Applications of solar cell
By :- renuka G
INTRODUCTION
A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that
converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the
photovoltaic effect, which is a physical and chemical
phenomenon.[1] It is a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device
whose electrical characteristics, such as current, voltage, or
resistance, vary when exposed to light. Individual solar cell devices
can be combined to form modules, otherwise known as solar panels.
In basic terms a single junction silicon solar cell can produce a
maximum open-circuit voltage of approximately 0.5 to 0.6 volts.[2]
Solar cells are described as being photovoltaic, irrespective of
whether the source is sunlight or an artificial light. They are used as
a photo detector (for example infrared detectors), detecting light or
other electromagnetic radiation near the visible range, or measuring
light intensity.
The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires three basic
attributes:
The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or
excitons.
The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.
The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.
In contrast, a solar thermal collector supplies heat by absorbing
sunlight, for the purpose of either direct heating or indirect electrical
power generation from heat. A "photo electrolytic cell" (photo
electrochemical), on the other hand, refers either to a type of
photovoltaic cell (like that developed by Edmond Becquerel and
modern dye-sensitized solar cells), or to a device that splits water
directly into hydrogen and oxygen using only solar illumination.
In general, a solar cell that includes both solar and nonsolar sources
of light (such as photons from incandescent bulbs) is termed a
photovoltaic cell.
Fundamentally, the device needs to fulfill only two functions: photo
generation of charge carriers (electrons and holes) in a light-
absorbing material, and separation of the charge carriers to a
conductive contact that will transmit the electricity.
This conversion is called the photovoltaic effect, and the field of
research related to solar cells is known as photovoltaic.
General Theory
The main component of a solar cell is the semiconductor, as this is
the part that converts light into electricity. Semiconductors can carry
out this conversion due to the structure of their electron energy
levels. Electron energy levels are generally categorised into two
bands: the ‘valence band’ and the ‘conduction band’. The valence
band contains the highest occupied electron energy levels, whilst the
conduction band contains the lowest unoccupied electron energy
levels. The energy difference between the top of the valence band
and bottom of the conduction band is known as the ‘band gap’ (Eg).
In a conductor, there is no band gap as the valence band is not filled
completely - thus allowing the free movement of electrons through
the material. Insulators have very large band gaps which require
copious amounts of energy to cross – and as such, inhibits the
movement of electrons from the valence band to the conduction
band. Conversely, the band gap in semiconductors is relatively
small, enabling some electrons to move to the conduction band by
injecting small amounts of energy.
Figure 1: Energy bands for metals, insulators, and semiconductors.
This small band gap is what enables some semiconductors to
generate electricity using light. If a photon incident on the
semiconductor has energy (Eγ) greater than the band gap, it will be
absorbed - enabling an electron to transfer from the valence band
into the conduction band. This process is known as ‘excitation’.
With the electron now in the valence band, an unoccupied state is
left in the valence band. This is known as a ‘hole’, and behaves like
a particle analogous to an electron in the conduction band (albeit
with positive charge). Due to their opposite charge, the excited
electron and hole are coulombically bound in a state known as an
‘exciton’. This exciton must be split (also known as ‘dissociation’)
before the charge carriers can be collected and used. The energy
required to do this is dependent on the dielectric constant (εr) of the
material. This describes the level of screening between charges in a
semiconducting material and affects the binding energy of the
exciton.
Figure 2: Basic operation of a solar cell. a) A photon is absorbed by
the semiconductor, b) an electron is promoted from the valence band
to the conduction band, leaving a hole in the valence band. c) The
electron and hole are transported to electrodes to be collected.
In materials with high εr, excitons have low binding energies -
enabling dissociation to occur thermally at ambient temperatures.
Excitons in materials with low εr have high binding energies,
preventing thermal dissociation – thus requiring a different method
of dissociation. A common method is to get the exciton to an
interface between materials with energy levels that have an offset
greater than the exciton’s binding energy. This enables the electron
(or hole) to transfer to the other material, and dissociate the exciton.
Figure 3: Solar cell operation for a material with a low dielectric
constant. a) A photon is absorbed by material 1, generating an
exciton. b) The exciton diffuses to an interface with material 2
which has offset energy levels. Here, c) the electron (or hole)
transfers to material 2, and the exciton is split. d) Finally, the
charges are transported to the electrodes.
Once dissociated, the free charges diffuse to the electrodes of the
cell (where they are collected) – this is assisted by built-in and
applied electric fields. The built-in electric field of a device arises
from the relative energy levels of the materials that make up the cell.
However, the origin of the built-in field depends on the type of
semiconductor being used. For inorganic semiconductors such as
silicon, other materials are often added to the semiconductor (a
process known as doping) to create regions of high (n-type) and low
(p-type) electron density. When these regions are in contact, charges
will build up on either side of the interface, creating an electric field
directing from the n-type to the p-type region. In devices using
organic semiconductors, the built-in field arises from the difference
between the work functions of the electrodes of the device.
A solar cell (also called photovoltaic cell or photoelectric cell) is a
solid state electrical device that converts the energy of light directly
into electricity by the photovoltaic effect.
The following are the different types of solar cells.
Amorphous Silicon solar cell (a-Si)
Biohybrid solar cell
Cadmium telluride solar cell (CdTe)
Concentrated PV cell (CVP and HCVP)
Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells (CI(G)S)
Crystalline silicon solar cell (c-Si)
Dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC)
Gallium arsenide germanium solar cell (GaAs)
Hybrid solar cell
Luminescent solar concentrator cell (LSC)
Micromorph (tandem-cell using a-Si/μc-Si)
Monocrystalline solar cell (mono-Si)
Multi-junction solar cell (MJ)
Nanocrystal solar cell
Organic solar cell (OPV)
Perovskite solar cell
Photoelectrochemical cell (PEC)
Plasmonic solar cell
Polycrystalline solar cell (multi-Si)
Quantum dot solar cell
Solid-state solar cell
Thin-film solar cell (TFSC)
Wafer solar cell, or wafer-based solar cell crystalline
PRINCIPLE OF SOLAR CELL:
Conversion of light energy in electrical energy is based on a
phenomenon called photovoltaic effect. When semiconductor
materials are exposed to light, the some of the photons of light ray
are absorbed by the semiconductor crystal which causes a
significant number of free electrons in the crystal. This is the basic
reason for producing electricity due to photovoltaic effect.
Photovoltaic cell is the basic unit of the system where the
photovoltaic effect is utilised to produce electricity from light
energy. Silicon is the most widely used semiconductor material for
constructing the photovoltaic cell. The silicon atom has four valence
electrons. In a solid crystal, each silicon atom shares each of its four
valence electrons with another nearest silicon atom hence creating
covalent bonds between them. In this way, silicon crystal gets a
tetrahedral lattice structure. While light ray strikes on any materials
some portion of the light is reflected, some portion is transmitted
through the materials and rest is absorbed by the materials. The
same thing happens when light falls on a silicon crystal. If the
intensity of incident light is high enough, sufficient numbers of
photons are absorbed by the crystal and these photons, in turn,
excite some of the electrons of covalent bonds. These excited
electrons then get sufficient energy to migrate from valence band to
conduction band. As the energy level of these electrons is in the
conduction band, they leave from the covalent bond leaving a hole
in the bond behind each removed electron. These are called free
electrons move randomly inside the crystal structure of the silicon.
These free electrons and holes have a vital role in creating electricity
in photovoltaic cell. These electrons and holes are hence called
light-generated electrons and holes respectively. These light
generated electrons and holes cannot produce electricity in the
silicon crystal alone. There should be some additional mechanism to
do that.
SOLAR PANELS :-
Photovoltaic solar panels absorb sunlight as a source of energy to
generate electricity.
A photovoltaic (PV) module is a packaged, connect assembly of
typically 6x10 photovoltaic solar cells. Photovoltaic modules
constitute the photovoltaic array of a photovoltaic system that
generates and supplies solar electricity in commercial and
residential applications.
Each module is rated by its DC output power under standard test
conditions (STC), and typically ranges from 100 to 365 Watts (W).
The efficiency of a module determines the area of a module given
the same rated output – an 8% efficient 230 W module will have
twice the area of a 16% efficient 230 W module. There are a few
commercially available solar modules that exceed efficiency of
22%[1] and also exceeding 24%.[2][3]
A single solar module can produce only a limited amount of power;
most installations contain multiple modules. A photovoltaic system
typically includes an array of photovoltaic modules, an inverter, a
battery pack for storage, interconnection wiring, and optionally a
solar tracking mechanism.
The most common application of solar panels is solar water heating
systems.[4]
The price of solar power has continued to fall so that in many
countries it is cheaper than ordinary fossil fuel electricity from the
grid (there is "grid parity").[5]
CURRENT IN SOLAR CELL:-
A light-generated current: Generation of current in a solar cell,
known as the “light-generated current,” involves two important
processes. Absorption of incident photons to create electron-hole
pairs. Electron-hole pairs will generate in the solar cell provided that
the incident photon has an energy greater than that of the band
gap. However, electrons (in the p-type material), and holes (in the n-
type material) are meta-stable and will only exist, on average, for a
length of time equal to the minority carrier lifetime before they
recombine. If the carrier recombines, then the light-generated
electron-hole pair is lost and no current or power can be generated.
1. Collection of these carriers by the p-n junction prevents this
recombination by using a p-n junction to spatially separate the
electron and the hole. The carriers are separated by the action
of the electric field existing at the p-n junction. If the light-
generated minority carrier reaches the p-n junction, it is swept
across the junction by the electric field at the junction, where it
is now a majority carrier. If the emitter and base of the solar
cell are connected together (i.e., if the solar cell is short-
circuited), then the light-generated carriers flow through the
external circuit.
Photovoltaic effect: The collection of light-generated carriers does
not by itself give rise to power generation. In order to generate
power, a voltage must be generated as well as a current. Voltage is
generated in a solar cell by a process known as the “photovoltaic
effect.” The collection of light-generated carriers by the p-n junction
causes a movement of electrons to the n-type side and holes to the p-
type side of the junction.
SOLAR CELL CIRCUIT :-
Equivalent circuit of a solar cell
The equivalent circuit of a solar cell
The schematic symbol of a solar cell
To understand the electronic behavior of a solar cell, it is useful to
create a model which is electrically equivalent, and is based on
discrete ideal electrical components whose behavior is well defined.
An ideal solar cell may be modelled by a current source in parallel
with a diode; in practice no solar cell is ideal, so a shunt resistance
and a series resistance component are added to the model.[4] The
resulting equivalent circuit of a solar cell is shown on the left. Also
shown, on the right, is the schematic representation of a solar cell
for use in circuit diagrams.
Characteristic equation
From the equivalent circuit it is evident that the current produced by
the solar cell is equal to that produced by the current source, minus
that which flows through the diode, minus that which flows through
the shunt resistor:[5][6]
where
I = output current (ampere)
IL = photogenerated current (ampere)
ID = diode current (ampere)
ISH = shunt current (ampere).
The current through these elements is governed by the voltage
across them:
where
Vj = voltage across both diode and resistor RSH (volt)
V = voltage across the output terminals (volt)
I = output current (ampere)
RS = series resistance (Ω).
By the Shockley diode equation, the current diverted through the
diode is:
[7]
where
I0 = reverse saturation current (ampere)
n = diode ideality factor (1 for an ideal diode)
q = elementary charge
k = Boltzmann's constant
T = absolute temperature
the thermal voltage. At 25 °C, volt.
By Ohm's law, the current diverted through the shunt resistor is:
where
RSH = shunt resistance (Ω).
Substituting these into the first equation produces the characteristic
equation of a solar cell, which relates solar cell parameters to the
output current and voltage:
An alternative derivation produces an equation similar in
appearance, but with V on the left-hand side. The two alternatives
are identities; that is, they yield precisely the same results.
Since the parameters I0, n, RS, and RSH cannot be measured directly,
the most common application of the characteristic equation is
nonlinear regression to extract the values of these parameters on the
basis of their combined effect on solar cell behavior.
When RS is not zero, the above equation does not give the current I
directly, but it can then be solved using the Lambert W function:
When an external load is used with the cell, its resistance can simply
be added to RS and V set to zero in order to find the current.
When RSH is infinite there is a solution for V for any less than
:
Otherwise one can solve for V using the Lambert W function:
However, when RSH is large it's better to solve the original equation
numerically.
The general form of the solution is a curve with I decreasing as V
increases (see graphs lower down). The slope at small or negative V
(where the W function is near zero) approaches , whereas the
slope at high V approaches .
Open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current
When the cell is operated at open circuit, I = 0 and the voltage
across the output terminals is defined as the open-circuit voltage.
Assuming the shunt resistance is high enough to neglect the final
term of the characteristic equation, the open-circuit voltage VOC is:
Similarly, when the cell is operated at short circuit, V = 0 and the
current I through the terminals is defined as the short-circuit
current. It can be shown that for a high-quality solar cell (low RS
and I0, and high RSH) the short-circuit current ISC is:
It is not possible to extract any power from the device when
operating at either open circuit or short circuit conditions
ADVANTAGES :
Solar cells, sometimes called photovoltaic cells, convert energy
from the sun directly into electricity. Solar cells produce renewable
energy, and are durable, portable and low-maintenance. Introduced
in the 1950s, their first use was for communications satellites, and
they continue to provide power for many space-based applications.
On earth, growing numbers of large-scale solar “farms” generate
electricity, augmenting traditional power plants. Solar cells also
produce energy in remote settings, powering equipment far from the
nearest electrical outlet.
Solar Power Farms
United States government requirements including the Renewable
Portfolio Standards have mandated that electric utilities produce a
significant fraction of their power through renewable sources such
as solar energy. Facilities such as the Agua Caliente Solar Project in
Arizona produce electricity for local communities. When its final
phase is completed, the power plant will have more than 5 million
solar cells, producing a total of 290 megawatts of power. At the time
of publication, the United States has 9,360 megawatts of electrical
generating capacity from photovoltaic cells.
Off-Grid Power
In addition to producing electrical power for the commercial grid,
solar cells see wide use as an off-grid energy source. For example,
many traffic, emergency and construction road signs use solar cells
for power, reducing the need for gasoline-powered generators for
remote and mobile uses.
Rooftop Solar Panels
Many commercial and residential buildings have solar panels that
produce electricity; in most cases, the building gets its power
primarily from a conventional utility connection, but the solar cells
generate enough power to reduce the owner’s conventional electric
use and the associated electric bill. The solar panel connects to a
power management system that automatically switches to the utility
when solar power isn’t available.
Satellites
Communications satellites require an electric power source that is
lightweight, lasts for years, and works in the vacuum of space.
Because solar energy is abundant above the earth’s atmosphere,
photovoltaic cells have proved an ideal solution for powering
satellites. They generate electricity continually without the need for
battery replacements or fuel; this is a nearly-absolute requirement
for satellites, as their maintenance is impractical and prohibitively
expensive.
FUTURE SCOPE OF SOLAR CELL IN WORLD :
future solar energy will grow magically in india. reasons are
1. constantly diminishing non renewable energy source.
[Link] of electricity per unit will double in the near future.
[Link] demand for power is always on increase and it cannot be met
only by thermal,wind,hydro power plants because they are not
reliable.
[Link] solar energy is installed then for the next 25 years you no
need to worry about its maintenance and it constantly produces
energy since, by the gift of sun god in india we almost face 330
sunny days (is definitely more but considering a factor of safety)
5. It is a one time investment and the payback is within 7 to 8 years
max. so for the next 18 years u will produce ur own power at free of
cost.
[Link] per unit cost of electricity in the next 25 years (may be
Rs.50 )
7. So considering all these facts there is an increase in awareness
among indians both for domestic and industrialist purposes.
Solar power in India is a fast growing industry. As of 30 April 2017,
the country's solar grid had a cumulative capacity of 12.50 GW.
India quadrupled its solar-generation capacity from 2,650 MW on
26 May 2014 to 12,289 MW on 31 March 2017.
India’s plan to ramp up solar power generation to 100 GW by 2022
is among the largest in the world. It will help bring sustainable,
clean, climate-friendly electricity to millions of India’s people. The
World Bank Group (WBG) is helping India deliver on its plans with
more than $1 billion in lending over FY 2017. This is the Bank’s
largest-ever support for solar power in any country.
The WBG is also backing the India-led International Solar Alliance
which aims to promote solar use globally by mobilizing $1 trillion
in investments by 2030. The future of solar power and generation in
India is looking as bright as Sun.
1. India is blessed with a beneficial geographical location for
generating solar energy.
2. It receives solar radiation almost throughout the year, which
amounts to 3,000 hours of sunshine. This is equal to more than
5,000 trillion kWh. Almost, all parts of India receive 4-7 kWh
of solar radiation per sq metres.
3. Solar Power in India is a fast-growing Industry. As of 30 June
2017, the country's solar grid had a cumulative capacity of
13.11 GW.
4. India quadrupled its solar-generation capacity from 2,650 MW
on 26 May 2014 to 12,289 MW on 31 March 2017. The
country added 3.01 GW of solar capacity in 2015-2016 and
5.525 GW in 2016-2017.
5. With realising the scope, the Government is expanding its solar
plans, targeting US$100 billion in investment and 100 GW of
solar capacity (including 40 GW from rooftop solar) by 2022.
6. In January 2016, Prime Minister Narendra Modi and French
President François Hollande laid the foundation stone for the
headquarters of the International Solar Alliance (ISA) in
Gwal Pahari, Gurugram. The ISA will focus on promoting and
developing solar energy and solar products for countries lying
wholly or partially between the Tropic of Cancer and the
Tropic of Capricorn.
7. The Scope of Growth in Solar Industry not only lies in Solar
ground mounted and Roof Top Projects but also;
1. Solar Powered Water Heaters
2. Rural Electrification (through de-centralised Generation)
3. Solar Charging
4. Solar Powered Vehicles
5. Battery Banks for Storage.
6. Solar Pumps
8. These Industries not only reduce the Carbon Foot prints by less
usage of Fossil Fuel but also drive the Economy to Cleaner,
Greener and Energy Secure Nation.