Aducal, Von Harvey.

Puerto, Kevin
Bayod, Rawnsley
Ceynas, Raylene Faith
Dilangalen, Denzel Faisal
Bandera, Elhamnur
Duran, Nolie
Nicor, Nerrizza Rei
ELECTIVE 4

Group 6

Water Resources and Planning Management

PLANNING PROCESS

Water resources are natural resources of water that are potentially useful. Uses of water

include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental. Activities. All

living things require water to grow and reproduce.

97% of the water on the Earth is salt water and only three percent is fresh water; slightly over

two thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen freshwater is

found mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air.

What does a water Engineer do ?

Water Resource Engineers must create new equipment and systems to increase the

effectiveness and efficiency of water treatment and aquatic resource management. A typical

workday involves the analysis of data from relevant areas, then designing new or improved

facilities to enhance the cleansing effects of the water treatment system. A Water Resource
Engineer must take budgetary constraints, government regulations, and other factors into

consideration when designing these systems. A Water Resource Engineer may then oversee the

construction and implementation of these systems to ensure that they are properly assembled.

After completion, they may manage the maintenance of these systems.

What is Water Resource Engineering ?

Water Resource Engineering is a specific kind of civil engineering that involves the

design of new systems and equipment that help manage human water resources. Some of the

areas Water Resource Engineers touch on are water treatment facilities, underground wells,

and natural springs.

Where does a Water Engineer work ?

Water Resource Engineers spend most of their time in an office looking over data and

designing new water resource management systems. However, part of the work day may be

spent at construction sites, allowing the Engineer to oversee the construction of their designs.

They may also find themselves in more industrial environments when supervising maintenance

on advanced equipment. Some Water Resource Engineers choose to travel abroad to participate

in large engineering projects.

Irrigated Area

is the amount of outdoor vegetated area that is supplied water regularly, measured in

square feet, square meters, or acres. Typically, this includes landscaped areas that are irrigated

with or without an in-ground/automatic irrigation system along with areas regularly watered

by hand. If you have vegetated areas that were specifically xeriscaped to require no water at
all, these may be included in your total. However, you cannot include hard/un-vegetated

surfaces such as patios, decks, and driveways.

Water Resource Management

Water resource management is the activity of planning, developing, distributing

and managing the optimum use of water resources. ... Ideally, water resource management

planning has regard to all the competing demands for water and seeks to allocate water on an

equitable basis to satisfy all uses and demands

Water Intake Works

Water Intake Works. a hydraulic-engineering installation for obtaining water from a

source of supply (river, lake, reservoir, and so on) for purposes of hydroelectric power

engineering, water supply, or irrigation. ... In case of large fluctuations of the water level in the

reservoir, bottom intake works are used.

Free Board

the height of the watertight portion of a building or otherconstruction above a given

level of water in a river, lake, etc.

In organizations, planning can become a management process, concerned with defining goals

for a future direction and determining on the missions and resources to achieve those targets.

To meet the goals, managers may develop plans such as a business plan or a marketing plan.

Planning Process

1.) Identify the area

2.) Budget for the proposal design

3.) Compute the Maximum discharge

4.) Intake Type

5.) Decide a structure for the area

6.) Freeboard

LEGAL AND REGULATORY ISSUES

Challenges To Water Resources Management

The challenges in effectively managing the water resources of the country are the failure to

adopt an integrated, holistic approach in addressing the inherently interrelated issues of

development and management planning, implementation, and operation, demand management,

pollution control, and watershed and groundwater protection. Moreover, the water pricing

policy undervalues the water as a scarce resource. The major constraints and challenges in

promoting effective water resources management are discussed below:

Weak institutional framework

Fragmented management. One of the most critical issues confronting the Philippine water

sector is the lack of an appropriate institutional framework to address issues of development

and management of water and related resources. At present, there are over 30 government
agencies and departments separately dealing with water supply, irrigation, hydropower, flood

control, pollution, watershed management, etc. It is this fragmented approach to water

management bringing about an overlap of work and conflicts among agencies that result in

fractional water management plan that does not adequately meet the requirements for

sustainability. Many projects are being implemented in many cases without considering the

interactions between hydrological and economic system, thus, resulting in inefficient resource

use, economic and social losses, and environmental degradation.

Despite the promulgation of the Water Code and the creation of the National Water Resources

Board (NWRB) in 1974 to coordinate the activities of water resources agencies, the goal of

integrated water resources management is still far from being a reality.

Lack of water allocation formula. Most of the problems encountered in the water sector today

arise from an issue of conflicts of use and water allocation. With the increase of population

coupled with worsening pollution of water, lack of infrastructure and facilities and dry spell

causing water shortages regularly in many areas resulting in allocation issues and conflicting

rights over the limited water supply. The principle in the Water Code of "first in time priority

in right" may no longer be an equitable approach in resolving such conflicts. Current allocation

procedure is insufficient to cover all aspect of water allocation such as economic aspect. In

view of the growing scarcity of the country’s water resources and the felt need for effective

measures to resolve water shortages and improve water use, consideration of an alternative

approach using a system of tradable water rights has been advocated. The institution of a

tradable water rights regime requires the establishment of a secure property right to water.

Under such regime, the water rights should be sold freely at negotiated prices to any one for

any purpose. However, the Water Code imposes restrictions, which essentially weakens the

property right associated with the water right. While the lease or transfer of water rights is

explicitly allowed by the Code, such lease or transfer is restricted for the same beneficial
purpose for which the water rights is granted as required under Article 12 of the Code. Although

the potential advantages of promoting water markets have been recognized, the necessary

cultural, legal and institutional elements are not yet in place. NWRB is the sole authority that

allocates water rights for various uses. However, the basic structure of NWRB is the major

setback to the effective discharge of its functions.

Weak water use regulation and enforcement. The investigation and processing of water

permit applications constitute the type functions for which NWRB is not properly equipped in

terms of either manpower of resources. Besides, deputation of such functions to other

government agencies has not proven satisfactory. Moreover, the capability of NWRB to

monitor compliance with the terms and conditions of the permit, which it grant is very limited

owing to lack of manpower and budgetary constraints for travel-to-site expenses. Enforcement

of the provisions of the Water Code is lacking owing to resource constraints. Investigation of

cases involving violations of the conditions of the permit is often left to the discretion of the

deputized agents. In many cases, directives of NWRB are ignored since it does not have

"enforcement powers" to exact compliance with those directives.

Outdated framework plans and research. For the past years, the national government has

steadfastly pursued its dedication to developing a regime of efficient water resources

management system. There had also several studies of paramount impact to the sector such as

the framework plans that are expected to provide the implementing agencies with a better

appreciation of the problems outside their individual sector. The plans would also serve as a

mechanism for developing joint projects by concerned agencies. They could also serve as a

basis for well-coordinated agencies, even if they are undertaken as separate projects by the

different agencies. However, these plans require updating from time to time but very little effort

is directed to the commissioning of similar studies and research.

Economic Pricing. The existing water pricing system in the country does not reflect the

realities of scarcity or abundance of water with minimal attention on economic value of water.

Consequently, it does not serve the function of allocating the scarce resource to the most

productive users and does not provide economic incentive for efficient use and conservation of

water. It is well accepted that the proper pricing of raw water is one way of resolving a number

of problems in the sector. The proper pricing of raw water will 1) result to more efficient

allocation of water; 2) encourage conservation of water; and 3) greater efforts in the part of

suppliers to reduce non-revenue water. Pricing water, if implemented and enforced fairly and

equitably, would generate revenues that could be used for sector improvement. Policy changes

of this nature will be difficult to implement mainly because of political opposition based on

fear that prices to poorer families and irrigation farmers will increase. Adverse public reaction

is expected and the perception of political weakness of the government will ensue on account

of public resistance. The basic dilemma facing government is that a change is needed from

viewing water as a free or public good to an economic good where it has a price. Such concepts

are difficult for elected executives, in particular, to accept specially in circumstances where

constituents enjoy free water. Specifically, policy changes have not been enacted due to the

following reasons:

- lack of will to change;

- difficulties in selling the concept to consumers and businesses;

- lack of technical capabilities to design and implement such policy reforms; and

- political difficulties under the current institutional and regulatory environment

Disparities between water supply and demand

Limited water resources and their spatial and temporal distribution. Although the

Philippines is endowed with abundant water resources, the distribution of these resources varies

widely in time and place as result of the different geographic and climate conditions prevailing
in different parts of the country. Several factors and processes affect local and regional water

resources. Human activities, in particular, influence the hydrologic cycle through change of

water and land use. In recent years, the issue of climate change due to human activities posed

a major concern to water managers, planners and policy makers. The climate change has

occurred because the present water management practices are mainly based on semi-stationary

geophysical processes with inadequate consideration being given to increasing demands owing

to population and land use changes.

Inefficient water use. A major concern at present is not only water scarcity but also inefficient

management of existing projects. Most of the existing water supply projects are inadequately

managed, as characterized by low service efficiency resulting in supply deficiencies to meet

the water demand. In addition, tremendous waste of water in distribution lines, irrigation canals

and at homes. Inefficiency in water usage was exacerbated by the absence of regulations,

economic incentives and institutional arrangements needed to promote water conservation and

rational use of water.

Lack of data. The established observation stations for meteorological, hydrological, geologic

and water quality monitoring are not sufficient in quantity and location. In the Philippines, the

water resources data are being collected and processed by various concerned agencies and kept

in their independent database. The absence of reliable water resources information system

diminishes the capacity of concerned authorities to make difficult and controversial water

allocation decisions. Besides, it would be difficult for the private sector to invest in the water

sector when reliable water resources-related data are scarce and the means of obtaining them

unavailable. Therefore, the improvement of data collection and establishment of an integrated

nation-wide database on water resources is needed.

Water Code of the Philippines: Overview

Did you know that there is a law governing the use and ownership of water? This is Presidential

Decree No. 1067, otherwise known as the Water Code of the Philippines, December 31, 19.

The Code covers underground water, water above the ground, water in the atmosphere and the

waters of the sea within territorial jurisdiction of the Philippines.

The Water Code has the following objectives:

 To establish the basic principles and framework relating to the appropriation,

control and conservation of water resources to achieve the optimum

development and rational utilization of these resources

 To define the extent of the rights and obligations of water users and owners

including the protection and regulation of such things

 To adopt a basic law governing the ownership, appropriation, utilization,

exploration, development, conservation and protection of water resources and

rights to land related thereto

 To identify the administrative agencies which will enforce this code

The underlying principles of the Water Code are:

 All waters belong to the State

 All waters that belong to the State can not be the subject to acquisitive

prescription

 The State may allow the use or development of waters by administrative

concession

 The utilization, exploitation, development, conservation and protection of water

resources shall be subject to the control and regulation of the government

through the National Water Resources Council, hereinafter referred to as the

Council
  Preference in the use and development of waters shall consider current usages

and be responsive to the changing needs of the country

Under the Code, a person appropriating or using natural bodies of water must secure a water

permit except the following:

 Approriation of water by means of hand-carried receptacles

 Bathing or washing, watering or dipping of domestic or farm animals, and

navigation pf watercraft or transportation of logs and other objects by flotation

Regulation as part of integrated water resource management

It is widely recognized that the water resources challenges facing the world today will need to

be solved through improved water resources management. There are a number of pillars to

improved water resources management, of which regulation is one.

Other key elements of the water resources management framework include:

 infrastructure operation

 maintenance and development

 monitoring and assessment

 research

 appropriate institutional design

A water Services Regulatory Strategy has already been developed and is in the process of being

published. The development of a Water Resources Regulatory Strategy will complement this

strategy to ensure that regulation of the entire water value chain is covered effectively. While

two types of regulation water resource and water service are very different, and require

different tools and approaches, there are some points of interface that require a consistent

approach across the entire value chain – economic regulation being the prime example.
The focus of water resources regulation is the efficient, sustainable and equitable use of scarce

natural resources, while the water services regulation is focused more on the efficient and

equitable delivery of reliable, safe drinking water, the safe removal of contaminated water and

human excreta.

ECONOMIC FEASIBILTY

What is Economic Feasibility?

It is the degree to which the economic advantages of something to be made, done, or

achieved are greater than the economic costs.

Feasibility study is a type of analysis used in measuring the ability and likelihood to

successfully complete a project including all relevant factors. It must account for factors that

affect it such as economic, technological, legal and scheduling factors. Project managers use

feasibility studies to determine potential positive and negative outcomes of a project before

investing a considerable amount of time and money to it. A feasibility study tests the viability

of an idea, a project or even a new business. The goal of a feasibility study is to emphasize

potential problems that could occur if a project is pursued and determine if, after all significant

factors are considered, the project should be pursued. Feasibility studies also allow a business

to address where and how it will operate, potential obstacles, competition and the funding

needed to get the business up and running.

Importance of feasibility studies

Feasibility studies allow companies to determine and organize all of the necessary details to

make a business work. A feasibility study helps identify logistical problems, and nearly all

business-related problems, along with the solutions to alleviate them. Feasibility studies can

also lead to the development of marketing strategies that convince investors or a bank that

investing in the business is a wise choice.

Components Of Feasibility Study

Description - a layout of the business, the products and/or services to be offered and how they

will be delivered.

Market feasibility – describes the industry, the current and future market potential,

competition, sales estimations and prospective buyers.

Technical feasibility – lays out details on how a good or service will be delivered, which

includes transportation, business location, technology needed, materials and labor.

Financial feasibility – a projection of the amount of funding or startup capital needed, what

sources of capital can and will be used, and what kind of return can be expected on the

investment.

Organizational feasibility – a definition of the corporate and legal structure of the business;

this may include information about the founders, their professional background and the skills

they possess necessary to get the company off the ground and keep it operational.

Agronomist

Agronomists have a wide range of work, but their role is best summed up as a “crop doctor.”

They are concerned with the health and well-being of crops used for food production, fuel, and

land reclamation. Agronomists conduct experiments to develop the best methods for increasing

the quality and production of crops. Based on their experiments, agronomists work with

farmers to help them grow the best possible crops, such as corn, cotton, soybeans, and wheat.

Economist

An expert who studies the relationship between a society's resources and its production or

output. The societies studied may range from the smallest of local communities to an entire

nation or even the global economy.

Budget

It is required that 20% of the budget of a given project must be returned to Government. It is

called Investment return.

Economic Feasibilty

TWO APPROACHES:

1. Benefit - Cost Analysis

2. Discounting Methods

Benefit – Cost Analysis

 Is a systematic quantitative method of assessing the desirability the desirability of

Government Projects.

 Is the Commonly used Procedure for economic evaluation of public projects.

 Benefits are estimated and compared with the total costs that society would bear if that

action were undertaken.

 Viewpoint is Important – some groups are only concerned with benefits, others are

concerned only with costs.

Discounting Methods

 Requires Comparisons of time and value

Different Methods

1. Annual - Cost Method

2. Rate of Return Method

 Annual Cost Method

- is the cost per year for owning or maintaining an asset over its lifetime.

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒
Annual Cost= Asset Price(1−(1+𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒)−𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑠 )+ annual maintenance

costs

Example : Suppose you are comparing two analyzers, A and B, costing $100,000 and

$130,000, respectively. These are the Asset Prices. Suppose Analyzer A is expected to last 5

years, while Analyzer B is expected to last 7 years. These are the number of Periods. Suppose

Analyzer A has an annual maintenance expense of $11,000, while Analyzer B has annual

maintenance expense of $8,000. Say your organization uses a Discount Rate of 10%.

Initial Life Span Annual

Outlay Maintence Cost

Analyzer A $ 100,000 5 years $ 11000

Analyzer B $ 130,000 7 years $ 8000

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒
Annual Cost= Asset Price(1−(1+𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒)−𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑠 )+ annual maintenance costs

For Analyzer A:

0.10
Annual Cost= $ 100,000(1−(1+0.10)−5 )+ $ 11,000

Annual Cost= $ 37,379. 75

For Analyzer B:
 0.10
Annual Cost= $ 130,000(1−(1+0.10)−7 )+ $ 8,000

Annual Cost= $ 34,702.72

Rate of Return Method

A rate of return is the gain or loss on an investment over a specified time period,

expressed as a percentage of the investment’s cost.

𝐸𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 −𝐵𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Rate of Return= ( ) x 100%
𝐵𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Example : If a stock begins the year at $25.00 a share and ends the year with a market

price of $45.00 a share - this stock would have an annual, or yearly, rate of return.

𝐸𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 −𝐵𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Rate of Return= ( ) x 100%
𝐵𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

450000 −250000
Rate of Return= ( ) x 100%
250000

Rate of Return= 80 %
 WATER SUPPLY

Water supply- is the provision of water by public utilities commercial organisations,

community endeavors or by individuals, usually via a system of pumps and pipes.

Water supply systems get water from a variety of locations after appropriate treatment,

including groundwater (aquifers), surface water (lakes and rivers), and the sea

through desalination. The water treatmentsteps include, in most cases, purification,

disinfection through chlorination and sometimes fluoridation. Treated water then either flows

by gravity or is pumped to reservoirs, which can be elevated such as water towers or on the

ground (for indicators related to the efficiency of drinking water distribution see non-revenue

water). Once water is used, wastewater is typically discharged in a sewer system and treated in

a sewage treatment plant before being discharged into a river, lake or the sea or reused

for landscaping, irrigation or industrial use (see also sanitation).

Water supply- is the process of providing water in a systematic way through installed pumps

and pipe lines. Before water is provided to a specific area, it undegoes a process

called sanitation to ensure that the quality of water received is safe for human consumption.

The Philippines’ water supply system dates back to 1946 after the country achieved its

independence. Government agencies, local institutions, non-government organizations, and

other corporations are primarily in charge in the operation and administration of water supply

and sanitation in the country.

Sources of Water

Ground water: Open well, tube well/bore well, hand pump are sources which make water

available from ground.

Open Well: Where ground water is available at low depth (less than 15 meters - and water is

available all year round, open well is used.

Hand Pump: Where safe ground water is available up to 60 m depth, hand pump is ideal choice

for a cluster or habitation.

Bore Well/Tube Well: Where ground water is at greater depth and open wells or hand pumps

are not viable, bore well or tube well is installed.

Surface Water: River, pond, dam site are sources where surface water is available.

Moreover, rain water can be harvested and stored directly in storage tanks. This water is potable

after first rain and can be used for drinking purpose also.

Classification of Water based on its Availability

A. Local Source: Sources which are available at village/town level like river, pond, open wells

and bore wells.

B. Distant Source: When perennial reliable and safe source is not available, pipeline from

distant sources can be laid. This bulk water is available from river, pond, dam, bore wells or

storage tank itself, where water is available.

The Philippines’ main sources of water are rivers, lakes, river basins, and

groundwater reservoirs. The longest and largest river, Cagayan River, discharges

approximately 53, 943 million cubic meters of water annually. Its groundwater reserves are 47,

895 million cubic meters replenished by rainfall and seepage from rivers and lakes. The lakes

are utilized mainly for fish cultivation. The four major groundwater reservoirs are in Cagayan,

Central Luzon, Agusan, and Cotabato. There are 438 major dams and 423 smaller

dams. Dams and reservoirs are mainly used for: water storage, water supply, irrigation,

regulation of flood, and hydropower.

Water Withdrawal

 Domestic

-Domestic water supply means the source and infrastructure that provides water to households.

A domestic water supply can take different forms: a stream, a spring, a hand-dug well, a

borehole with handpump, a rainwater collection system, a piped water supply with tapstand or

house connection, or water vendors.

-water use is water used for indoor and outdoor household purposes— all the things you do at

home: drinking, preparing food, bathing, washing clothes and dishes, brushing your teeth,

watering the yard and garden, and. Water generally gets to our homes in one of two ways.

Either it is delivered by a city/county water department (or maybe from a private company), or

people supply their own water, normally from a well. Water delivered to homes is called

"public-supplied deliveries" and water that people supply themselves is called "self supplied",

and is almost always from groundwater.

 Industrial

-Industrial water use includes water used for such purposes as fabricating, processing, washing,

diluting, cooling, or transporting a product; incorporating water into a product; or for sanitation

needs within the manufacturing facility. Some industries that use large amounts of water

produce such commodities as food, paper, chemicals, refined petroleum, or primary metals.

-The use of water for industrial purposes include the "utilization of water in factories, industrial

plants and mines, and the use of water as an ingredient of a finished product. "Industries that

are found to be water-intensive are involved in the manufacturing of food and dairy, pulp and

chemical products, and textile materials.

 Agricultural
-industry consumes more water than any other industry.

-Agricultural water management in the Philippines primarily focuses on the subject of

irrigation. The country has 3.126 million hectares of irrigable land, 50% (1.567 million

hectares) of which already has irrigation facilities. 50% of irrigated areas are developed and

operated by the government through the National Irrigation System (NIS). 36% is developed

by the government and operated by irrigators’ associations through the Communal Irrigation

System, while the remaining 14% is developed and operated by individual or small groups of

farmers through a Private Irrigation System (PIS).

National Mapping and Resource Information Authority (NAMRIA)

an agency of the Philippine government under the Department of Environment and Natural

Resources responsible for providing the public with mapmaking services and acting as the

central mapping agency, depository, and distribution facility of natural resources data in the

form of maps, charts, texts, and statistics.

Levels of water systems

According to a 2005 World Bank study, approximately 5,000 service providers exist in the

Philippines. Most of them only provide water, while sanitation is still expected to be a private

responsibility. The water infrastructure provided is classified into three levels.

The handpump is an example of a Level I water system.

Levels of water systems in the Philippines

Stand-alone water points (e.g. handpumps, shallow wells, rainwater collectors)

Level I
serving an average of 15 households within a 250-meter distance
Level Piped water with a communal water point (e.g. borewell, spring system) serving an

II average of 4-6 households within a 25-meter distance

Level Piped water supply with a private water point (e.g. house connection) based on a daily

III water demand of more than 100 liters per person

Service providers

According to the Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation

of UNICEF and WHO, access to an improved water source increased from 85% in 1990 to

92% in 2010.

 Local Government Units

Most households in the Philippines are provided water by their Local Government Units

(LGUs), either directly through a city or municipal engineering department or through

community-based organizations (CBOs). CBOs involved in water supply include 200

cooperatives, 3,100 Barangay Water and Sanitation Associations (BWSAs) and 500 Rural

Water Supply Associations (RWSAs). CBOs usually operate Level I or Level II water supply

systems with support from the national government or non-governmental

organizations (NGOs). In many cases, the CBOs later convert Level I and II facilities into Level

III supply [Link], all LGU-operated arrangements do not recover their full costs

and rely heavily on local government subsidies.

 Water Districts

Local Water Utilities Administration (LWUA) Seal

A water district is a utility that is legally and financially separate from the municipality. In

urban areas outside of Metro Manila, water districts served around 15.3 million people from

861 municipalities in 2011. To form a water district, the local government needs confirmation
from the Local Waterworks and Utilities Administration (LWUA), a specialized lending

institution for provincial waterworks, from which it will receive technical assistance and

financial support. The local government appoints the board members of the water districts. This

system typically has better performance and higher cost recovery than water systems that are

run directly by municipalities. The Philippine Association of Water Districts (PAWD), fosters

the exchange of experiences between water districts and provides training to its [Link]

2010, USAID and the ADB agreed to support PAWD in establishing a national Water

Operators Partnerships (WOPs) program that promotes twinning partnerships among Water

Districts.

 Large-scale Private Operators

The zones of Metro Manila allocated to Maynilad Water (red) and Manila Water (blue).

In Metro Manila, water service has been carried out by two private concessionaires since 1997:

The Manila Water Company in the East Zone, and Maynilad Water Services, Inc. in the West

Zone. Although national government has supported private service providers since the 1990s,

there are few arrangements outside of Metro Manila. Joint ventures exist in Tagbilaran City and

in Subic [Link] private water service providers provide Level III services together with

water districts.

 Small-scale independent providers

A significant share of the population in urban areas receive services from small-scale

independent providers. It was estimated that before privatization in the late 1990s, 30% of the

population of Metro Manila depended on them, majority buying water in bulk from water

providers to sell it on to individual [Link] are also some cases of cooperation by

concessionaires and independent providers. In August 2007, 250 small-scale providers formed
the National Water and Sanitation Association of the Philippines (NAWASA) as a gathering

avenue for small-scale water service providers.

Access

Water supply

In 2015, 92% of the total population had access to "at least basic water", or 94% in urban areas

and 90% in rural areas. In 2015, there were still 8 million people without access to "at least

basic water". The term "at least basic water" is a new term since 2016, and is related to the

previously used "improved water source".

In earlier years, according to the Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) report on March 2012, 43%

of the Philippines had access to Level III private water service providers in 2010. Access to an

improved water source increased from 84% in 1990 to 92% in 2012. However, there is a wide

inconsistency between the access to water of urban areas (61%) and rural areas (25%).

Although overall spending remained low, the national government has begun increasing

investments in sectors outside Metro Manila.

Issues

 Drinking water quality

Water quality usually does not meet the standards set by the national government, especially

in urban areas. As a result, waterborne diseases remain to be a severe public health concern in

the country. About 4,200 people die each year due to contaminated drinking water.

 Non-revenue water

Non-revenue water (NRW) is defined as the difference between the amount of water put into

the distribution system and the amount of water billed to consumers. It is usually used as an

indicator for water utility performance. High levels of non-revenue water usually indicate low
quality water utility. It has three components: physical losses, which consist of leakage from

the system caused by poor operations and maintenance, the lack of active leakage control, and

poor quality of underground assets; commercial losses caused by under-registration of water

meters, errors in data handling, and theft, and unbilled authorized consumption which includes

water used by a specific utility for operational purposes (e.g. firefighting and specific consumer

groups).

Non-revenue water decreased in the East Zone of Metro Manila since privatization. In 1996,

Manila had an NRW of 61%, while capital cities from other Asian countries ranged from

having 35–38%. In 2002, NRW dropped to 53% in the East Zone. On the other hand, non-

revenue water in the West Zone increased as the primary waterwork utility encountered severe

financial [Link] to Manila Water, one of the private concessionaires, the share of

NRW continued to fall until the end of 2010 where it reached 11%.

According to the National Water Resources Board (NWRB), the average share of NRW among

participating service providers was 27.5% in 2004. The particularly high NRW of Manila's

West Zone was confirmed to have a record with 68%. Generally, the smaller utilities performed

better concerning NRW than the larger ones. However, many NRW data are based on

estimates, given the fact that only 15 of the 45 service providers had 100% production and

consumption metering coverage.

 Labor Productivity

The number of staff was reduced at the Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System

(MWSS) after privatization. On average, 10 employees were responsible for 1,000 connections

in 1996. Fast forward to 2002, only about 4 employees were left, reflecting a decreases of

around 58%. According to LWUA, only about 7 employees per 1,000 connections worked in

water districts in [Link] contrast to water districts, LGUs have an average of 21 employees
per 1,000 connections in 2002. However, small LGUs still suffer from their low number of

total connections.

The NWRB Philippines Towns Water Utilities 2004 Data Book found, on average, 7

employees per 1,000 connections in 2004. Private utilities, on average, performed best and

systems which were directly managed by LGUs performed worst. Not surprisingly, providers

with more than 10,000 connections need significantly fewer employees per connection than

those with fewer than 10,000 connections.

Other challenges

The NWRB Philippines Towns Water Utilities 2004 Data Book found, on average, 7

employees per 1,000 connections in 2004. Private utilities on average performed best and

systems which were directly managed by LGUs performed worst. Not surprisingly, providers

with more than 10,000 connections need significantly fewer employees per connection than

those with fewer than 10,000 connections.

The Pasig River in Manila, one of the world's most polluted rivers.

 Population and Pollution

One third of Philippine river systems are considered suitable for public water [Link] is

estimated that in 2025, water availability will be marginal in most major cities and in 8 of the

19 major river basins. Besides severe health concerns, water pollution also leads to problems

in the Fishing and Tourism [Link] national government recognized the problem and

since 2004, has sought to introduce sustainable water resources development management.

With rapid increase in population, urbanization, and industrialization, the quality of Philippine

waters is reduced especially in densely populated areas and regions of industrial and

agricultural activities. According to data from the DENR and PEM, domestic wastewater

discharges, agricultural wastewater, and industrial wastewater are the three main sources of

water pollution. These are also known as "point sources" that emanate toxic substances into

"non-point sources" or certain bodies of water. Domestic wastewater consists of sewage

containing organic waste, solids, and coliforms produced by domestic activities such as

laundry, bathing, cooking, and other kitchen activities. Agricultural wastewater, the major

source of pollution in rural areas, contain pollutants resulting from agricultural and livestock

activities like the maintenance of piggeries which usually do not have proper wastewater

treatment facilities. Different industries also contribute largely to the water pollution. Industrial

activities such as manufacturing of food, textile, paper, and slaughterhouses emit large amounts

of organic waste.

 El Niño and Global Warming

El Niño, a weather phenomenon occurring about every two to seven years when warm water

in the western tropical Pacific Ocean shifts Eastward, causing ocean temperatures to be warm,

last developed in the country in late 2014. For the past several decades, it has been observed

that its occurrence has increased due to climate change as a result of global warming. Its

negative impacts may either be heavy rainfall or drought. El Niño greatly impacts the power
supply, water supply, and agricultural sectors of the country. The reduced rainfall leading to

drought causes shortage in water supply leading to the rationing of water in some situations,

shortage in hydropower supply, and food supply.

The La Mesa Watershed is the only remaining rainforest of its size in Metro Manila,

Philippines.

 Denudation of Forest Cover

The supply of water from most freshwater bodies usually come from watersheds --- patches

of forest cover that absorb rainwater and channel it into streams, rivers, and eventually dams

where many human communities (especially Metro Manila) source their [Link]

the role of the forest in the replenishment and maintenance of both ground and surface water,

the Philippines is considered to be one of the most severely deforested countries in the tropics

as it lost more than 97% of its original forest cover in the last 50 years.

 Saltwater Intrusion

One of the areas in most risk of saltwater intrusion is Metro Manila. Since the late 1960s, saline

water intrusion has been evident along the coastal areas of Metro Manila, stretching from Las

Pinas to Malabon. The shallow water table aquifer is in direct contact with the sea in these

coastal areas. The over-pumping of groundwater results to cones of depression which increase
the risk of saltwater intrusion. According to a joint study by MWSS and JICA in 1991, most

groundwater samples from Metro Manila’s coastal areas were salinized. However, compared

to the early 1980s, saline intrusion was found to have improved conditions because of the

conversion of water source from groundwater to surface water upon the completion of the

Manila Water Supply Project II in 1987. Aside from excessive withdrawal of groundwater,

seepage of brackish water along the Pasig River is another cause of saltwater intrusion because

of seawater movement during tides.

FLOODPLAIN MANAGEMENT

What is Floodplains?

Floodplain, also called Alluvial Plain, flat land area adjacent to a stream, composed of

unconsolidated sedimentary deposits (alluvium) and subject to periodic inundation by the

stream. Floodplains are produced by lateral movement of a stream and by overbank deposition;

therefore they are absent where downcutting is dominant. Any erosional widening of one bank

is approximately equalled by deposition on the opposite side of the channel in the form of bar

development along the inside of meander bends. Thus, the simplest floodplain is made up of a

strip of sinuous scrolls immediately adjacent to the stream.

It includes the floodway, which consists of the stream channel and adjacent areas that carry

flood flows, and the flood fringe, which are areas covered by the flood, but which do not

experience a strong current.

These ecosystems that occupy a floodplain may contain a wide array of habitats, from

freshwater marshes to forests to vegetated lowlands, and serve important ecological roles for

numerous plant and animal species. The shape and nature of a floodplain may also change over

time as the main channel of a river naturally migrates through erosion and accretion, impacting

how and where excess water may first overtop the banks of the river during a flood event.
While most people view a river or stream only as the place where there is regularly flowing

water, the reality is that the river and floodplain are one integrated system that have evolved

over time to convey water and sediment downstream, with the floodplain serving to both store

water and to slowly release it back into the main channel of the river as the flood passes, to

ensure that the natural system downstream isn’t overwhelmed.

How are Floodplains formed?

A river may overflow its banks during times of heavy rain. When the river recedes, the

river deposits the material it is carrying, leaving behind silt. Floodplains are

the wide and flat plains formed by the deposited material or alluvium build up on either sideof

the river with successive floods over the years. The heavier and coarser sediments are first

deposited at the river’s edge. The finer particles are being deposited a little further away from

the river.
Floodplain Formations:

Floodplains are formed in two ways: by EROSIONAL and AGGRADATION.

An erosional floodplain is created as a stream cuts vertically and laterally into its channel and

banks. A stream with a steep gradient will tend to down cut faster than it causes lateral erosion,

resulting in a deep, narrow channel with little or no floodplain at all.

An aggradational floodplain is created when a river deposits thick layers of sediment. This

happens when the river's velocity decreases, forcing it to drop sediment. Consequently the

lower course of the river valley becomes layered with alluvium.

What are the uses of Floodplains?

The main use of floodplains is for agriculture, however the use of the land for settlement has

become more popular.

Settlement on floodplains, despite occasional flooding, is attractive because:

-Water is most available.

- The land is more fertile.

- Rivers correspond to cheap modes of transport.

- Flat or gently sloping land is more suitable for development.

HUMAN INFLUENCES ON FLOODPLAINS:

In areas where floodplains have been used for settlement, flooding can be a hazard, and

therefore it has had to be controlled.

Levees are built or strengthened to prevent flooding, which would help to benefit and protect

the urbanised area surrounding the floodplain.

Floodplain Management Strategies

Strategy 1: Modify human susceptibility to flood damage

Reduce disruption by avoiding hazardous, uneconomic or unwise use of floodplains.

Tools include:

 Regulating floodplain use by using zoning codes to steer development away from

hazardous areas or natural areas deserving preservation, establishing rules for

developing subdivisions, and rigorously following building, health and sanitary codes.

 Establishing development and redevelopment policies on the design and location of

public services, utilities and critical facilities.

 Acquiring land in a floodplain in order to preserve open space and permanently relocate

buildings.

 Elevating or flood proofing new buildings and retrofitting existing ones.

 Preparing people and property for flooding through forecasting, warning systems and

emergency plans.

 Restoring and preserving the natural resources and functions of floodplains.

Strategy 2: Modify the impact of flooding

Assist individuals and communities to prepare for, respond to and recover from a flood. Tools

include:

 Providing information and education to assist self-help and protection measures.

 Following flood emergency measures during a flood to protect people and property.

 Reducing the financial impact of flooding through disaster assistance, flood insurance

and tax adjustments.

  Preparing post-flood recovery plans and programs to help people rebuild and

implement mitigation measures to protect against future floods

Strategy 3: Modify flooding itself

Develop projects that control floodwater.

Tools include:

 Building dams and reservoirs that store excess water upstream from developed areas.

 Building dikes, levees and floodwalls to keep water away from developed areas.

 Altering channels to make them more efficient, so overbank flooding will be less

frequent.

 Diverting high flows around developed areas.

 Treating land to hold as much rain as possible where it falls, so it can infiltrate the soil

instead of running off.

 Storing excess runoff with on-site detention measures.

 Protecting inland development with shoreline protection measures that account for the

natural movement of shoreline features.

 Controlling runoff from areas under development outside the floodplain. Floods and

Strategy 4: Preserve and restore natural resources

Renew the vitality and purpose of floodplains by reestablishing and maintaining floodplain

environments in their natural state.

Tools include:

 Floodplain, wetlands and coastal barrier resources or land use regulations, such as

zoning, can be used to steer development away from sensitive or natural areas.
  Development and redevelopment policies on the design and location of public services,

utilities and critical facilities.

 Land acquisition; open space preservation; permanent relocation of buildings;

restoration of floodplains and wetlands, and preservation of natural functions and

habitats.

 Information and education to make people aware of natural floodplain resources and

functions and how to protect them.

 Tax adjustments to provide a financial initiative for preserving lands or restoring lands

to their natural state.

 Beach nourishment and dune building to protect inland development by maintaining

the natural flood protection features.

DROUGHTS

Definitions

 Period of dryness especially when prolonged; specifically: one that causes extensive

damage to crops or prevents their successful growth

 A prolonged period of abnormally low rainfall; a shortage of water resulting from this.

 A drought means that a place has less precipitation (rain or snow) than normal over a

few months or even longer.

Causes of Droughts

1. Changing weather patterns resulting from the excessive build-up of heat on the earth's

surface.

2. Meteorological changes that result in a reduction of rainfall.

3. Inadequate planning.
 4. Over-grazing and poor cropping methods that result in reduced water retention capacity

of the soil.

Types of Drought

 Meteorological Drought

This kind is usually determined by the general lack of moisture in the weather such as lack

of precipitation, and the play of other weather conditions such as dry winds, high

temperatures and so on. It is expressed in relation to the average conditions of the region

over a long period of time.

 Agricultural Drought

This is when atmospheric moisture is reduced to the extent that soil moisture is affected.

Here, crops and animals are affected and evapotranspiration is also affected.

 Hydrological Drought

Hydrological drought refers to a persistently low discharge and/or volume of water in

streams and reservoirs, lasting months or years. Hydrological drought is a natural

phenomenon, but it may be exacerbated by human activities.

 Hydrological Drought

This is when there is a deficiency of surface water and ground water supply in a region,

often as a result of less precipitation, excessive reliance on surface water for farming,

energy and other needs. Hydrological drought does not usually occur at the same time as

meteorological drought.

 Socioeconomic Drought
This condition is when some supply of some goods and services such as energy, food and

drinking water are reduced or threatened by changes in meteorological and hydrological

conditions.

Impacts

 Direct Impact

Direct impacts include reduced crop, rangeland, and forest productivity, increased fire

hazard, reduced water levels, increased livestock and wildlife mortality rates, and damage

to wildlife and fish habitat

 Indirect Impact

The consequences of these direct impacts illustrate indirect impacts. For example, a

reduction in crop, rangeland, and forest productivity may result in reduced income for

farmers and agribusiness

 Economical Impact

 Losses in yields in both crop and livestock production.

 Insect infestations, plant disease, and wind erosion

 Incidence of forest and range fires

 Unemployment

 Prices for food, energy, and other products increase as supplies are reduced

 Reduced water supply impairs the navigation and transportation of goods

 Environmental Impact

 Damages to plant and animal species, wildlife habitat, and air and water quality,

forest and range fires, degradation of landscape quality, loss of biodiversity, and

soil erosion
  Wildlife habitat, for example, may be degraded through the loss of wetlands, lakes,

and vegetation

 The degradation of landscape quality, including increased soil erosion, may lead to

a more permanent loss of biological productivity.

 Social Impact

 Social impacts involve public safety, health, conflicts between water users, reduced

quality of life, and inequities in the distribution of impacts and disaster relief.

 Population migration is a significant problem in many countries, often stimulated

by a greater supply of food and water elsewhere.

 When the drought has abated, the migrants seldom return home, depriving rural

areas of valuable human resources. The drought migrants place increasing pressure

on the society.

 Drought Prevention

 Advance planning

 Build watering basins

 Irrigate slowly

 Harvest rain

 Apply mulch
SAMPLE REPORT

(an excerpt from Red Cross Information bulletin Philippines: Drought and dry spells)

El Niño brings dry weather and even droughts.

Droughts in Philippines are usually associated
with the phenomenon of El Niño
A drought is a prolonged period of abnormally
low rainfall leading to a shortage of water,
which can be disastrous.

A dry spell is a short period of low rainfall,

usually not more than a month.
According to the World Meteorological
Organization, this is one of the most powerful
El Niño events in modern times and its impact
will remain for several months to come. Since
the first quarter of 2015, most areas of the
country have experienced below normal
rainfall attributed to the El Niño effect.
Some 42 per cent of the Philippines is
experienced drought or dry spells brought on
by El Niño effect. As of 15 April, 39
provinces, cities, municipalities and villages
have declared a state of calamity. The worst
affected areas are Mindanao and the Visayas
regions. According to UN OCHA, around
181,687 farmers and 224,834 hectares of
agricultural land have been affected since
January 2016