 The definition of power quality has not been universally agreed upon.

 Very important aspect of power systems and electric machinery with direct impacts on efficiency,
security, and reliability.
 Power quality is generally meant to express the quality of voltage and/or the quality of current
and can be defined as: the measure, analysis, and improvement of the bus voltage to maintain a
sinusoidal.

1 Origins of Power Quality Problem

 Distortion sources can be divided into 3 categories.
1. Small and Predictable – Residential consumers generating harmonics
2. Large and Random – Arc furnaces generating voltage flicker
3. Large and predictable – HVDC transmission
 More than 60% of power quality problems are generated by natural and unpredictable events.
These include faults, lightning surge propagation, resonance, Ferro resonance, and
geomagnetically induced currents (GICs) due to solar flares.
 There are 3 main sources of poor power quality related to utility
1. Point of Generation
Power quality problems originating at generating plants which are mainly due to
maintenance activity, planning, capacity and expansion constraints, scheduling,
events leading to forced outages, and load transferring from one substation to
another.
2. The transmission system
Relatively few power quality problems originate in the transmission system.
Typical problems are, galloping, lightning, insulator flashover, voltage dips, HVDC
systems, FACTS devices.
3. Distribution system
Typical power quality problems originating in the distribution system are voltage
dips, spikes, and interruptions, transient over voltages, transformer energizing,
improper operation of voltage regulation devices, slowvoltage variations, power
line carrier signals.
 Customers create a considerable amount of power quality problems. Some problems are
harmonics generated by electronic devices, poor power factor (Due to highly inductive loads),
flicker, transients, improper grounding, misapplication of technology, wiring regulations and
other relevant standards.
 There two main sources of poor power quality related to manufacturing regulations.
1. Standards – Lack of standards
2. Equipment sensitivity – Rapid increase of sensitive electronic equipment is one
reason for increase in power quality problem
 In order to maintain the power quality,
1. The utility must design, maintain and operate the power system while minimizing the
power quality problem.
2. The end user must practice proper wiring, grounding practices and state of the art
electronic devices and
 3. The manufacturer must design electronic equipment that keep electrical environment
disturbances to a minimum and that are immune to abnormalities in power line.

2 Classifications of power quality issues

There are different classifications for power quality issues, each uses a specific property to categorize
the problem

 ANSI C84.1 uses duration of the event

 IEEE-519 uses the shape of the waveform (duration and magnitude)
 IEC standards use frequency range of the event to classify
 IEC 61000-2-5 uses the frequency range and divide the problems into three categories
1. Low frequency (<9 kHz)
2. High frequency (>9 kHz)
3. Electrostatic phenomena
 Each frequency range is divided into radiated and conducted disturbances
 Magnitude and duration can be used to classify power quality issues.
 Magnitude can be divided into 3 regions
1. Interruption – Magnitude is zeros
2. Under voltage – Magnitude is less than nominal value
3. Over voltage – Magnitude is greater than nominal value
 Duration of these events are divided into four categories,
4. Very short – 1-3 cycles
5. Short – 1-3 minutes
6. Long – 1-3 hours
7. Very long - > 3 hours

2.1 Main Phenomena causing power quality issues

 Conducted low frequency phenomena
1. Harmonics, interharmonics
2. Signaling voltage
3. Voltage fluctuations
4. Voltage dips
5. Voltage imbalances
6. Power frequency variations
7. Induced low frequency variations
8. DC components in AC networks
 Radiated low frequency phenomena
1. Magnetic fields
2. Electric fields
 Conducted high frequency phenomena
1. Induced continuous wave voltages or currents
2. Unidirectional transients
3. Oscillatory transients
 Radiated high frequency phenomena
 1. Magnetic fields
2. Electric fields
3. Electromagnetic fields
4. Steady state wave
5. Transients
 Electrostatic discharge phenomena
1. Nuclear electromagnetic pulse

2.2 Transients
 Power system transients are undesirable, fast- and short-duration events that produce
distortions.
 Their characteristics and waveform depend on the mechanism of generation and network
parameters at given point of interest
 Transients are categorize into two categories,
1. Impulsive
2. Oscillatory
 An impulsive transient is a sudden change in the frequency in the steady state condition of
voltage or current or both that is in unidirectional polarity.
 Impulsive transients are characterized by their rise time and decay time.[1]
 They can also be described by their spectral content
 For example, when an impulsive transient voltage is described as having a 1.2/50 waveshape,
1.2 expresses a measure of the rise time in microseconds and 50 expresses a measure of the
decay time in microseconds
 Most common cause of impulsive transient is lightning surge.
 Due to the high frequencies involved, impulsive transients are damped quickly by resistive
circuit elements[1]
 Impulsive transients can excite power system resonance and produce oscillatory transients.
 An oscillatory transient is a sudden change in frequency in the steady state condition in voltage,
current or both that includes both positive and negative polarity values.
 It is described by its magnitude, duration and spectral content (predominantly frequency).[1]
 As with impulsive transients, oscillatory transients are measured with or without fundamental
frequency component.[1]
 When characterizing the transient it is important to indicate the magnitude with and without
fundamental component.
 Oscillatory transient with a frequency component greater than 500 kHz and a typical duration
measured in microseconds are considered to be high frequency oscillatory transients. These are
almost always due to some type of switching event.
 High frequency oscillatory transient is often the result of a local system response to an impulsive
transient. [1]
 Transient with a primary frequency component between 5 kHz to 500 kHz with duration
measured in tens of microseconds is considered a medium frequency transient.[1]
  Transient with a primary frequency less than 5 kHz and a duration from 0.3 to 50 ms is
considered as a low frequency transient.[1] This phenomena is frequently occur in sub
transmission and distribution systems. Primarily due to capacitor bank energization.
 Oscillatory transients with principal frequencies less than 300 Hz also be found on distribution
system. These are generally associated with ferroresonance and transformer energization.
 Oscillatory transients occur due to various reasons such as appliance switching, capacitor bank
switching, fast acting over current protection devices and ferroresonance.

2.3 Short duration voltage variations

 According to IEEE 1159 classification there are three different types of short duration events.
1. Instantaneous
2. Momentary
3. Temporary
 Each category is divided into interruption, sag and swell
 Main cases of short duration voltage variations are fault conditions, large load energization and
loose connections

2.3.1 Interruption
 Interruption occurs when supply voltage reduces to less than 0.1 p.u for less than 1 minute
 Difference between long (sustained) interruption and interruption is supply has to restored in
long interruption. Supply is automatically restored in an interruption
 Interruption is usually measured by its duration.

2.3.2 Sags
 Sags are duration reductions of rms voltage between 0.1 pu and 0.9 pu.
 Duration of sag is usually between 0.5 cycles to 1 minute
 Sags are usually caused by energization of large loads, starting of large induction motors, single
line to ground faults and load transferring from one source to another.
 UPS and power conditioners are mostly used to prevent voltage sags.

2.3.3 Swells
 Increase of voltage between 1.1 pu and 1.8 pu is called swell.
 Mostly accepted duration of swell is 0.5 cycles to 1 minute.
 Swells are not common as sags.
 Swells are characterized by the magnitude and duration.
 Swells are caused by switching off a large load, energizing a capacitor bank or voltage increase
of the unfaulted phases during a single line to ground fault
 UPS and power conditioners are used to limit swells

2.4 Long duration voltage variations

 The deviation of rms value of the voltage from the nominal value for more than 1 minute is
known as long duration voltage variation
 The main causes of long duration voltage variations are load variations on the system and
system switching operations
  IEEE 1159 divide these events into 3 categories
1. Sustained interruptions
2. Under voltage
3. Over voltage.
 In a sustained interruption voltage drops to zero and does not return automatically
 According to IEC definition duration of a sustained interruption is more than 3 minutes.
According to IEEE definition the duration is more than 1 minute
 Duration and number of long interruption is an important characteristic in measuring the ability
of a power system
 Under voltage condition occurs when the rms voltage decreases to 0.8-0.9 pu for more than 1
minute
 Overvoltage condition occurs when the rms voltage increses to 1.1-1.2 p.u for more than 1
minute.
 There are 3 types of over voltages
1. Over voltages generated by an insulation fault, ferroresonance, faults with the
alternator regulator, tap changer transformer, or overcompensation;
2. Lightning over voltages
3. Switching over voltages

2.5 Voltage Imbalance

 Voltage imbalance occurs when voltages of a three phase system is not identical in magnitude
and /or phase difference is not exactly 120 degrees
 There are 2 ways to calculate the degree of imbalance
1. Divide the maximum deviation from the average three phase voltages by the average
three phase voltages
2. Compute the ratio of negative sequence component to positive sequence component
 Main causes of voltage imbalances are,
1. Unbalanced single phase loading in a three phase system
2. Overhead transmission lines that are not transposed
3. Blown fuses in a one phase in a three phase capacitor bank
4. Severe voltage imbalance which can cause from single phasing condition

2.6 Waveform distortion

 There are 5 types of waveform distortions
1. DC Offset
2. Harmonics
3. Inter harmonics
4. Notching
5. Electric noise

2.6.1 DC Offset
 Presence of DC voltage or current component in ac components
 Main causes of DC offsets are,
 1. Employment of rectifiers and other electronic devices
2. Geo magnetic disturbances
3. Half saturation of transformers
4. Generation of even harmonics
 Can lead to transformer saturation, additional heating and additional stresses on insulation.

2.6.2 Harmonics
 Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages and currents with frequencies that are integer multiples of
the power systems fundamental frequency.
 Main causes of harmonics are,
1. Industrial nonlinear loads – drives, rectifiers, inverters etc.
2. Residential loads with switch mode power supplies
 Effects of harmonics,
1. Mal operation of control devices
2. Additional losses
3. Additional noise
4. Telephone interference
 High pulse rectification, passive , active and hybrid filters and custom power devices can be used
to reduce harmonics

2.6.3 Inter harmonics

 Interharmonics frequencies are not integer multiples of fundamental frequency
 Can appear as discrete frequencies or wideband spectrum
 Main sources of interharmonics are static frequency converters, cycloconverters, induction
furnaces, and arcing devices, especially those whose control is not synchronized with the power
system frequency.
 Power line carrier signals can also be considered as interharmonics.

2.6.4 Notching
 Periodic voltage disturbances caused by line commutated thyristor circuits.
 Notching appears during normal operation of power electronic devices when the current
commutates from one phase to another.
 During this commutation period the two phases will be short circuited which reduces the line
voltage.
 The voltage reduction is depend on the system impedance.
 Notching is repetitive and can be characterized by the frequency spectrum. The frequency
spectrum is very high.
 Normally cannot be monitored by using equipment normally used for harmonic analysis.
 Properties of notching,
1. Notch depth - Average notch from sinusoidal waveform at the fundamental frequency
2. Notch width - Duration of the commutation period
3. Notch area - Product of notch depth and width
4. Notch position - Where the notch occurs at sinusoidal waveform
2.6.5 Electric Noise
 Unwanted electrical signals with broadband spectral content less than 200 kHz superimposed on
power system voltage or current in phase conductors, or found on neutral conductors or signal
lines.
 May result from
1. Faulty connections in transmission or distribution system
2. Arc furnaces, electrical furnaces, power electronic devices, solid state converters
3. Improper grounding,
4. Corona
 Noise problems are often worsened by improper grounding.
 Can mitigate using filters, line conditioners and dedicated lines or transformers.

2.7 Voltage fluctuation and flicker

 Systemic variation of the voltage envelop or random voltage variations, magnitude does not
exceed the specified voltage ranges.
 Divided into two categories
1. Step voltage changes - Regular or irregular in time
2. Cyclic or random voltage changes - Produced by changes in load impedance
 Voltage fluctuations degrade the performance of the equipment and cause instability in internal
voltage and current of the equipment
 If the voltage fluctuation is less than 10% it will not affect the equipment
 Voltage fluctuation cause by,
1. Pulsed power output
2. Arc furnaces
3. Resistance welders
4. Startup of drives
5. Load changes

2.7.1 Flicker
 Flicker is defined as continuous and rapid variation in the load current magnitude which cause
voltage variations.

2.8 Power frequency variation

 Deviation of the power system fundamental frequency from its specified value (50 Hz or 60 Hz)

2.9 Formulation and measures used for power quality

2.9.1 Harmonics
 If both the positive and negative half cycles of the waveform are identical the wave shape has
half wave symmetry and fourier series contain only odd components (harmonics).
 This is the usual case with power system voltage and currents.
 The presence of even harmonics is clue that there is something wrong either with the load
equipment or with the measuring transducer.
 Exceptions are, half wave rectifiers, arc furnaces and presence of GICs in the power system
2.9.2 Triplen Harmonics
 Odd multiples of third harmonic

2.9.3 Sub harmonics

 Sub harmonics have frequencies below fundamental frequency
 Due to fast control of computer power supplies inter and sub harmonics are generated in the
input current
 Resonance between harmonic currents or voltages with power system (series) capacitance or
inductance may cause sub harmonics. This is known as sub synchronous resonance.
 This may generate when the system is highly inductive or power system have large capacitor
banks.

2.9.4 Inter harmonics

 Frequency of interharmonics are not integer multiples of the fundamental frequency.
 Appear as discrete frequencies or as a band spectrum
 Main sources of interharmonics are static frequency converters, cycloconverters, computers,
induction motors and arcing devices.
 Interharmonics cause flicker, low frequency torque, mal functioning of protection relays and
temperature rise in induction motors.

2.9.5 Characteristic and uncharacteristic harmonics

 The harmonics of order 12k+1 and 12k-1 are known as characteristic and uncharacteristic
harmonics respectively.
 The amplitude is inversely proportional to the harmonic order.
 Filters are used reduce characteristic harmonics in power system
 If the AC system is weak or the operation is not perfectly symmetrical uncharacteristic
harmonics appear.
 It is not economical to filter uncharacteristic harmonics.

2.10 Form Factor

 Form factor is the measure of the shape of the waveform
𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆
𝐹𝐹 =
𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔

 For a sinusoid it’s average of one half cycle is used.

 As the harmonic content increase form factor will increase

2.11 Ripple Factor

 Measure the ripple content of the waveform
𝐼𝐴𝐶
𝑅𝐹 =
𝐼𝐷𝐶

2.12 Harmonic Factor

 Measure of individual harmonic contribution
 (ℎ)
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝐻𝐹ℎ = (1)
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠

2.13 Lowest order harmonics

 Harmonic component whose frequency is closest to that of the fundamental and its amplitude is
greater than or equal to 3% of the fundamental component

2.14 Total harmonic distortion

 Measure of the effective value of the harmonic components of a distorted waveform.
 Defined as the rms of the harmonics expressed in percentage of the fundamental component

√∑∞
ℎ=2(𝐼
(ℎ) )2
𝑇𝐻𝐷 =
𝐼 (1)
 5% is used as the dividing line between a high and low distortion level
 Advantages of THD are,
1. Used for a quick measure of distortion
2. Can be easily calculated
 Disadvantages of THD are,
1. Does not provide amplitude information
2. Detailed information of the spectrum is lost

2.15 Total interharmonic distortion

 Equivalent to THD.

√∑𝑛𝑘=1(𝐼 (𝑘) )2
𝑇𝐼𝐻𝐷 =
𝐼 (1)
 Where k is the number of interharmonics and n is the total number of frequency bins presented
in subharmonics (e.g – interharmonic frequencies that are less than the fundamental
frequency).

2.16 Total subharmonic distortion

√∑𝑠𝑠=1(𝐼 (𝑠) )2
𝑇𝑆𝐻𝐷 =
𝐼 (1)
 Where s is the total number of frequency bins below fundamental frequency

2.17 Total demand distortion

 Due to the mentioned disadvantages of THD, some standards (IEEE 519) defined the total
demand distortion.
 Distortion is expressed as a percentage of some rated or maximum value rather than as a
percentage of the fundamental current.
 √∑50
ℎ=2(𝐼
(ℎ) )2

𝑇𝐷𝐷 =
𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

2.18 Telephone interference factor

 Determine the influence of power systems harmonics on telecommunication systems.

2.19 Effect of poor power quality on power system devices

 Harmonics add to the rms and peak value of the waveform. This means equipment could receive
damagingly high peak voltages and may susceptible to failure. It may also force power system
equipment to operate in the saturation region generating additional harmonics.
 Generate excessive heat and noise.
 Distribution transformers may have to derate to avoid premature failure by overheating.
 Additional losses
 Failure of power system components and customer equipment due to unpredicted
disturbances.
 Malfunction of controllers and protective devices.
 Cause flicker at subharmonic level
 Harmonic instability
 Harmonic, subharmonic and interharmonic torques may rise.

3 Need for monitoring power quality

 Primary reason is economic
 Database of equipment tolerances and sensitivity can be developed using monitored data.
 Such a database can provide a basis for developing equipment compatibility specifications and
guidelines for future equipment enhancements. In addition, a database of the causes for
recorded disturbances can be used to make system improvements.
 Equipment tolerances need to be considered in power quality monitoring.

3.1 Effect on equipment by phenomena type

3.1.1 Transients
 Can result in degradation or immediate failure on all classes of equipment
 High magnitude fast rise time transients can cause insulation failure in electrical equipment like
rotating machines, transformers, switchgear, capacitors, cables and CT and PT.
 Impulse transients can pass through transformers and appear on the low side of the
transformer. They are not reduced by the turns ratio.

3.1.2 Short duration RMS variations

 Most common problem is equipment shut down which sometimes can happen due to an
instantaneous short duration phenomena
 Monitoring is important since it often difficult to identify which electromagnetic phenomena
caused the disruption.
 Modern devices provide diagnostics or “trip codes” but they are often misleading.
  Furthermore solution alternative is much different from other phenomena (eg – sags) than by
interruptions.
 Monitoring will enable the customer to determine energy requirement, duty cycle etc to
properly size the mitigation devices.

3.1.3 Interruptions
 Even an instantaneous interruption leads to a shut down.
 In some cases interruptions damage electronic equipment especially during abrupt voltage
recovery.

3.1.4 Sags
 Can cause numerous process disruptions.
 Often, the sag is sensed by electronic process controllers equipped with fault-detection circuitry
that initiates shutdown of other, less sensitive loads.
 Common solution is to serve the electronic controller with a constant voltage transformer to
provide adequate voltage during the sag.
 A power quality monitor will record a sag but the load might see an interruption.

3.1.5 Swells
 Might damage the equipment depending on the magnitude of the swell and frequency of
occurrence.

3.1.6 Voltage imbalance

 Even a low level imbalance can cause a significant power supply ripple and heating effects on
generation, transmission and distribution equipment.
 Voltage imbalances more commonly occur in individual customer load buses due to phase load
imbalances especially where large single phase loads are used.
 Overheating of customer motors and transformers can occur if the imbalance is not corrected.

3.1.7 Waveform distortion

 The harmonic current and voltage distortion can cause overheating of rotating equipment,
transformers and current carrying conductors.
 Furthermore it can cause premature failure or misoperation of protective devices and metering
inaccuracies.

3.1.8 Power frequency variation

 Slight frequency variation can cause severe damage to generator and turbine shafts due to the
large torques generated.

4 Measurement instruments
 Instrument features are dependent on the monitoring location and objectives.
 The type of monitoring equipment is based on the need to monitor. Generally
portable/handheld monitors are used to troubleshoot problems while permanently installed
equipment are used for monitoring longer terms system performance and reliability as well as
providing data when a power quality related problem occur.
4.1 Parameters to be measured
 Voltage and current are the primary two measurements.
 Once the voltage and current waveforms have been properly acquired digitized and stored
other parameters can be computed using suitable algorithms.


5 Power Quality Improvement Techniques

 Harmonics created by nonlinear loads propagates to other locations in the system and return
back to the source.
 Therefore harmonic current propagation produces harmonic voltages across the system.
 Many mitigation techniques are used to maintain the harmonics at favorable limits.
1. High power quality equipment design
2. Harmonic cancellation
3. Dedicated line or transformer
4. Optimal placement and sizing of capacitor banks
5. De rating of power system devices
6. Harmonic filters