺎﻝ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻢ
ٍ ﻣﺠﺘﻤﻊ
"value-oriented" society ﻣﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﻣﻬﺘﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﻘﻴﻢ
grant-awarding bodies ﻫﻴﺌﺎﺕ ﻣﺎﻧﺤﺔ
academic standing ﻣﻜﺎﻧﺔ ﺃﻛﺎﺩﻳﻤﻴﺔ
accredited institutes ﻣﻌﺎﻫﺪ ﻣﻌﺘﺮﻑ ﺑﻬﺎ
legitimate existence ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﻣﺸﺮﻭﻉ
128
untestable hypotheses ﻓﺮﺿﻴﺎﺕ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﺎﺑﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﻔﺤﺺ
129
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Give the Arabic equivalents of these groups of
words, each of which belongs to the same
semantic field :
1. paper series
thesis volume
dissertation newspaper
book magazine
booklet periodical
pamphlet encyclopedia
2. education master
teaching pupil
Instruction student
curriculum full professor
Teacher assistant professor
instructor associate professor
3. research table
researcher diagram
proposal footnote
plan appendix
contents bibliography
130
UNIT 29
THE NATURE OF
SOCIETY
WHEREVER there are mien they are found to be living in societies. The
simpler peoples, such as the Eskimos, or the Veddahs, or the Andaman
Islanders, are commonly found in small groups, which may range in size
from thirty or forty to a few hundred individuals. But for the most part
human societies are larger than that. It is true that there may be found
individuals who have lived with very little contact with other human being ;
there are many well-authenticated stories of children who have been carried
off and reared by wild animals ; there are other well-authenticated stories of
children reared in solitary confinement ; and there are adults who become
separated from their kind, castaways and prisoners and recluses. But such
men and women art exceptional, and usually they appear to be damaged by
solitude. In the case of those individuals who have been carried off n
childhood there is always, for obvious reasons, defective development; to
become a human being, in any adequate sense of that term, it is not sufficient
to have been born of human stock, it is also necessary to have grown up in a
human society and to have been subjected to its influences.
Those influences are of many kinds and of great power. The ordinary man
does not, as a rule, realize the extent to which his thinking, his feeling, and
his behaviour are likely to be social products. It seems to him that he thinks
and that he feels as he does because it is natural and right to think and to feel
in those ways, and that he behaves as he does because he has chosen so to
behave. But a little reflection will show that most of us, indeed all of us, are
to a large extent what we are because we belong to particular societies and to
particular groups within those societies. It is obviously not
131
fortuitous that most Arabs are Mohammedans, that most Cinghalese are
Buddhists, that most Italians are Roman Catholics, that most Danes are
Lutherans. The individual Arabs, Cinghalese, Italians, and Danes have not,
with rare exceptions, thought out carefully the meaning of life and weighed
the evidence for the truth or falsity of their own and other religions. If you or
I had been Arabs or Danes, we should probably have been Mohammedans or
Lutherans; it is the fact that we have been born and brought up in England,
and not any reasoned and deliberate choice, which make us non-
Mohammedan and non-Lutheran. Even within this country the results of
local group influence are observable; Methodists are plentiful in Cornwall
but scarce in Scotland, whilst the reverse is true of Presbyterians. We do not
conclude that most Cornishmen, on careful review of the review of the
evidence and arguments, prefer the dogmas and the polity of Methodism,
and reject those of Presbyterianism, whilst Scots arrive in large numbers at
opposite conclusions. We know perfectly well, when we take the trouble to
think, that the majority of Cornishmen or of Scots are Methodists or
Presbyterians by virtue of birth rather than by virtue of rational choice.
Or to take another example from the realm of politics. the facts about the
War of I9I4-I9I8 have been very differently perceived and interpreted by
Britons, Frenchmen, Germans, Italians, and Americans. Germans, with few
exceptions, took one view ; Frenchmen, with few exceptions, took another
view. Most Britons thought that the war was won mainly by the initial
resistance on the Marne and by the pressure of the British Navy. Most
Americans would say that American intervention saved the Allies. In Italian
schools and in Italian history books the battle of Vittorio Veneto, scarcely
known to most Englishmen, is looked upon as the turning point. Quite
clearly, though on the subject of that war is to a large extent a group product.
Imagine an infant, let us say of neutral birth, adopted by a French family in
I900, or alternatively by a German family, he or she would pretty certainly
think and feel differently to-day according to the land of adoption. Yet if he
or she were unsophisticated, these thoughts and these feelings would seem to
him or to her to result inevitably from the fact or from their consequences.
132
Helpful Vocabulary :
range in size ﻳﺘﺮﺍﻭﺡ ﻋﺪﺩﻫﺎ، ً ﺗﺘﺮﺍﻭﺡ ﺣﺠﻤﺎ
but for the most part ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﻏﻠﺐ
reared by animals ﻳ َُﺮﺑﱠﻮْ ﻥ ﻣﻦ ﻗِﺒَﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻮﺍﻧﺎﺕ
solitary confinement ﻋ َْﺰﻝ ﺍﻧﻔﺮﺍﺩﻱ
damaged by solitude ﻳﺘﻀﺮﺭﻭﻥ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ ﺍﻟﻌ ُْﺰﻟﺔ
defective development ﻧﻤﻮ ﻧﺎﻗﺺ
human stock ﺳﻼﻟﺔ ﺑﺸﺮﻳﺔ
social products ﻧﺘﺎﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ، ﻣﻨﺘﻮﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ
a little reflection ﻗﻠﻴﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺄ ﱡﻣﻞ، ﺗﻔﻜﻴﺮ ﻗﻠﻴﻞ
to a large extent ﺇﻟﻰ ﺣ ّﺪ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ
we are what we are ﻧﺤﻦ ﻣﺎ ﻧﺤﻦ
truth or falsity ْ ﺻﺤﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺑ
ُﻄﻼﻥ
if you had been ... َﻟﻮ ﻛﻨﺖ
reasoned choice ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ُﻣﺴﺒﱠﺐ
local group influence ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻠﻴﺔ
by virtue of birth ﺑﺴﺒﺐ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﻟﺪ
rational choice ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻋﻘﻼﻧﻲ
American intervention ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺧﻞ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ
turning point ﻧﻘﻄﺔُ ﺗﺤﻮ ٍّﻝ
land of adoption ﺃﺭﺽ ﺍﻟﺘﺒﻨﱢﻲ، ﺑﻠﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﺒﻨﱢﻲ
with rare exceptions ﻣﻊ ﺍﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎءﺍﺕ ﻧﺎﺩﺭﺓ
whilst the reverse ﻓﻲ ﺣﻴﻦ ﱠ
... ّﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻜﺲ
133
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Give the Arabic equivalents of these groups of
words :
1. society government
group empire
community kingdom
state princedom
country protectorate
2. story sonnet
novel lyric
drama ballad
poem epic
verse novelist
dramatist poet
3. sufficient sufficiency
efficient efficiency
deficient deficiency
134
UNIT 30
MOROCCO
The Riff coast.ــــــon the Riff coast Morocco has some hundreds of
kilometers along the Mediterranean which was the great highway of
ancient civilisation. But this coast which has only open roadsteads has
never had a great maritime activity. Furthermore it is hemmed in,
almost all the way, by the mountainous barrier of the Jbel and of the
Riff. Undoubtedly between Melilla and the Moulouya valley, the
plains come down to the sea, but this wide-open gateway only leads to
Western Morocco, the steppes leading to the true Morocco.
Doubtless the narrowness of the western end of the Mediterranean
has always, encouraged trade between the Riff harbours and the ports
of Andalousia : but the Spanish influence resulting from this
intercourse was unable to penetrate beyond the little coastal towns in
which it sometimes gained ground .
The Coast Jacing Gibraltar.ـــــThis coast dominates one of the
world's great ocean cross-roads and nowhere else are the shores of
Africa and Europe so close to each other. The essential function today
of this shore : to command the Passage from the Mediterra-nean to the
Atlantic, was as unimportant in the Middle Ages as it was in ancient
times. For the Ancients, the Pillars of Hercules marked the end of a
world familiar and welcome, the very limits of civilisation .
135
In the Middle Ages, the Mohammedans rarely ventured into the
Atlantic. When in the 16th century the Atlantic and its approaches
became primordially important, the Occidental Mohammedans took
no part in this development and Practically limited their activities to
piracy and so damaged the magnificent trade route which they could
have controlled.
For Morocco, this coast was above all a bond with Spain. By this
function almost terrestrial, the Straits have over and over again
assumed a decisive role in Moroccan history. It was above all to guard
the southern flank of Betica that the Romans occupied and kept
Northern Morocco. It was the proximity of the two shores Spanish and
African which allowed Islam to conquer the Iberian peninsula and
which, from the 10th to the 15th century, attached the history of
Morocco to that of Mohammedan Spain as regards civilisation.
The Atlantic coast.ــــThe Atlantic coast appears to be a long and
beautiful maritime façade, on the edge of rich plains leading to the
very heart of the country. But no shore is more hostile to maritime
life: dead straight and almost shelterless, it is only indented by
mediocre harbours and poor estuaries It is above all a breakwater : the
great Atlantic swell crashes on to the coastal platform, spreads out in
mighty waves which burst into foam on the shore. It has been for
centuries Morocco's best rampart.
Thus Morocco has been unlucky with its coasts. Northern
Morocco was isolated by its cast and still more by its mountains, the
West and the South by the Atlantic.
136
Helpful Vocabulary :
ancient civilizations ﺍﻟﺤﻀﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﺪﻳﻤﺔ
maritime activity ﻧﺸﺎﻁ ﺑﺤﺮﻱ
mountainous barrier ﺣﺎﺟﺰ ﺟﺒﻠﻲ
come down to ﺗﻨﺤﺪﺭ ﺇﻟﻰ
western Morocco ﻏﺮﺏ ﻣﺮﺍﻛﺶ، ﻣﺮﺍﻛﺶ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺑﻴﺔ
ports of Andalousia ﻣﻮﺍﻧﺊ ﺍﻷﻧﺪﻟﺲ
influence resulting from ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺷﺊ ﻣﻦ
this intercourse ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ
coastal towns ﻣﺪﻥ ﺳﺎﺣﻠﻴﺔ
ocean cross-road ﻣﻔﺘﺮﻕ ﻁﺮﻕ ﺑﺤﺮﻱ
essential function ﻭﻅﻴﻔﺔ ﺭﺋﻴﺴﻴﺔ
the Mediterranean ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺮ ﺍﻷﺑﻴﺾ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻂ
the Atlantic ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻴﻂ ﺍﻷﻁﻠﺴﻲ
command the passage ﻳﺴﻴﻄﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﻭﺭ
the Middle Ages ﺍﻟﻌﺼﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﻮﺳﻄﻰ
Mohammedans ﺍﻟﻤﺴﻠﻤﻮﻥ
took no part in ﻟﻢ ﻳﺸﺘﺮﻛﻮﺍ ﻓﻲ
trade route ﻁﺮﻳﻖ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﺓ، ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻳﻖ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﻱ
above all ﻗﺒﻞ ﻛﻞ ﺷﻲء
over and over again ًﻣﺮﺍﺭﺍً ﻭﺗﻜﺮﺍﺭﺍ
decisive role ﺩﻭﺭ ﺣﺎﺳﻢ
Iberian peninsula ﺷﺒﺔ ﺟﺰﻳﺮﺓ ﺇﻳﺒﺮﻳﺎ
137
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Give the Arabic equivalents of these groups of
words :
1. shore island
beach peninsula
coast isle
islander bay
2. canal sea
Channel lake
Strait ocean
Archipelago sea route
3. Greece Norway
Ivory Coast Hague
The Caspian Sea Sicily
Southern Africa south Africa
Lesbon Hungary
The Jordan Jordan
138
UNIT 31
WHY WRITE ?
ACH has his reasons: for one, art is a flight; for another a means of
E conquering. Bur one can flee into a hermit-age into madness, into age,
into madness, into death. One can conquer by arms. Why does one
have . Why does it have to be writing ? Because, behind the various aims of
authors, there is a deeper and more immediate choice which is common to
all of us. We shall try to elucidate this choice, and we shall see whether it is
not in the name of this very choice of writing that the self-commitment of
writers must be required.
Each of our perceptions is accompanied by the con-sciousness that human
reality is a 'revealer', that is, it is through human reality that 'there is' being,
or to put it differently, that man is the means by which things are mani-
fasted. It is our presence in the world which multiplies relations. It is we who
set up a relationship between this tree and that bit of sky. Thanks to us, that
star which has been dead for millennia, that quarter moon, and that dark river
are disclosed in the unity of a landscape. It is the speed of our car and our
aeroplane which organizes the great masses of the earth. With each of our
acts, the world reveals to us a new face. But, if we know that we are
directors of being, we also know that we are not its producers. If we turn
away from this landscape, it will sink back into its dark permanence. At
least, it will ink back; there is no one mad enough to think that it is going to
be annihilated. It is we who shall be annihilated, and the earth will remain in
its lethargy until another consciousness comes along to awaken it. Thus, to
our inner cerainty of being 'revealers' is added that of being inessential in
relation to the thing revealed.
One of the chief motives of artistic creation is certainly
139
the need of feeling that we are essential in relationship to the world. If I fix
on canvas or in writing a certain aspect of the fields or the sea or a look on
someone's face which I have disclosed, I am conscious of having produced
them by condensing relationships, by introducing order where there was
none, by imposing the unity of mind on the diversity of things. That is, I feel
myself essential in relation to my creation. But this time it is the created
object which escapes me; I cannot reveal and produce at the same time. The
creation becomes inessential in relation to the creative activity. First of all,
even if it appears finished to others the, the created object always seems to
us in a state of suspension; we can always change this line, that shade, that
word Thus, it never forces itself . A novice painter asked his teacher, 'When
should I consider my painting finished?' And the teacher answered, 'When
you can look at it in amazement and say to yourself" I'm the one who did
that"'.
Which amounts to saying 'never'. For it is virtually con-sidering one's work
with someone else's eyes and revealing what one has created. Bur it is self-
evident that we are pro-portionally less conscious of the thing produced and
more conscious of our productive activity. When it is a matter of pottery or
carpentry, we work according to traditional patterns, with tools whose usage
is codified; it is Heidegger's famous ' they ' who are working with our hand,
in this case, the result can seem to us sufficiently strange to preserve its
objectivity in our eyes. But if we ourselves produce the rules of production,
the measures, the criteria, and if our creative drive comes from the very
depths of our heart, then we never find anything but ourselves in our work. It
is we who have invented the laws by which we judge it. It is our history, our
love, our gaiety that we recognize in it. Even if we should look at it without
touching it any further, we never receive from it that gaiety or love. We put
them into it. The results which we have obtained on canvas or paper never
seem to us objective. We are too familiar with the processes of which they
are the effect.
140
Helpful Vocabulary :
escapes and conquests ﺍﻟﻔَﺮﱡ ﻭ ﺍﻟ َﻜﺮﱡ
for one ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﺸﺨﺺ ﻣﺎ
common to all ﻣﺸﺘﺮﻙ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻴﻊ
self-commitment ﺍﻟﺘﺰﺍﻡ ﺫﺍﺗﻲ
accompanied by ِﻣﺼﺤﻮﺑﺔ ﺑــ
to put it differently ﺑﻤﻌﻨﻰ ﺁﺧﺮ
unity of a landscape ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻈﺮ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻲ
dark permanence ﺩﻳﻤﻮﻣﺔ ﻣﻌﺘﻤﺪﺓ
artistic creation ﺇﺑﺪﺍﻉ ﻓﻨﻲ
condensing relationships ﺗﻜﺜﻴﻒ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ
introducing order ﺇﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ
unity and diversity ﺍﻟﻮﺣﺪﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﺩ
state of suspension ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺇﺭﺟﺎء، ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻖ
novice painter ﺭﺳﺎﻡ ﻣﺒﺘﺪﺉ
amount to ﻳﺼﻞ ﺇﻟﻰ
with someone else's eyes ﺑﻌﻴﻮﻥ ﺷﺨﺺ ﺁﺧﺮ
productive activity ﻧﺸﺎﻁ ﺇﺑﺪﺍﻋﻲ
sufficiently strange ﻏﺮﻳﺐ ﺑﻤﺎ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﻔﺎﻳﺔ
creative drive ﺍﻟﺪﺍﻓﻊ ﺍﻹﺑﺪﺍﻋﻲ
from the depths of our heart ﻣﻦ ﺃﻋﻤﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﺐ
in the name of this very choice ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﺫﺍﺗﻪ
our presence in the world ﻭﺟﻮﺩﻧﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ
141
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English
derivatives whenever possible, and write down
the Arabic equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
voice
deep
require
immediate
mean
moon
face
reveal
annihilate
art
create
hand
gay
preserve
amazement
united
codified
result
Exercise 3. Translate these terms, which are related to the
same filed :
write columnist
edit column
editor article
chief editor proofread
142
UNIT 32
LITERATURE
Classical Chinese literature is the literature produced in China
during a period of over 3,000 years from the beginning of Chinese
history to the Opium War. Its long history and splendid achievements
are famous the world over. Its many great writers from all levels of the
old society include Qu Yuan, Sima Qian, Tao Yuanming, LiBai, Du
Fu, Han Yu, Liu Zongyuan, Su Shi, Li Qingzhao, Xin Qiji, Guan
Hanqing, Luo Guanzhong, Shi Naian, Pu Songling and Cao Xueqin.
Masterpieces such as the Book of Odes and the "Li Sao", dating from
pre-Qin times; Music Bureau ballads and Records of the Historian
dating from the Western Han; Tang and Song poetry and lyrics; Yuan
drama and Ming and Qing fiction have all greatly enriched the
treasure-house of Chinese literature.
(1) PRE-QIN LITERATURE (11TH CENTURY B.C.-221 B.C.)
Classical Chinese literature ha its starting point dur-ing the
course of the development of Chinese history from slave society to
feudal society. The outstanding masterpieces from pre-Qin literature
are the Book of Odes dating from the Zhou Dynasty, the historical and
philo-sophical prose of the Warring States and the "Li Sao" by Qu
Yuan.
The Book of Odes The Book of Odes is the earliest collection of
Chinese poetry, and consists of 305 poems written over a period of
about 500 years during the West-ern and Spring and Autumn period. It
was com-
143
piled in the 6th century B.C. and is divided into three parts. The first
part, known as "Airs from the States", consists of 160 folk songs from
15 princely states under the Zhou; the "Greater Odes" and "Lesser
Odes" make up the second part, consisting of 150 poems; and the
"Eulogies", the third part, consists of 40 poems. The divisions are
based on musical categories: regional music in the "Airs", music from
the area directly under Zhou rule in the "Odes" and religious and
ceremonial music in the "Eulogies". The poems in the Book of Odes
are actually songs based on these musical types.
In terms of literary value, the fold songs in the "Airs" and
"Lesser Odes" are particularly impressive. These oral compositions
created by the working people touch on all aspects of current life and
society, expressing pro-test at injustice and hope for love and
happiness. "Seventh Month" (an air from Bin) describes the year-
round arduous toil of the serfs and the oppression under which they
suffered; "Cutting Wood" (an air from Wei) chastises the exploiters
for enjoying the fruits of labour without working; and "Big Rats" (an
air from Wei) ex-presses an even more bitter hatred of the exploiters.
"The Broken Axe" and "The Eastern Mountain" (airs from Bin) show
the sufferings caused by military campaigns and the people's desire to
live inn peace. Songs about love and marriage occupy a considerable
portion of the Book of Odes, and most of them are sincere, natural and
healthy. The folk songs in the Book of Odes indicate the working
people's deep feelings towards life and their profound knowledge of it,
in simple, beautiful language and fresh, vivid imagery, fully
embodying the artistic creativeness of the people; they are the chief
glory of the Book of Odes.
The Book of Odes is China's firs work of realistic literature and
as such has had a profound influence on the later development of
poetry. Its abundant use of literary devices such as metaphor, allusion,
repetition and antiphony has also been highly influential.
144
Helpful Vocabulary :
classical literature ﺃﺩﺏ ﺗﻘﻠﻴﺪﻱ
the Opium War ﺣﺮﺏ ﺍﻷﻓﻴﻮﻥ
famous the world over ﻣﺸﻬﻮﺭﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﻛﻠﻪ
dating from ﻳﻌﻮﺩ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺨﻬﺎ ﺇﻟﻰ
slave society ﻣﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﻌﺒﻮﺩﻳﺔ
feudal society ﻣﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﺇﻗﻄﺎﻋﻲ، ﻣﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﺍﻹﻗﻄﺎﻉ
outstanding masterpieces ﺭﻭﺍﺋﻊ ﻋﻈﻴﻤﺔ
historical prose ﻧﺜﺮ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺨﻲ
collection of poetry ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺷﻌﺮﻳﺔ
folk songs ﺃﻏﺎﻧﻲ ﺷﻌﺒﻴﺔ
regional music ﻣﻮﺳﻴﻘﻰ ﻣﺤﻠﻴﺔ
ceremonial music ﻣﻮﺳﻴﻘﻰ ﺷﻌﺎﺋﺮﻳﺔ، ﻣﻮﺳﻴﻘﻰ ﻁﻘﻮﺳﻴﺔ
in terms of literary value ﻣﻦ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻷﺩﺑﻴﺔ
oral compositions ُﻣﺆَﻟﱠﻔﺎﺕ ﺷﻔﻬﻴﺔ
touch on all aspects of ﺗَ َﻤﺲﱡ ﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﻧﻮﺣﻲ
protest at injustice ﺍﻻﺣﺘﺠﺎﺝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻈﻠﻢ
year-round toil ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ
fruits of labour ﺛﻤﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ
hatred of exploiters ﻛﺮﺍﻫﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻐﻠﱢﻴﻦ
military campaigns ﺣﻤﻼﺕ ﻋﺴﻜﺮﻳﺔ
145
146
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Give the Arabic equivalents of these groups of
words :
1. ode biography
lyric autobiography
tragedy comic
comedy farce
2. poetic meter poetic foot
Blank verse rhymed verse
3. century epoch
decade age
period stage
147
UNIT 33
NINETEENTH-CENTURY
ART IN THE UNERED
STATES
Whereas the history of western art had been hitherto almost exclusively
linked with European history, its boun-daries extended in the nineteenth
century to embrace the art of a young nation which had recently become an
independent republic and soon emerged as a world power of considerable
political and economic importance ــــthe United States of America. This
new republic, unfettered by past traditions and concentrating all its abundant
energies on the future, was capable of the highest achieve-ments in every
artistic field.
Yet the very absence of tradition, especially in the cultural and artistic fields,
was a source of concern to the Americans, who saw it as a vital deficiency.
This led them to devote all their enthusiasm and admiration to the cultural
and artistic inheritance of ancient Europe in all its forms and to try to
assimilate it, to make it their own. The tendency was encouraged by the fact
that America con-sisted largely of groups of European immigrants who had
brought to their new country the customs, the traditions, the fashions, even
the artistic styles of their countries of origin.
While a rather passive dependence on European models characterizes the
first timid artistic enterprises of the
148
eighteenth century, the nineteenth century in the United States saw a rather
freer adaptation of European ideas and, in the field of architecture, the birth
of a completely original school. Thus by the end of the century the United
States already showed signs of having developed and independent artistic
tradition which was in the twentieth century, to prove itself the most mature
and the most influential in the world.
In the late eighteenth century, under the influence of French and English
models, neo-classicism was already being adopted in north-American
architecture with a very high degree of success. This style, which stems from
a profound admiration for the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations, is also
typical, as in Europe. Of buildings of the first decades of the nineteenth
century and clearly reflects the influence of the various American architects
who had gathered experience in London, Paris or Rome, while travelling in
Europe.
Moreover the adoption of neo-classicism was particularly enthusiastic in the
United States, for this new nation cherished the links, sentimental and
idealistic, that connected it with the ancient classical civilizations. Both the
Roman republic and the Greek city-states were seen as perfect, unsurpassed
examples of societies based on those democratic principles which had
provided the cornerstone of the American Revolution.
149
Helpful Vocabulary :
almost exclusively ً ﻋﻠﻰ ﻭﺟﻪ ﺍﻟﺤﺼﺮ ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﺎ
history of western art ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﺍﻟﻔﻦ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺑﻲ
young nation ﺃﻣﺔ ﻓَﺘِﻴﱠﺔ
independent republic ﺟﻤﻬﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻠﺔ
emerged as a world power ْ
ﻅﻬﺮﺕ ﻛﻘﻮﺓ ﻋﺎﻟﻤﻴﺔ
past traditions ﺗﻘﺎﻟﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ
abundant energies ﻁﺎﻗﺎﺕ ﻭﻓﻴﺮﺓ
artistic field ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻔﻨﻲ
source of concern ٍ َﻣﺼﺪﺭ ﻗَﻠ
ﻖ
vital deficiency ﻧﻘﺺ ﺭﺋﻴﺴﻲ
European immigrants ﻣﻬﺎﺟﺮﻭﻥ ﺃﻭﺭﻭﺑﻴﻮﻥ
rather passive dependence ﺍﻋﺘﻤﺎﺩ ﺳﻠﺒﻲ ﻧﻮﻋﺎ ً ﻣﺎ
freer adaptation ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﺣﺮﻳﺔ
field of architecture ﻣﺠﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻬﻨﺪﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻤﺎﺭﻳﺔ
original school ﻣﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﺃﺻﻴﻠﺔ
independent artistic tradition ﺗﻘﻠﻴﺪ ﻓﻨّﻲ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻞ
profound admiration ﺇﻋﺠﺎﺏ ﻋﻤﻴﻖ
Greek city-states ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻥ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻧﺎﻧﻴﺔ
unsurpassed examples ﺃﻣﺜﻠﺔ ﺭﺍﺋﻌﺔ
democratic principles ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺉ ﺩﻳﻤﻘﺮﺍﻁﻴﺔ
150
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English
derivatives whenever possible, and write down
the Arabic equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
art
embrace
exclusive
republic
emerge
encourage
deficiency
free
devote
concern
fashionable
adaptation
democratic
develop
influence
perfect
connect
classicism
Exercise 3. Translate these pairs :
extend extent
devise device
advise advice
past passed
deficiency efficiency
151
UNIT 34
THE LARYNX AND
VOICING
The larynx is a very important vocal organ which contains two very tiny muscles
down in the throat that can create a sound ــthough a very faint, weak sound ــby
vibrating. Though it is a tin organ, all speech is described with reference to what the
larynx is doing. The larynx itself or the muscles inside it are called by several
different terms. Including voice box, vocal bands. vocal folds and vocal cords. The
vocal cords are housed inside the protective cartilage familiarly known as the
"Adam's Apple".
You can see in the alternate names for the muscles of the larynx the analogy to
rubber bands or to the cords of a musical instrument Raising the pitch of the voice
involves tightening the muscles of the larynx. and lowering the pitch of the voice
means loosening them. If you loosen them too much. You will actually lose voice
completely, as the cords are too slack to sustain vibration.
The larynx is completely closed when swallowing. When breathing normally or
resting. It is slack and open. So that air can go in and out of the space between the
muscles. The space, or opening, between the muscles is called the glottis. The shape
and size of the glottis has a dra-matic effect on the sound which is produced and
ultimately heard as speech. An oval-shaped elastic band is a good visual model of
the vocal cords. With the hole in the middle representing the glottis.
For some segmental speech sounds, the larynx is open and air just passes through
the slack vocal cords. The air is later modified in the mouth to make a particular
sound. An example is the consonant [p] , as in put or supper. This consonant is
nothing but air (the breath stream from the lungs) which has been modified by (1)
closing the lips, (2) let-ting the air pressure build up a little behind the closed lips
and then (3) expelling the air.
The type of sound represented by [p]. which involves only modi-fication of the
shape of the column of air coming up through the open glottis. is called voiceless.
Another example of a voiceless consonant is [f] , like [p] , [f] is nothing but a breath
of stream with a certain modification of that column of air in the mouth. This time
the modifi-
152
cation involves not the two lips, but rather the top teeth and the bot-tom lip
For another major class of speech sounds, the vocal folds are brought close
together and tightened, narrowing the glottis. When air passes through the narrowed
glottis. the vocal folds vibrate and make a sound, called a vocal buzz. This is a very
faint sound caused by the vibrating vocal cords. This basic vocal buzz is later
amplified in the resonance chamber ـــof the mouth (the oral chamber ) and/or the
nose (the nasal chamber). Speech sounds produced with vibrating vocal cords are
referred to as voiced.
An example of a voiced consonant is [b]. like [p], [b] is produced by bringing the
two lips together and then releasing the air built up behind that closure. Unlike [p],
however, the vocal folds are vibrating during the production of [v] differs from
[f]only in the fact that [f] is produced without vocal fold vibration, while [v] requires
vocal fold vibration for its production. If you put hands over your ears or touch your
Adam's Apple as you alternate prolonged productions of [f] and [v], you should be
able to hear and feel the vocal cords turning on and off their vibration (Ladefoged
1982: 2 ) you can also hear the difference between voiced and voiceless sounds very
clearly by pro-ducing a sustained vowel sound such as [aaaa] and then pronouncing
the same vowel in a whispered manner. The normal vowel is voiced; the whispered
vowel is voiceless. When not whispered, all vowels in English (and most languages)
are voiced. Consonants may be either voiced or voiceless.
For both voiced and voiceless sounds, the nature of the basic sound at the glottisـــ
either the buzz or the naked puff of air coming up from the lungs ـــis modified in
the oral chamber, with or without coupling to the nasal chamber. There are many,
many possible modification, as will be introduced in the next three chapters.
Phonetics and phonology.
Phonology is the study and description of the patterning of the noises and silences
of speech in regular ways within particular languages.
Phonetics is the study and description of the nature of the raw noises and silences of
speech. Phonetics is thus the basis for phonology, and phonology can be said to
build on phonetics and to be a more general and abstract pursuit than phonetics.
We language teachers are primarily interested in phonology, that is, in the
patterns of sounds which make up speech. However, we must also concern ourselves
with phonetics, which is the basis for phon-ology. If the characteristics of individual
speech sounds are carefully investigated and precisely described phonetically, then
we well be on a firm basis for investigating and describing how the individual
sounds pattern within a given language.
153
Helpful Vocabulary :
larynx ﺍﻟﺤﻨﺠﺮﺓ
vocal organ ﻋﻀﻮ ﺻﻮﺗﻲ
voice box ﺻﻨﺪﻭﻕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ
vocal cords ﺍﻟﺤﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻴﺔ
Adam's apple ﺗﻔﺎﺣﺔ ﺁﺩﻡ
pitch of the voice ﻧﻐﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ
glottis ﺍﻟ ِﻤ ْﺰ َﻣﺎﺭ
dramatic effect ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ
segmental speech sounds ْ ِﺃﺻﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﻼﻡ ﺍﻟﻘ
ﻄ ِﻌﻴﱠﺔ
breath stream ﺗَﻴﱠﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﱠﻔَﺲ
consonants and vowels ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺍﻣﺖ ﻭﺍﻟﺼﻮﺍﺋﺖ
voiceless sound ﺻﻮﺕ ﻣﻬﻤﻮﺱ
voiced sound ﺻﻮﺕ ﻣﺠﻬﻮﺭ
resonance chamber ﺗﺠﻮﻳﻒ ﺍﻟﺮﻧﻴﻦ
oral chamber ﺗﺠﻮﻳﻒ ﻓﻤﻮﻱ
nasal chamber ﺗﺠﻮﻳﻒ ﺃﻧﻔﻲ
vocal fold vibration ﺍﻫﺘﺰﺍﺯ ﺍﻟﺤﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻴﺔ
whispered vowel ﺻﺎﺋﺖ ُﻣ َﻮ ْﺷ َﻮﺵ
housed inside ﻣﺤﻔﻮﻅﺔٌ ﻓﻲ
tightening and loosening ﺷ ّﺪ ﻭﺇﺭﺧﺎء
voiced consonant ﺻﺎﻣﺖ ﻣﺠﻬﻮﺭ
154
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Give the Arabic equivalents of these groups of
words :
1. stop semi-vowel
affricate nasal
fricative glide
2. labial interdental
bilabial alveolar
dental lingual
velar velum
nasal velarize
nasalize apex
nasalization vocal cords
lateral bilateral
3. high vowel front vowel
central vowel mid vowel
low vowel back vowel
rounded vowel devoiced vowel
155
UNIT 35
PRONUNCIATION AND
SPELING
It is not really understood how the spoken language operates ـــwhether as the output
of a servo-mechanism ـــthat is, a complex system with feedback loops monitoring
itself and modifying itself as it hoes along ـــor by something else equally complex .
To most speakers it simply doesn't matter how it operates so long as it does One can
but marvel that millions of people can communicate daily by speech and manage
their linguistic relationships with no more than relatively unimportant
misunderstandings.
It is all the more mysterious how it comes about that if one moves just a few
miles away from one's own habitat a different set of lin-guistic sounds is
encountered ـــstill those of recognizably the same language but subtly and
charmingly different ـــand that one does not even need to move outside one's
immediate area to encounter other observably different set of sounds representing
social or educational rather than geographical distancings form oneself.
These general considerations are true of all languages which in historical time
have remained geographically static. Variation is governed by the social
arrangements within a group or clan. or by a geographical boundary like a river or a
line of mountains. And within the borders and limits of a given set of a given set of
variants of one language it is quite normal to find other people using totally
unintelligible sets of sounds (foreign languages like Welsh) or half-way houses
(one's own language spoken by foreigners).
Over the centuries the movement of clans and tribes of people has produced the kind
of crop that would emerge if a blind god had sprinkled seeds at random on a field ـــ
156
a vast array of diverse patterns, usually not even interlocking or decussated, but
crossed and intersected by every kind of structured diversity.
Of all the main languages of the world none is more widely dissemiated and
more subtly sliced and severed than English. and all within the space of only 1,500
years. From the diversity of the were already divided into a multitude of linguistic
subgroups using different modes of pronunciation, grammar, and usage.
even though they remained (as far as we can tell) mutually intel-ligible.
I regard it as axiomatic that the traditional classification of Anglo-Saxon, dialect
into four major groups ـــNorthumbrian. Mercian, West Saxon, and Kentish ـــis an
over-simplification. If more information about them had survived, the parental
group-ings of the numerous varieties of English now spoken in Britain would have
been more than quadrilaterally complex. Even now, if all recorded forms of every
surviving text were fed into a computer databank in an unregularized form, and
without prior assumptions, new distributional maps would emerge, and the overlaid
rules of the main types of Schriftsprache could perhaps be stripped away to take us
nearer to the tribal variations of speech extant at the time of Offa, Alfred , and
Elfric. Regional variation of speech at the time of the first discernibly professional
analyses of dialects ـــin practice not before the seventeenth century ـــpoints firmly
in the direction of great complexity. It seems most unlikely that this complexity
developed from a simple base of four 'blocks' of Anglo-Saxon speech.
Be that as it may, we must work with the evidence we have. The establishment of
the mode of pronunciation of the earliest form of English is traditionally and
necessarily based on an assumption of close equivalence between sound and symbol.
Phonologists assume near-coincidence between spellings and sounds in the earliest
records of our language: that OE. hus 'house' is /hu:s/; OE. hlud 'loud' is /hlu:d/, with
initial h fully pronounced and with a long u; hring 'ring' is /hrin/, also with h fully
pronounced but with n not ng; and that OE. wlanc is/ wlank/ , with the approximant
w fully pronounce before the following/ . in may view it is likely that some Anglo-
Saxon tribes, or groups of people within tribes, had already adopted the later ways of
pronouncing such words.
Traditional phonology is based on the assumption that three major phonetic
changes at a later period brought radical changes to the classes of words into which
these four words fall ـــthat /hu:s/ became / haus/as part of the Great Vowel Shift;
that h followed by the liquid consonants/ and r was lost at the beginning of the
Middle English period; and that words beginning with wl (an approximant followed
by the liquid consonant) disappeared in the course of the Middle English period. We
should, however, allow for the possibility that dissident pronunciations existed
among minority groups within the Anglo-Saxon period, and that the historical
157
process was one in which these 'subversive' forms gradually replaced the ones
maintained by the conservative scribes in their written texts and by linguistic
conservatives in their speech.
Helpful Vocabulary :
spoken language ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟ َﻤﺤْ ﻜﻴﺔ
complex system ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﻣﻌﻘﺪ
feedback loops ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ
immediate area ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷﺮﺓ
sets of sounds ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﺻﻮﺍﺕ
general considerations ﺍﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ
crossed and intersected ﻣﺘﺼﺎﻟﺐ ﻭﻣﺘﻘﺎﻁﻊ
structured diversity ﺗﻨﻮﻉ ﻣﺮ ﱠﻛﺐ
more widely disseminated ًﺃﻭﺳﻊ ﺍﻧﺘﺸﺎﺭﺍ
within the space of ﺿﻤﻦ ﻓﺘﺮﺓ، ﺿﻤﻦ ﻣﺪﻯ
modes of pronunciation ﺃﻧﻤﺎﻁ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻄﻖ
traditional classification ﺗﺼﻨﻴﻒ ﺗﻘﻠﻴﺪﻱ
computer databank ﺑﻨﻚ ﺑﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ُﻣ َﺤﻮْ َﺳﺐ
in an unregularized from ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻨﺘﻈﻢ
without prior assumptions ﺩﻭﻥ ﺍﻓﺘﺮﺍﺿﺎﺕ ﺳﺎﺑﻘﺔ
distributional maps ﺧﺮﺍﺋﻂ ﺗﻮﺯﻳﻊ
158
tribal variations ﺗﻨﻮﻋﺎﺕ ﻗَﺒَﻠﻴﱠﺔ
ﱡ
in practice not before ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎ ً ﻟﻴﺲ ﻗَﺒَﻠﻴﱠﺔ
most unlikely ًﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺤﺘﻤﻞ ﺟﺪﺍ
be that as it may ْ ﻭﻣﻬﻤﺎ
ﻳﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻣﺮ
close equivalence ﺗﻜﺎﻓﺆ ﻣﺘﻘﺎﺭﺏ
sound and symbol ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺮﻣﺰ
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English
derivatives whenever possible, and write down
the Arabic equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
vary
grammar
complex
emerge
tribe
relative
cross
intersect
analysis
recognizable
intelligible
encounter
border
true
slice
evidence
regional
159
severe
Exercise 3. Translate these linguistic terms :
hissing sound initial phoneme
silent letter dialect
medial phoneme idiolect
final phoneme jargon
160
UNIT 36
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF
AESTHETICS
TH E R E can be few topics more certain to lead to furious discussion than
those related to aesthetics; there can be few topics within the realm of
aesthetics more certain to arouse normally peaceful artists, philosophers, and
aestheticians to a pitch of uncontrolled indignation than that which has given
this chapter its title. The idea that objects of beauty as well as their creation
and appreciation, are subject to scientific scrutiny appears abhorrent to most
people, even as the idea that the physicist might study and analyse the
colours of the rainbow with his objective methods was ab-horrent to their
grandparents. There appears to exist a fear that clumsy handing might crush
the butterfly's wings; an idea that analysis may destroy what it is intending to
study.
Associated with this fear is perhaps another. Most people hold views
regarding aesthetics which they are extremely unwilling to give up, although
these views are not based on any objective facts. Indeed, the very idea that
one's views ought to be related to factual evidence is usually dismissed, and
it is asserted that subjectivity reigns supreme in this field. This, of course, is
a tenable view; it contradicted, however, by the well-known tendency of
most people to argue about their aesthetic views, often with great acerbity,
always with great tenacity, never with that humility which the hypothesis of
complete subjectivity should engender in them. If aesthetic judgements are
completely subjective, there would appear as little point in argument as in
scien-tific experiment; if the one is permissible, so surely is the other.
Perhaps the objection to scientific investigation is in part due to a fear that
facts may be more potent than argu-ments in forcing one to give up a
cherished position, and to
161
Acknowledge certain objective factors which one would pre-fer to overlook.
However that may be, there can be little doubt about the hostile reaction
which psychology has experienced on all sides when it attempted to
introduce scientific methods into the study of aesthetics. A good deal of this
hostility is prob-ably based on misunderstanding, and it will be the purpose
of this chapter to explain in some detail just what the psycho-logist is trying
to do, and how he sets about his task. I shall try to avoid arguments and
comparisons with philosophical procedures and problems as far as possible;
these often seem to resemble those attacked by psychologists, but the simi-
larity is only superficial. The reader familiar with modern aesthetic
doctrines, and with the long history of discussions in this field, will easily be
able to apply the facts of psycho-logical research to the solution of such
philosophical prob-lems as interest him.
How, then, does the psychologist start? He notices that certain types of
judgement are made frequently of certain objects; these judgements are
phrased in items of 'beautiful' and 'ugly', or some synonymous terms, and
apply to various combinations of colours and shapes, as in the visual arts;
words, as in poetry ; or sounds, as in music. The essential datum with which
he deals, therefore , is a relation ــــa rela-tion between a stimulus (picture,
poem, piece of music) and a person who reacts to this stimulus in certain
conventional ways. Usually the response is a verbal one, but it is possible,
and has been found useful in certain situations, to record physiological
reactions indicative of emotion, such as heart-beat, pulse-rate, skin
temperature, or changes in the electric conductivity of the skin.
In analyzing this relation, the psychologist encounters a twofold problem.
In the first place, he must ask himself : Just what is the physical property of
the stimulus which causes a favourable reaction as opposed to an unfavour-
able reaction in the majority of the subjects with whom he is working? In the
second place, he must ask himself : Just what is the reason why one person
reacts favour-ably to a given stimulus, while another person reacts un-
favourably ?
162
Helpful Vocabulary :
psychology of aesthetics ﻋﻠﻢ ﻧﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﺎﻝ
furious discussion ﺟﺪﺍﻝ ﺻﺎﺧﺐ
uncontrolled indignation ﻏﻀﺐ ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻄﺮﺓ
subject to ﺧﺎﺿﻊ ِﻝ
objective methods ﺃﺳﺎﻟﻴﺐ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻋﻴﺔ
associated with ُِﻣ ْﻘﺘ َِﺮ ٌﻥ ﺑـــ
views regarding ِﺁﺭﺍء ﺗﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑـــ
the very idea ﺍﻟﻔﻜﺮﺓُ ﺫﺍﺗُﻬﺎ
subjectivity reigns supreme ُ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﺗﻴﺔ ﻟﻬﺎ ﺍﻟ ﱠﺴ ْﺒ
ﻖ
well-known tendency َﻣﻴْﻞ ﻣﻌﺮﻭﻑ
with humility ﺑﺘﻮﺍﺿﻊ
scientific investigation ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺼﺎء ﻋﻠﻤﻲ
is in part due to ﺟﺰﺋﻴﺎ ً ﻳُ ْﻌﺰَﻯ ﺇﻟﻰ
however that may be ْ ﻭﻣﻬﻤﺎ
ﻳﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻣﺮ
hostile reaction َﺭ ﱡﺩ ﻓِﻌ ٍْﻞ ُﻣ َﻌﺎ ٍﺩ
based on misunderstanding ﻗﺎﺋﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﻮء ﺍﻟﻔﻬﻢ
in some detail ﺑﺸﻲء ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺼﻴﻞ
as far as possible ﺑﻘﺪﺭ ﺍﻹﻣﻜﺎﻥ
superficial similarity ﺗﺸﺎﺑﻪ ﺳﻄﺤﻲ
163
synonymous terms ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎﺕ ﻣﺮﺍ ِﺩﻓﺔ
visual arts ﺍﻟﻔﻨﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺋﻴﺔ
conventional ways ﻁﺮﻕ ﺗﻘﻠﻴﺪﻳﺔ
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Choose the suitable prepositions :
1. This theory leads ( to, far ) certain applications.
2. What he did will be subject ( in, to ) questioning .
3. An increase in pluse-rate is usually associated ( with, by )
fear
4. His views are based ( on, at ) facts .
5. Her opinions are contradicted ( with, by ) his opinions .
6. They object ( to, on ) what he suggests .
7. Diseases are sometimes due ( by, to ) poverty .
8. They attempt to introduce computers ( in, into ) modern
education .
9. Can you phrase it ( in, with) other words ?
10. what is the reason ( of, for ) such problems ?
164
UNIT 37
YOUR KEY TO A
BERRER LIFE
The most important psychologic discovery of this cen-tury is the discovery
of the "self-image." Whether we real-ize it or not, each of us carries about
with us a mental blueprint or picture of ourselves. It may be vague and ill-
defined to our conscious gaze. In fact, it may not be consciously
recognizable at all. But it is there. complete down to the last detail. This self-
images is our own con-ception of the "sort of person I am. " It has been built
up from our own beliefs about ourselves. But most of these beliefs about
ourselves have unconsciously been formed from our past experiences, our
successes and failures, our humiliation, our triumphs, and the way other
people have reacted to us, especially in early childhood. From all these we
mentally construct a "self" (or a picture of a self). Once an idea or belief
about ourselves goes into this pic-ture it becomes "true," as far as we
personally are con-cerned. We do not question its validity, but proceed to act
upon it just as if it were true.
This self-image becomes a golden key to living a better life because of
two important discoveries :
( 1 ) All your actions, feelings, behavior ــــــeven your abilities ــــــeven
your abilities ــــــare always consistent with this self-image.
In short, you will "act like" the sort of person you con-ceive yourself to
be. Not only this, but you literally can-not act otherwise, in spite of all your
conscious efforts or will power. The man who conceives himself to be "fail-
ure-type person' will find some way to fail, in spite of all his good intentions,
or his will power, even if opportunity is literally dumped in his lap. The
person who conceives himself to be a victim of injustice, on "who was meant
165
To suffer," will invariably find circumstances to verify his opinions.
The self-images is a "premise," a base, or a foundation upon which your
entire personality, your behavior, and even your circumstances are built.
Because of this our ex-periences seem to verify, and thereby strengthen our
self images, and a vicious or a beneficent cycle, as the case may be, is set up.
For example, a schoolboy who sees himself as an "F" type student, or one
who is "dumb in mathematics," will invariably find that his report card bears
him out . He then has "proof." A young girl who has and image of herself as
the sort of person nobody likes will find indeed that she is avoided at the
school dance. She literally invites re-jection. Her woe-begone expression,
her hang-dog man-ner, her over-anxiousness to please, or perhaps her un-
conscious hostility towards those she anticipates will affront herـــــall act to
drive away those whom she would attract. In the same manner, a salesman or
a businessman will also find that his actual experiences tend to "prove" his
self-image is correct.
Because of this objective "proof" it very seldom occurs to a person that
his trouble lies in his self-image or his own evaluation of himself . Tell the
schoolboy that he only "thinks" he cannot master algebra, and he will doubt
your sanity. He has tried and tried, and still his report cart tells the story. Tell
the salesman that it is only and idea that he cannot earn more than a certain
figure, and he can prove you wrong by his order book. He knows only too
well how hard he has tried and failed. Yet, as we shall see later, almost
miraculous changes have occurred both in grades of students, and in the
earning capacity of sales-menــــwhen they were prevailed upon to change
their self-images.
( 2 ) The self-image can be changed. Numerous case his-tories have
shown that one is never too young not too old to changes his self-image and
thereby start to live a new life.
166
Helpful Vocabulary :
self-image ﺻﻮﺭﺓ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﺕ، ﺻﻮﺭﺓ ﺫﺍﺗﻴﺔ
pyshological discovery ﺍﻛﺘﺸﺎﻑ ﻧﻔﺴﻲ
whether we realize it or not ﺳﻮﺍء ﺃﻋﺮﻓﻨﺎ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺃﻡ ﻟﻢ ﻧﻌﺮﻑ
conscious gaze ﻧﻈﺮﺓ ﻭﺍﻋﻴﺔ
mental picture ﺻﻮﺭﺓ ﺫﻫﻨﻴﺔ
consciously recognizable ﻣﻌﺮﻭﻓﺔ ﺑﻮﻋﻲ
to the last detail ﺣﺘﻰ ﺁﺧﺮ ﺗﻔﺼﻴﻼﺗﻬﺎ
to act upon it ﻳﻌﻤﻞ ﺑﻤﻮﺟﺒﻬﺎ
vicious cycle ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻣﻔﺮﻏﺔ
" F " student ﻁﺎﻟﺐ ﺭﺍﺳﺐ
dumb in mathematics ﺟﺎﻫﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎﺕ
invite rejection ﺗﺪﻋﻮ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻓﺾ
over-anxiousness ٌ ﺗَﻠَﻬ
ﱡﻒ ﺯﺍﺋﺪ
unconscious hostility ﻋﺪﺍء ﻻ ﺷﻌﻮﺭﻱ
salesman ﻣﻮﻅﱠﻒ ﻣﺒﻴﻌﺎﺕ
very seldom occur ًﻳﺤﺪﺙ ﻧﺎﺩﺭﺍً ﺟﺪﺍ
his trouble lies in ﺗﻜﻤﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﻓﻲ
his evaluation of himself ﺗﻘﻴﻴﻤﻪ ﻟﻨﻔﺴﻪ
report card ﺑﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺮﻳﺮ
order book ﺩﻓﺘﺮ ﻁﺎﻟﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﺍء
case history ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ
167
doubt his sanity ﻳﺸﻚ ﻓﻲ ﺳﻼﻣﺔ ﻋﻘﻠﻪ
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English
derivatives whenever possible, and write down
the Arabic equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
discovery
mental
vague
conception
conscious
failure
complete
triumph
construct
humiliation
true
experience
literal
invite
evaluation
miraculous
occur
grade
Exercise 3. Translate these words, giving two meanings of
each :
doubt experience
168
picture report
gaze dance
complete form
169
UNIT 38
THE SCIENTIFIC
METHOD
The essence of academic life is dispute. Mediaeval scholars debated how many
angels could sit upon the head of a pin, a matter that has still not been finally
resolved. This great tradition lives on and thus a clear statement of a position is the
life blood of the academic world. It will be seized upon with as much avidity as
intellectual torpor allows (all things are relative) and fine exhi-bitions of hair
splitting, references to authorities, footnotes to footnotes will be made. In the
Germanic tradition of scholarship the longest list of references will win the day. This
makes it exceedingly difficult to state with any precision or clarity what constitutes
the scientific method.
Nevertheless scientists do carry out experiments. They use their findings to
develop theories and put them to the test with further experiment. Thus despite the
problems of defining scientific method, there are de facto definitions in daily use in
laboratories throughout the world. Philosophers of science, many of whom have
never conducted an experiment in their lives, might well throw up their hands in
horror at such a definition, but scientific method can be seen as essentially what
scientists do. This is the working definition which I shall adopt in this chapter and to
ensure its relevance to our aims and purposes, I will restrict myself to the methods
used in psychology.
The scientific method
Nevertheless, given the problems of defining the scientific method and the not
inconsiderable philosophical literature on its nature, I shall briefly examine some of
the difficulties in this area, in order that may somewhat pragmatic, not to say
behavioural, approach in defining the method, can be free of philosophic error.
170
Many working scientists, I think it is fair to say, follow the scientific logic of
their work advocated by Karl Popper in The logic of scientific Discovery. The
essence of this approach, to
risk a gross simplification, is that in science, hypotheses must be expressed in a
refutable form. Science is then concerned with the refutation of hypothese. All
scientific knowledge is thus provisional. At any point it may be refuted. There is no
doubt that, in psychology at least, a large number of experiments are carried out on
this principle. Nevertheless the study of the history of science reveals that in many
cases great discoveries and theories were not thus made. As Chalmers has pointed
out (1978), Newton's gravitational theory appeared to be refuted by observations of
the movements of the moon. However it was not in fact rejected. In addition there is
the philosophical difficulty that observations which are supposed to falsify theories
or hypotheses are themselves theory dependent. Chalmers again supplies a nice
astronomical example from the work of Copernicus whose theory implied that
Venus should appear to change size during the year. Naked eye observation
appeared to refute the claim. However, such naked eye observation has a theoretical
supposition that the eye can estimate the size of small light sources. In fact, this
theory assumption is wrong, as telescopic observation demonstrates. Finally, there is
a further objection to the simple falsification approach – namely that, in fact, as the
history of science demonstrates scientist are often happy to have their hypotheses
confirmed.
This last point is important because even if a simple experiment is designed to put
a hypothesis to the empirical test and the hypothesis is not rejected, most workers
would regard that hypothesis as supported albeit tentatively. This is certainly the
case in many psychological experiments. Here, however, an important distinction is
drawn by philosophers of science. If a theory yields new and surprising hypotheses,
especially when contra-intuitive, then confirmation is considered good support for
theory. This is confirmation of bold conjectures. On the other hand, cautious
conjectures that follow easily from the theory are only interesting if falsified. Now it
is my contention that in psychology this approach has been grossly abused.
Psychologists rarely go in for bold conjectures. Rather they use cautious conjec-
tures and regard the theory as confirmed if they are supported. This is particularly
true of the users of cognitive models described in the next chapter.
Because of these problems with the notion of refutability, even if the confirmation
of novel hypotheses is allowed, some philos-ophers of science have argued that the
scientific method is far more complex, involving whole programmes of work as
discussed by Lakatos and (what has become very popular and current jargon in
psychology) paradigms, as discussed by Kuhn (1975) .
171
Helpful Vocabulary :
academic life ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺎﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ، ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺎﺓ ﺍﻷﻛﺎﺩﻳﻤﻴﺔ
mediaeval scholars ﻋﻠﻤﺎء ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻮﺳﻄﻰ
life blood ﺩﻡ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺎﺓ
exceedingly difficult ًﺻﻌﺐ ﺟﺪﺍ
with any precision ﺑﺄﻳﺔ ِﺩﻗﱠﺔ
carry out experiments ﻳﻘﻮﻣﻮﻥ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﺏ
put them to the test ﻳﻔﺤﺼﻮﻧﻬﺎ، ﻳ ُْﺨﻀﻌﻮﻧﻬﺎ ﻟﻠﻔﺤﺺ
de facto definitions ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻔﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻣﺮ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﻗﻊ
in horror at ﻓَﺰَﻋﺎ ً ِﻣ ْﻦ
restrict myself to ﺃﺣْ ﺼُﺮ ﻧﻔﺴﻲ ﻓﻲ
in order that ﻣﻦ ﺃَﺟْ ﻞ ﱠ
ﺃﻥ
free of error ﺧﺎﻟﺼﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﺄ
scientific logic ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻖ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻲ
essence of this approach ﺟﻮﻫﺮ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﺞ
refutation of hypotheses ﺭﻓﺾ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺿﻴﺎﺕ
provisional knowledge ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻣﺆﻗﺘﺔ
gravitational theory ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﺫﺑﻴﺔ
falsify theories ﻳﺪﺣﺾ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ
theory dependent ﻣﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ
astronomical example َﻣﺜَ ٌﻞ ﻓﻠﻜﻲ
naked eye observation ﺍﻟﻤﻼﺣﻈﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺮﺩﺓ
telescopic observation ﻣﻼﺣﻈﺔ ﺑﺎﻟ ِﻤ ْﻘﺮﺍﺏ، ﻣﻼﺣﻈﺔ ِﻣ ْﻘ َﺮﺍﺑِﻴ ﱠﺔ
172
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English
derivatives whenever possible, and write down
the Arabic equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
essence
resolve
dispute
blood
conduct
exhibition
restrict
tentative
simplification
empirical
falsify
distinction
confirm
Exercise 3. Translate these terms :
physiological psychology
social psychology
psychometry
psychomotor
psychomotor skill
psychomotor test
puberty
public health
public examination
public library
173
UNIT 39
KNOWLEDGE AND
MASTERY OF
LANGUAGE
It is in the nature of language to impose system and order, to offer us sets of choices
from which we must choose one way or another of building our inner world.
Without that order we should never be able to start building, but there is always the
danger of over-acceptance. How many teachers, even today, welcome and enjoy the
power of young people to coin new words to set alongside the old order? How often
do social pressures prevent us exercising our power to modify the meaning of words
by improvising a new context, as in metaphor? Sometimes, it seems, our pupils are
more aware than we are of the fact that language is living and changing; we could
help them more often to explore and test out its mew possibilities. Inevitably,
thought, the weight of our experience lies in a mature awareness of the possibilities
and limitations raised by the more permanent forms of order in language. There has
already been an explicit case (at our own level) in this chapter. The question "what is
English?" invites a different form of answer from, say, "what at our best are we
doing in English classes?"if we wish to describe a process, composition for example
the first question will tend to suggest the finished product (the marks on the page
even) rather than the activity of bringing together and composing the disorder of our
experience. "What … doing" will suggest nominal forms of verbs (bringing,
composing) and thus help to keep activities in mind.
At a much simpler level members of the Seminar noted that some of us referred
to "talk to "talk" in class, others to "speech". In order to see why one might consider
some of the contexts in which the words are used. "Talk" tends to be used of less
174
formal occasions" ــــgive a speech/ give a talk". In some contexts "speech" implies
accent or pronunciation" ــــgood speech, classroom speech"; "classroom talk" may
then be used as the generic term, even though in normal con-texts we use "spoken
and written, speech and writing" and not "talk" .
"Speech" seems to be rarely used today for verbal interaction, whereas we do say
"we talked about it, talked it over, had a heart to heart talk". Tentatively, one might
assume that those who preferred "talk" wanted to encourage informal interaction
interaction in class; those who preferred "speech" were perhaps hoping for sustained
and organized utterance (rather than "chat"). Unit difference like this are made
explicit one may be trapped in a general uneasiness about what the other man
means. Equally, in making the difference explicit we may begin to look more
acutely at what goes on in class.
There is, then, a kind of knowledge or awareness about language that affects our
power to think clearly and "to some purpose", in Susan Stebbing's words. Whatever
the subject in the curriculum, the places where such knowledge can affect language
in operation need to be more fully understood than they are at present. But the
teacher of English will be particularly concerned with helping pupils, in the terms of
one report, to "conceptualize their awareness of language". This seemingly
cumbersome phrase was chosen with some care. "Conceptualizing", a verbal form,
suggests activity on the part of the individual pupil, whereas "concepts"
unfortunately can be thought of as things, reified objects to be handed over by the
teacher. "Their awareness" points to a recognition already there in the pupil's
thinking, not yet explicit or fully conscious perhaps, but something the alert teacher
will notice and draw on.
The notion of gaining a new control over what we think by increase-ing our
conceptual awareness of language in general has an obvious appeal to a gathering of
intellectuals, not least when many of them are linguists! However, the final repots
were cautious in their claims for such knowledge at the school stage. The first
question at issue is when and how the knowledge becomes explicit. There was some
agreement that the answer should apply to an individual rather than an age group.
For if we teachers encourage a pupil to conceptualize, we should ideally be doing
this at the point where the demands at the operational level of language have already
given our pupil the sense that conceptualizing is needed. As experienced teachers we
should see this demand emerging and be ready to help it on the way. In other words,
our knowledge of the route ahead is not something to impose on the student ــــthus
robbing him of the delight of discovery and maybe dissociating such discoveries as
he does make from the systematic framework he "received" from us.
175
Helpful Vocabulary :
nature of language ﻁﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ
sets of choices ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭﺍﺕ
to coin new words ﻟﻴﻜﻮﻧﻮﺍ ﻛﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺓ
ﱢ
how often ? ًﻛﻢ ﻣﺮﺓ
social pressures ﺿﻐﻮﻁﺎﺕ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ
mature awareness ﺇﺩﺭﺍﻙ ﻣﺪﺭﻭﺱ، ﺇﺩﺭﺍﻙ ُﻣﺘَﺄ َ ٍﻥ
explicit case ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﻅﺎﻫﺮﺓ
members of the Seminar ﺃﻋﻀﺎء ﺍﻟﻨﺪﻭﺓ
less formal occasions ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺒﺎﺕ ﺃﻗﻞ ﺭﺳﻤﻴﺔ
normal contexts ﺳﻴﺎﻗﺎﺕ ﻋﺎﺩﻳﺔ
verbal interaction ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﻟﻔﻈﻲ
it some purpose ﻟﻬﺪﻑ ﻣﺎ
ٍ
language in operation ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﻝ
in the terms of one report ِﻭ ْﻓﻘًﺎ ﻷﺣﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺎﺭﻳﺮ
alert teacher ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﱢﻢ ﺍﻟﻴَﻘِﻆ
obvious appeal ﺇﻏﺮﺍء ﻭﺍﺿﺢ
a gathering of intellectuals ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺭﺟﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻔﻜﺮ، ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﻜﺮﻳﻦ
176
the question at issue ﺍﻟﻘﻀﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﻴﺮﺓ ﻟﻠ َﺠﺪَﻝ، ﺍﻟﺠﺪَﻟﻴﺔ
َ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﻴّﺔ
age group ﻓِﺌَﺔ ُﻋ ْﻤ ِﺮﻳﺔ
experienced teachers ﻣﻌﻠﻤﻮﻥ ﺫﻭ ﺧﺒﺮﺓ
delight of discovery ﻣﺘﻌﺔ ﺍﻻﻛﺘﺸﺎﻑ
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English
derivatives whenever possible, and write down
the Arabic equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
offer
choose
danger
accept
fact
normal
change
verbal
enjoy
exercise
generic
activity
modify
heart
formal
order
context
organized
177
Exercise 3. Translate these educational terms :
ABC method ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﺠﺎﺋﻴﺔ case method
analytical method combined method
anecdotal method comparative method
audio-lingual method cumulative method
audio-visual method deductive method
mimicry method inductive method
178
UNIT 40
WHAT IS GOOD TEACHING ?
At a meeting concerned with planning the curriculum of a new uni-versity,
the University of south Florida. I asked a distinguished visiting professor
from the University of Chicago the attributes of a good teacher. He replied
that there are only two essentials : to be "an interesting per-son " and to be
"well educated." Few could argue with these two attri-butes, but they are so
general that they do not go much beyond Mammy Yokum's framed motto
hanging over her mantelpiece which announces that "Good is better than evil
because it is nicer."
The real problem concerns the particulars as to what is meant by "an
interesting person" and "well-educated." From the tone of his answer I
surmised that the Chicago professor would agree with Robert Hutchins about
the lack of importance of methodology. (He was, in fact, a great admirer of
Hutchins.) Nevertheless. I can certainly agree with both of his essentials as
far as they go. Yet the first requisite of a good teacher ـــthat he not be
boring ـــmust be qualified as to techniques used to ac-complish this end.
Some highly paid comedians are interesting persons to their audiences but
the philosophy, psychology, and sociology, which some of them practice are
not the procedures of the good teacher. Also a teacher can be interesting in a
classroom by depending on cheap efforts off-color stories, picking on
awkward members of the class , or just being a smart aleck in general. Yet
the need for such techniques is proof that he is a poor rather than a good
teacher. A good teacher does not "jazz up" his presentations so that the jazz
either outshines or coun-teracts the central theme of the subject he is
supposed to be teaching. The best teacher may have a fine sense of humor,
but he keeps interest alive through his knowledge of his students and the
world. Such knowl-edge enables the teacher to generate excitement by
dwelling on the spirit and quality of intellectual experiences. We all need to
remember, as Clifton Fadiman has said, "School is still the main, sometimes
179
the only chart to the most glamorous of all Treasure Islands ــــthe child's
own mind."
Being an "interesting person" and a "well-educated person" are parts of
the same fabric and must be especially so for the teacher. Although each is a
part of the other, neither knowledge of process nor knowledge of subject
matter alone makes the good teacher. But both of these requi-
sites were combined in the "1961" Teacher of the year" of whom her
principal remarked: "She gives her students the kind of salt that makes them
thirsty for knowledge." A teacher can create such a desire to learn only when
process and subject matter are well interrelated. Education then becomes an
exciting adventure of learning what is relevant. The soundest method cannot
make innocuous subject matter interesting to intelligent people. But a
synthesis of sound method and sound subject-matter can provide the kind "
of salt that makes them thirsty for know]-edge."
Teaching what is relevant is teaching what is concerned with the world of
today. This does not mean, however, that yesterday and tomorrow are
forgotten. It only means that if one does not live for today one does not live
at all because, obviously, yesterday is gone and tomorrow is not here. Yet
the good teacher does use the learning of both yesterday and today in
preparing his students for tomorrow. For instance, in teaching what is
relevant to the world of today he needs to maintain the spirit of the Platonic
tradition in which truth, beauty, and goodness are para-mount.
One can be interesting even in using the lecture technique of teaching alone
if he can utilize brevity, point (or relevance), and wit. I have elaborated on
relevance and wit but brevity is also important if the student preparing t
become a teacher is to be an interesting talker. And incidentally, talking and
teaching are not necessarily synonymous. Teach-ing candidates might
remember that the greatest ministers of the churches of our nation spend
almost a whole week preparing for one sermon or lecture, and most of them
are careful not to take more than twenty minutes to deliver it. This
emphasizes not only the importance of brevity in speech but also the need
for much study.
Probably the surest and best way for a teacher to make a class inter-esting
is simply to get the students so involved in their own educational process
that they put so much intelligence and vigor in their work that it becomes a
part of them. The question, then, is how to get them so involved? We will try
180
to answer it briefly by saying that the subject the students are studying must
be clearly shown as having personal impor-tance to them and the teacher
must make possible for them some real experiences which are of
significance.
Helpful Vocabulary :
planning the curriculum ﺗﺨﻄﻴﻂ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻬﺞ
visiting professor ﺃﺳﺘﺎﺫ ﺯﺍﺋﺮ
framed motto ﺷﻌﺎﺭ ﻓﻲ ﺇﻁﺎﺭ، ﺷﻌﺎﺭ ُﻣﺆَﻁﱠﺮ
central theme ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺿﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻲ
tone of his answer ﻧﻐﻤﺔ ﺟﻮﺍﺑﻪ
sense of humor ﺭﻭﺡ ﺍﻟ ﱡﺪﻋﺎﺑﺔ
not be boring ًّﺃﻻ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ُﻣ ِﻤﻼ
cheap efforts ﻣﺤﺎﻭﻻﺕ ﺭﺧﻴﺼﺔ
intellectual experiences ﺧﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﻋﻘﻠﻴﺔ
thirsty for knowledge ﻣﺘﻌﻄﱢﺶ ﻟﻠﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ
desire to learn ﺍﻟﺮﻏﺒﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﱡﻢ
exciting adventure ﻣﻐﺎﻣﺮﺓ ﻣﺜﻴﺮﺓ
Platonic tradition ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻠﻴﺪ ﺍﻷﻓﻼﻁﻮﻧﻲ
lecture technique ﺃﺳﻠﻮﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﺿﺮﺓ
not necessarily synonymous ﻟﻴﺴﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻀﺮﻭﺭﺓ ﻣﺘﺮﺍﺩﻓﻴﻦ
importance of brevity ﺃﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﺼﺎﺭ
intelligence and vigor ﺫﻛﺎء ﻭﻧﺸﺎﻁ
of significance ﺫﻭ ﺃﻫﻤﻴﺔ
dictionary definition ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ُﻣﻌْﺠﻤ ّﻲ
181
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English
derivatives whenever possible, and write down
the Arabic equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
announce
curriculum
distinguished
concern
professor
bore
requisite
synthetic
quality
relevance
brief
present
emphasis
careful
excite
significance
involved
elaborate
Exercise 3. Translate these educational terms :
direct method individual method
182
discovery method integrative method
discussion method laboratory method
experimental method lecture method
global method logical method
183
UNIT 41
THE AIMS OF EDUCATION
CULTURE is activity of thought, and receptiveness to beauty and
humane feeling. Scraps of informa-tion have nothing to do with it. A
merely well-informed man is the most useless bore on God's earth.
What we should aim at producing is men who possess culture and
expert knowledge in some special direction. Their expert knowledge
will give them the ground to start from, and their cul-ture will lead
them as deep as philosophy and as high as art. We have to remember
that the val-uable intellectual development is self-development and
that it mostly takes place between the ages of sixteen and thirty. As to
training, the most impor-tant part is given by mothers before the age
of twelve. A saying due to Archbishop Temple illus-trates my
meaning. Surprise was expressed at the success in after-life of a man,
who as a boy at Rugby had been somewhat undistinguished. He
answered, " it is not what they are eighteen, it is what they become
afterwards that matters."
In training a child to activity of thought, above all things we must
beware of what I will call "inert ideas" ـــthat is to say, ideas that are
merely received into the mind without being utilised, or tested, or
thrown into fresh combinations.
In the history of education, the most striking phe-nomenon is that
schools of learning, which at one epoch are alive with a ferment of
genius, in a suc-
184
ceding generation exhibit merely pedantry and rou-tine. The reason is,
that they are overladen with inert ideas. Education with inert ideas is
not only useless: it is, above all things, harmful ـــCorruptio optimi,
pessima.. Except at rare intervals of intel-lectual ferment, education
the past has been rad-ically infected with inert ideas. That is the
reason why uneducated clever women, who have seem much of the
world, are in middle life so much the most cultured part of the
community. They have been saved from this horrible burden of inert
ideas. Every intellectual revolution which has ever stirred humanity
into greatness has been a passionate pro-test against insert ideas. Then,
alas, with pathetic ignorance of human psychology, it has proceeded
by some educational scheme to bind humanity afresh with inert ideas
of its own fashioning.
Let us now ask how in our system of education we are to guard
against this mental dryrot. We enunciate two educational
commandments, "Do not teach too many subjects, "and again, "what
you each, teach thoroughly."
The result of teaching small parts of a large number of subjects is
the passive reception of dis-connected ideas, not illumined with any
spark of vitality. Let the main ideas which are introduced into a child's
education be few and important, and let them be thrown into every
combination possible. The child should make them his own, and
should understand their application here and now in the circumstances
of his actual life. Form the very beginning of his education, the child
should experi-ence the joy of discovery. The discovery which he has
to make, is that general ideas give an under-standing of that stream of
events which pours through his life, which is his life.
185
Helpful Vocabulary :
well-informed man ﺭﺟﻞ ُﻣﻄﱠﻠِﻊ
useless bore ُﻣﻀْ ِﺠ ٌﺮ ﻋﺪﻳﻢ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﺋﺪﺓ
expert knowledge ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻣﺘﺨﺼﺼﺔ
intellectual development ﻧﻤﻮ ﻓﻜﺮﻱ
to take place ﻳﺤﺪﺙ
as to training ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺪﺭﻳﺐ
a saying due to ﻗﻮﻝ ﻳُ ْﻨ َﺴﺐُ ﺇﻟﻰ
somewhat undistinguished ﻣﻐﻤﻮﺭ ﻧﻮﻋﺎ ً ﻣﺎ
history of education ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﺔ
the most striking phenomenon ﺍﻟﻈﺎﻫﺮﺓ ﺍﻷﺑﺮﺯ
above all things ﺍﻷﻫﻢ ﻣﻦ ﻛﻞ ﺍﻷﻣﻮﺭ
except at rare intervals ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎء ﻓﺘﺮﺍﺕ ﻧﺎﺩﺭﺓ
radically infected with َِﺟ ْﺬﺭﻳﺎ ً ﻣﺼﺎﺏٌ ﺑـــ
in middle life ﻓﻲ َﻭ َﺳﻂ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﺮ
horrible burden ﻋﺐء ﺛﻘﻴﻞ
intellectual revolution ﺛﻮﺭﺓ ﻓﻜﺮﻳﺔ
passionate protest ﺍﺣﺘﺠﺎﺝ ﻏﺎﺿﺐ
bind humanity afresh ﻳُ َﻜﺒﱢﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮﻳﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ
to guard against ﻳﺤﺘﺮﺯ ﻣﻦ
educational commandments ﻭﺻﺎﻳﺎ ﺗﺮﺑﻮﻳﺔ
186
teach thoroughly َﻋﻠﱠﻢ ﺑﺈﺗﻘﺎﻥ
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English
derivatives whenever possible, and write down
the Arabic equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
inform
beauty
bore
possess
expert
active
start
surprise
mother
fresh
infect
reason
cultured
proceed
education
horrible
psychology
passionate
Exercise 3. Translate these educational terms :
look and say method problem method
narration method problem-solving method
objective method project method
187
observation method quantitative method
phonic method scientific method
188
UNIT 42
TRAINING
Large number of people still basic education and training opportunities. But
the proportion of the developing world is overwhelming educational
systems. The demand for education far outstrips resources. The financial
squeeze between even more restricted budgets and ever larger pupil cohorts
further drains programmes of whatever quality they possess because
instructional essentials cannot be provided. Policy makers are faced with the
hard choice of opting for quality rather than expansion. Because both cannot
be provided. In some cases the improvement of training quality will mean
consolidating institutions and phasing out marginal programmes in order to
generate funds. Despite increasing demand for training, there really is no
choice: quality improvement has to take precedence over programme
expansion. As Behrman and Birdsall (1983) caution:
… due to the failure to control for quality, advocacy
of expansion without explicit concern for quality
improvement is misguided ــــand the actual return
from expanding quantity of schooling at current
quality levels will be much less than anticipated .
In low-quality programmes, student achievement levels are often so low
that the investment yields little return (Fuller, 1985). Student cannot get and
hold jobs because they have little to offer employers ــــtheir skills are no
189
different from what can be learned informally on the street or in the
workplace. To justify expenditures, student achievement levels must be
sufficiently high to offset programme cost, otherwise the investment is poor
one .
Low-quality programmes, in the long run, actually cost more than
high-quality programmes. Due to hard use and inadequate maintenance and
repair, the capital equipment deteriorates rapidly, and has to be replaced
before it can be sufficiently amortized to yield reasonably low unit training
costs
(Herschbach, 1985 ). For this reason, the cost of training may be
prohibitively high, considerably exceeding costs that would be tolerated
even in more affluent countries. Some of the poorest countries may have the
highest training costs because of an inability to maintain tools, machinery
and equipment adequately to achieve sufficiently high and long use.
Quality improvement depends in part on formulating effective policies;
it also depends upon developing adequate administrative and management
capabilities. But, most of all, it depends upon classroom inputs which impact
strongly on student achievement. By strengthening these inputs, cost savings
can be realized because the level of investment in elements unrelated to
student achievement can be reduced (Fuller, 1985) .
Another increasingly important issue is the change in skill requirements
due largely to worldwide competition (Watanabe, 1986). Higher level skill
requirements imply higher quality training.
While technological change is certainly altering production techniques at
an unprecedented rate, as Dougherty (1989) suggests, the more potent force
of change is the advent of an international market system which opens local
production to worldwide competition . There is intense international pressure
to increase productivity and improve quality while decreasing cost in those
parts of the economy exposed to international competition. Workers design,
use and maintain more sophisticated production technology.
The full effects of technological change and international competition
on training and work are unknown. One result is greater demand for highly
skilled workers competent in organizational, control, maintenance,
programming and technical service skills. There is greater need for cognitive
skills, and less for manual, production and trade skills (Afthan, 1985). But
even in cases where "traditional skills" are used with less sophisticated
production technology, there is greater emphasis on improving productivity
and quality. The relevant trade-off is "… between the quality of training
provision, and the numbers trained with quality requiring greater priority
than has been accorded in the past." (Dougherty. 1989. P. 22) .
The "success" of a particular training alternative is conditioned by the
country context in which it is placed (Herschbach, 1985 ). While relative
190
cost is important for investment decisions, it may not be the only ــــor most
usefulــــvariable to consider when making decisions.
Helpful Vocabulary :
basic education ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ
training opportunities ﻓﺮﺹ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺐ
proportion of youth ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺒﺎﺏ
developing world ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻣﻲ
instructional essentials ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ
policy makers ﺭﺍﺳﻤﻮ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﺎﺕ، ﺻﺎﻧﻌﻮ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﺎﺕ
the hard choice ﺍﻻﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺼﻌﺐ
training quality ﻧﻮﻋﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺐ
to generate funds ﻟﺘﻮﻓﻴﺮ ﺍﻷﻣﻮﺍﻝ
take precedence over ﺗﻨﺎﻝ ﺍﻷﻓﻀﻠﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ
to justify expenditures ﻟﺘﺒﺮﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻘﺎﺕ
in the long run ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻯ ﺍﻟﺒﻌﻴﺪ
inadequate maintenance ﺻﻴﺎﻧﺔ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻛﺎﻓﻴﺔ
considerably exceeding costs ﻳﻔﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﺎﻟﻴﻒ ﺑﻜﺜﻴﺮ
quality improvement ﺗﺤﺴﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻋﻴﺔ
formulating effective policies ﺻﻴﺎﻏﺔ ﺳﻴﺎﺳﺎﺕ ﻓﺎﻋﻠﺔ
classroom inputs ﺻﻔﱢﻴﱠﺔ
َ ُﻣ ْﺪﺧَﻼﺕ
cost savings ﺗﻮﻓﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﺎﻟﻴﻒ
191
worldwide competition ﻣﻨﺎﻓﺴﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﻤﻴﺔ
production techniques ﺃﺳﺎﻟﻴﺐ ﺍﻹﻧﺘﺎﺝ
unprecedented rate ﻣﻌ ﱠﺪﻝ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺴﺒﻮﻕ
skilled workers ُﻋ ﱠﻤﺎﻝ َﻣﻬَ َﺮﺓ
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English
derivatives whenever possible, and write down
the Arabic equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
population
restrict
proportion
expansion
demand
compete
programme
explicit
release
provide
repair
anticipated
control
decrease
adequate
replace
increase
deteriorate
192
Exercise 3. Translate these educational terms :
sentence method study method
sight method survey method
instructional method statistical method
Socratic method teaching method
research method subjective method
193
UNIT 43
THE ART OF TEACHING
I T ISdifficult to write a book on the art of teaching, because the
subject is constantly changing. There are dif-ferent way of teaching in
different countries of the world, at any one time. Methods in any one
country alter every generation or so, as the structure and ideals of
society alter. One man will think of education as a priv-ilege, work
hard and save money to go to the university, and treasure all the
knowledge he can get. Thirty years later his son may despise
education, resist schooling, waste his time at college, and teach his
children to hate books. Thirty years more, and the children will be
eagerly educating themselves, perhaps in an unorthodox or
wrongheaded way, perhaps late in life or without entering any
educational institution, but still with a gen-uine hunger for learning.
Each of these generations needs a different kind of teaching.
Then again, there are thousands of different things to learn and
learn and teach: so many that you might well ask whether they could
all be brought under one system. Is there anything in common
between a mother teaching a baby how to talk, a schoolmaster
teaching a boy history, a trainer teaching a boxer how to feint, and a
foreman teaching a crew of laborers how to lay a road? Even in one
country, schools and universities teach a bewildering variety of thing.
From simple addition to higher physics from dancing to brain-surgery.
And over the whole world, with its thousands of schools and hundreds
of uni-versities, how many different subjects are being taught? Today,
for instance, a boy is learning the Koran by heart. Another is working
at calculus, and a third at double-
194
Stopping on the violin. Another is practicing pole-vault-ing, and
another is reading a manual on demolition work in underground
warfare. A girl in Ecuador is being taught lacemaking by Sister
Teresa, a girl in India is memorizing the teachings of Gandhi, and a
girl in Japan is learning the symbolic meanings of flower-
arrangements.
All these subjects, and thousands more, are taught in schools. But a
great deal of teaching is done outside school. Some thingsــــand some
of the most important thingsــــare taught by mothers and fathers to
their chil-dren. This kind of teaching begins as soon as the bay teaches
for a knife and his mother takes it away. Not, it begins earlier than
that. It really beings when the baby gives his first cry and is first
answered. In those days, before he can even hear or see properly, hi is
finding our something about the world and himself, he is communi-
cating and being answered, he is exerting his will and being victorious
or controlled or frustrated, he is being taught to suffer, to fear, to love,
to be happy, or to be violent. His mind is being made. Such teaching
goes on at a very obscure level, deep down among the founda-tions.
We have all experienced it, and forgotten it. But it is none the less
crucially important because it is buried so deep. You know how easy
it is for a baby to slice his hand open with a knife or scald his leg with
a kettle. The scar is still there, forty years later. Many of the twisted
minds and crippled characters in the world were made by careless
parents who kept their children away from knives and fires, but put
permanent scars on their souls.
All through school, and for years after school, parents continue to
teach their children. They do so whether they want to or not. The
father who never says more than "Hello" to his son and goes out to the
nearest bar every evening is teaching the boy just as emphatically as
though he were standing over him with a strap. It is a very tricky
business, teaching. He may not be teaching his son to drink and
neglect responsibilities. The boy may turn out to be a thin ascetic
devoted to long plans and hard work, like Shaw and Joyce. But, for
good or ill, the father is teaching him something. Many fathers either
195
don't know this, or don't care. Yet it is impossible to have children
without teaching them.
Helpful Vocabulary :
art of teaching ﻓﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ
constantly changing ﻣﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﻤﺮﺍﺭ
alter every generation ٍ ﺗﺘﺒ ﱠﺪﻝ ُﻛ ﱠﻞ
ﺟﻴﻞ
resist schooling ﻳﻘﺎﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ
educational institution ﻣﺆﺳﺴﺔ ﺗﺮﺑﻮﻳﺔ
genuine hunger for learning َﻒ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻌﻠﱡﻢ
ٌ َﺷﻐ
crew of laborers ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﺎﻝ
anything in common ﺃﻱ ﺷﻲء ﻣﺸﺘﺮﻙ
brain surgery ﺟﺮﺍﺣﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﻣﺎﻍ
learn by heart ً ﻳﺤﻔﻆُ َﻏ ْﻴﺒَﺎ، ﻳﺘﻌﻠﱠﻢ ﻋﻦ ﻅَﻬْﺮ ﻗﻠﺐ
underground warfare ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺏ ﺗﺤﺖ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ
teachings of Ghandi ﺗﻌﺎﻟﻴﻢ ﻏﺎﻧﺪﻱ
flower arrangements ﺗﻨﺴﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﺯﻫﺎﺭ
as soon as ﺣﺎﻟﻤﺎ
first cry ﺍﻟﺼﺮﺧﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ، ﺍﻟﺼﻴﺤﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ
none the less ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺫﻟﻚ
twisted minds ﻋﻘﻮﻝ ﻣﻠﺘﻮﻳﺔ
crippled characters ﺷﺨﺼﻴﺎﺕ ﻣﺮﻳﻀﺔ
careless parents ﻭﺍﻟﺪﻭﻥ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺒﺎﻟﻴﻦ
as emphatically as though ﺑﻨﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﻛﺄﻧﻪ
196
find out ﻳﻜﺘﺸﻒ
obscure level ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﻏﺎﻣﺾ
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English
derivatives whenever possible, and write down
the Arabic equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
hunger
mother
crucial
flower
obscure
bury
parent
victorious
cripple
devote
hate
practice
constants
treasure
emphatic
force
labor
educational
Exercise 3. Translate these educational terms :
test-retest method word method
197
telling method microteaching
unit method middle childhood
whole method middle adulthood
198
UNIT 44
ERRORS AS POSITIVE
AID TO LEARNING
Some good pedagogical reasons have been suggested for regarding
errors made by learners of a foreign language leniently but the most
important reason is that the error itself may actually be a necessary
part of learning a language .
FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISTION
There has been a great deal of research in the field of first language
acquisition. (A good introduction to the study of how people learn to
use their mother tongue is de Villiers and de Villiers 1979.) One thing
which now seems quite clear is that at some stages of learning their
mother tongue, children make guesses about the forms of their
language and these guesses are based on the information that they
already have about the language. For example, most children
growing up and learning English as their mother tongue produce the
form 'goed' at some stage for 'went'. Now this, viewed from the
perspective of adult grammar, can be called a mistake: it is not the
form that an adult or older child would use. However, it can also be
regarded as an informed guess, based on the observation that in
English the simple past tense is formed in the majority of cases with
-ed. (The child could not describe what he was doing in these terms
of course, but observation of his language behaviour would lead to
this conclusion. )
DIFFERENT TYPES OF 'ERROR'
199
It would be useful at this stage to distinguish between different types
of anomalous language behaviour: the error, the mistake and the
lapse. Let us calla systematic deviation, when a learner has not learnt
something and consistently 'gets it wrong', an error. As mentioned
above, a child acquiring his own language sometimes consistently
makes the same error. In the same way, when a learner of English as
a second or foreign language makes an error systematically, it is
because he has not learnt the correct form. A common example is
using the infinitive with 'to' after the verb 'must' (eg 'I must to go to
the shops'). Let us suppose that the learner knows the verbs want (+
to), need (+ to) and perhaps ought (+ to); by analogy the then
produces must (+ to). Until he has been told otherwise, or until be
notices that native speakers do not produce this form, he will say or
write this quit consistently.
Once a learner has noticed or been taught that in English the verb
'must' does not follow the same pattern as some of the other modal
'verbs, there may well be a period during which he produces 'he must
go' and ' he must to go'. Sometimes he will use one form and
sometimes the other, quite inconsistently. This inconsistent devia-
tion we shall call a mistake: sometimes the learner 'gets it right' but
sometimes he makes a mistake and uses the wrong form.
There is another type of wrong usage which is neither a mistake nor
an error and can happen to anyone at any time. This is a lapse, which
may be due to lack of concentration, shortness of memory, fatigue,
etc. A lapse bears little relation to whether or not a given form in the
language has been learnt, has not been learnt or is in the process of
being learnt. Native speakers suffer lapses in the same way as lear-
ners of the language; a recent example was a presenter of BBC's
Radio 4 who said 'chieving to astrive' instead of 'striving to achieve'.
Many teachers may feel that there is another type of common
'mistake': a careless slip, caused by the learner's inattentiveness in
class. In fact, by referring to any king of unacceptable or inappropri-
ate from as 'carless' we are pre-judging the cause and blaming the
learner for it. To be realistic, we must admit that classrooms are not
always populated by the idea, motivated, attentive students we would
200
hope for. But can we call a learner careless who produces the
following utterance: ' That is the man that I saw him last Friday' after
he has worked at sentences demonstrating relative clauses?
Helpful Vocabulary :
pedagogical reasons ﺃﺳﺒﺎﺏ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻤﻴﺔ
first language acquisition ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ
mother tongue ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻷﻡ
make guesses about ﺕ ﺑ َﺸﺄْﻥ
ٍ ﻳُﺤﺪﺛﻮﻥ ﺗﺨﻤﻴﻨﺎ
produce X for Y ﺿﺎ ً ﻋﻦ ﺹ
َ ﻳﻨﺘﺠﻮﻥ ﺱ ِﻋ َﻮ
adult grammar ﻗﻮﺍﻋﺪ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﻟﻐﻴﻦ
informed guess ﺗﺨﻤﻴﻦ ﺫﻛ ّﻲ
based on the observation that ﻗﺎﺋ ٌﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻼﺣﻈ ِﺔ ﺃَ ﱠﻥ
in the majority of cases ﻓﻲ ﺃﻏﻠﺐ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻻﺕ
as mentioned above ﻛﻤﺎ ُﺫ ِﻛ َﺮ ﺃﻋﻼﻩ
by analogy ﺑﺎﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ
be told otherwise ﻳ ُْﺨﺒِ ُﺮ ِﺧﻼﻑَ ﺫﻟﻚ
inconsistent deviation ﺍﻧﺤﺮﺍﻑ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺘﱠ ِﺴﻖ
in the same way as ﺑﺎﻟﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ ِﻣ ْﺜﻞ
learner's inattentiveness ﻋﺪﻡ ﺍﻧﺘﺒﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻌﻠﱢﻢ
recent example ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﻏﺮﻳﺐ
pre-judge the cause ً ﻧُﻘَ ﱢﺮ ُﺭ ﺍﻟﺴﺒﺐ ُﻣﺴْﺒﻘﺎ
to be realistic ﻟﻨﻜﻮﻥ ﻭﺍﻗﻌﻴﻴﻦ
201
relative clauses ﺼﻠَﺔ
ُﺟ َﻤﻴْﻼﺕ ﺍﻟ ﱢ
possible explanations ﺗﻔﺴﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﻣﻤﻜﻨﺔ
due to ﺑﺴﺒﺐ، ﻧﻈﺮﺍً ِﻝ
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. What is the opposite of each word, showing
Arabic equivalent ? The initial letter of the
opposite is given. .
foreign n
reason r
first I
present p
learner t
consistent i
attentive i
deny a
older y
behavior m
majority m
202
UNIT 45
SOCIAL MOVEMENTS
SOCIOLOGISTS are often accused of using unnecessary jargon. Certainly,
some of them are prone to 'sociologese', the preference for abstruse and
abstract terms rather than for simple commonsense words. All at times,
employ tecnnical phrases, the meaning of which cannot be comprehended
immediately by the general reader. Yet, for the most part, the vocabulary of
sociology is still taken directly from everyday usage, in spite of the dis-
advantages which this practice entails; for it is not always realised that the
simple language of the vernacular often results in serious misunderstandings,
mot only between people generally but also between sociologists
themselves. The term 'social movement', or more elliptically 'movement'
with an ostensibly clarifying ad-jective, is a splendid case in point. So loose
and slipshod has the employment of these words become that they seem
capable nowa-days of application any kind of group activity whatsoever. The
Oxford English Dictionary, indeed, defines a movement as 'a course or series
of actions and endeavours on the part of a body of persons, moving or
tending more or less continuously toward some special end', which, for the
sociologist, does not distinguish a social behaviour, con-sidered over a
203
period of time. The point is that the regular habit of taking as of equal
sociological merit every phenomenon, which somebody or other has named
a social movement, results in general debasement of the concept for fruitful
sociological pur-poses. Some conceptual refinement is an urgent necessity,
there-fore, if sociologists are going to make any contribution to under-
standing what is peculiar to those forms of group behaviour which
differentiates them in a special 'movement' sense from ail other forms.
Form time to time, of course, this problem has been duly realised.
Heberle, for example, has emphasised that.
social movements are a specific kind of concerted-action groups; they last
longer and are more integrated than mobs, masses and crowds, and yet
are not organised like political
clubs and other associations … Group consciousness, that is,
a sense of belonging and of solidarity among member of a
group, is essential for a social movement, although empirically
it occurs in various degrees … By this criterion social move-
ments are distinguished from' social trends' which are often
referred to as movements and are the result of similar but
uncoordinated action of many individuals ([18] p.439). 2
Similarly, Blumer has distinguished between 'spatial movements', such as
mass migration, and 'collective enterprises to establish a new order of life'
([4] p. 199), whereas Turner and Killian prefer the tern 'quasi-movements' to
cover migrations and similar phenomena on the ground that they 'possess
some but not all of the characteristics of a movement' ([33] pp.308-9) At
this level the discussion is almost purely verbal and degenerates into
'definitions' mere typologies, taxonomies and natural histories. The
alternative, clearly, is to locate the phenomena in question in a theoretical
framework of general sociological significance.
The fact that this has not yet been achieved is probably why sociologists
continue to fall into the trap of attempting to write about social movements
in the same vague ways that they are referred to by the public generally, and
why the sociology of social movements is so unsatisfactory. As Killian put it
in 1964, 'social movements are conventionally regarded as part of the
subject-matter of collective behaviour, but they might just as well be viewed
as an aspect of social change. The field of collective be-haviour, however,
has been a neglected area of sociology, and in the study of social change,
social movements have received relatively little emphasis' ([22] p.426). Why
should this be ? The twentieth century-a century which has experienced two
204
world wars, frequent violent revolutions, and a continuous clash be-tween
the advocates of numerous social doctrines, of which socialism,
communism, fascism and nationalism are only the most manifest- is above
all the century of social movements, as well as the century of sociology.
Why, then, have sociologists not found a more important place for them in
their analyses of social pro-cesses ? In essence, Killian's further point, that
this is because men and groups have so often been regarded by sociologists
as the creatures rather than the creators of social change', touches on the
crucial issue, but it needs further elaboration.
In an earlier attack on the problem with Ralph Turner [33] Killian
defined 'collective behaviour' as 'the behaviour of collectivities', that is,
groups 'characterised by the spontaneous development of norms and
organization which contradict or re-interpret the norms and organisation of
the society'.
Helpful Vocabulary :
at times ً ﺃﺣﻴﺎﻧﺎ
technical phrases ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺗِ ْﻘﻨِﻴﱢﺔ
general reader ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺭﺉ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺩﻱ
for the most part ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻷﻏﻠﺐ
everyday usage ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻣﻲ
social movement ﺣﺮﻛﺔ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ
group activity ﻧﺸﺎﻁ ﺟﻤﺎﻋﻲ
social behavior ﺳﻠﻮﻙ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ
over a period of time ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺪﻯ ﻓﺘﺮﺍﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺖ
conceptual refinement ﺗﻨﻘﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ
urgent necessity ﺿﺮﻭﺭﺓ ُﻣﻠِﺤﱠﺔ
any contribution to ﺃﻳﺔ ﻣﺴﺎﻫﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ
from time to time ﺣﻴﻦ ﻵ َﺧﺮ
ٍ ﻣﻦ
group consciousness ﺍﻹﺣﺴﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﻲ، ﺍﻟﻮﻋﻲ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﻲ
sense of belonging ﺍﻟﺸﻌﻮﺭ ﺑﺎﻻﻧﺘﻤﺎء
205
sense of solidarity ﺍﻟﺸﻌﻮﺭ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻀﺎﻣﻦ
by this criterion ﺑﻬﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻴﺎﺭ
mass migrations ﻫﺠﺮﺍﺕ ﺟﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ
quasi-movements ﺃﺷﺒﺎﻩ ﺣﺮﻛﺎﺕ
on the ground that ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺳﺎﺱ ﱠ
ﺃﻥ
phenomena in question ﺍﻟﻈﻮﺍﻫﺮ ﻣﻮﺿﻊ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ
conventionally regarded ً ﻳُ ْﻨﻈَ ُﺮ ﺇﻟﻴﻬﺎ ﺗﻘﻠﻴﺪﻳﺎ
Exercise 1 . Translate the previous passage into Arabic.
Exercise 2. Fill in this table with the suitable English
derivatives whenever possible, and write down
the Arabic equivalents of all the words.
Verb Noun Adjective
English Arabic English Arabic English Arabic
accuse
simple
concept
necessary
define
abstract
cover
period
immediate
establish
name
equal
locate
contribution
206
peculiar
collect
migration
verbal
emphasis
individualize
discussion
207
Text Sources
Unit 1. Stevick, E. W. Teaching and Learning Languages .
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Unit 6. Rixon, S. How to Use Games in Language Teaching .
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Unit 7. Groves, N. J. Geography Teaching . London : Longman,
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Unit 13. Deiro, J. A. Teaching with Heart . California : Corwin press,
Inc., 1996 . (pp. 2 - 3) .
Unit 14. Zverev, I. D. Teaching Methods in the Soviet School . Paris:
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209
Unit 23. Grazia, A. politics and Government . New York : Collier
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Unit 35. Burchfield, R. The English Language . Oxford : Oxford
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211
ﻛﺘﺐ ﻟﻠﻤﺆﻟﻒ
1. The Light of Islam
2. The Need for Islam
3. Traditions of Prophet Muhammad / B1
4. Traditions of Prophet Muhammad / B2
5. The Truth about Jesus Christ
6. Islam and Christianity
7. A Dictionary of Islamic Terms : English-Arabic & Arabic-English
8. A Dictionary of the Holy Quran : Arabic-English
9. Questions and Answers about Islam
10. Learn Arabic by yourself
11. Simplified English Grammar
12. A Dictionary of Education : English-Arabic
13. A Dictionary of Theoretical Linguistics : English-Arabic
14. A Dictionary of Applied Linguistics : English-Arabic
15. Teaching English to Arab Students
16. A Workbook for English Teaching Practice
17. Programmed TEFL Methodology
18. The Teacher of English
19. Improve Your English
20. A Workbook for English II
21. Advance Your English
22. The Blessing for Islam
23. An Introduction to Linguistics
24. Comparative Linguistics : English and Arabic
25. A Contrastive Transformational Grammar : English-Arabic
26. Why have they chosen Islam ?
212
27. A Contrastive Transformational Grammar : Arabic and English
28. The Crisis of Western Civilization
29. A Comparison between the Four Gospels
30. Methods of Teaching English at the Elementary stage
31. Methods of Teaching English
32. Teaching English as a Foreign Language
33. Islamic Faith
34. Human Rights in Islam
35. Penal Codes in Islam
36. The Pillars of Islam
37. Morality in Islam
38. The Woman in Islam
39. The only Right Choice: Islam
40. What do you know about Islam ?
41. The Straight Path: Islam
42. Legal Translation: From English into Arabic
43. Humanities Translation : From English into Arabic
44. Science Translation : From English into Arabic
45. General Translation : From English into Arabic
46. Literary Translation: From English into Arabic
47. Mass-Media Translation : From English into Arabic
48. Administration and Finance Translation: From English into Arabic
49. An Introduction to Semantics
50. English Phonetics and Phonology
51. English Skills One
213
52. English Skills Two
53. English Grammar : Morphology
54. General Translation 2 : From Arabic into English
.55ﺣﻘﻴﻘﺔ ﻋﻴﺴﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﻴﺢ
.56ﺩﻟﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ
.57ﻣﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻷﻧﺎﺟﻴﻞ ﺍﻷﺭﺑﻌﺔ
.58ﺍﻷﺻﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﻮﻳﺔ
.59ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ :ﺣﺎﻻﺕ ﻭ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻘﺎﺕ
.60ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺎﺓ ﻣﻊ ﻟﻐﺘﻴﻦ
.61ﺗﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻹﻣﻼء ﺑﻨﻔﺴﻚ
.62ﺍﻟﻤﻬﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﻴﺔ
.63ﺃﺳﺎﻟﻴﺐ ﺗﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ
.64ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺎﺕ ﻟﻐﻮﻳﺔ
.65ﻣﻌﺠﻢ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻷﺻﻮﺍﺕ )ﻋﺮﺑﻲ-ﻋﺮﺑﻲ(
.66ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺍﻛﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﺸﺎﺋﻌﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ
.67ﻗﻮﺍﻋﺪ ﺗﺤﻮﻳﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ
.68ﻣﺪﺧﻞ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ
.69ﻛﻴﻒ ﺗﻜﺘﺐ ﺑﺤﺜﺎ ً
.70ﺍﻻﺧﺘﺒﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺼﻴﻠﻴﺔ
.71ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻳﻖ ﺍﻟﺰﺍﺋﻒ ﻟﻠﺤﻀﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺑﻴﺔ
.72ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺮﻳﻒ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺭﺍﺓ
.73ﺍﻟﻴﻬﻮﺩ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺘﺎﺑﻬﻢ
.74ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﺼﺮﺍﻧﻴﺔ :ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻭﻣﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ
.75ﺍﻻﺧﺘﺒﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﻮﻳﺔ
.76ﺃﺳﺎﻟﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ
.77ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﺪﻻﻟﺔ )ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ(
214
.78ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﻀﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺑﻴﺔ
.79ﻧﻮﺭ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻡ )ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻴﺎﺑﺎﻧﻴﺔ(
215
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