Timeline of Key Events - Paper 1 - The Move to Global War

Italy and Germany 1933-1940

Revision Activities ​- Remembering the chronological order and specific dates is an

important skill in IBDP History and can help you to organise the flow of events and
how they are connected. Studied the timeline of key events below, taken from the
IBDP specification​, and test yourself often.

Italian Foreign Policy Events​ - ​German Foreign Policy Events​ - ​International

Responses to Italian and German Aggression

1861 17 March​ - Italy becomes a ​unified state​ leading to a resurgence in Italian

nationalism. The first Italian parliament, based in Turin, proclaimed ​Victor
Emmanuel II​ King of Italy. It would take until 1870 for Rome to be restored to
Italian control.

1871 18 January​ - Germany becomes a ​unified state​, with Wilhelm I of Prussia

crowned as German Emperor

1882 20 May​ - Italy joins ​Triple Alliance​ with Germany and Austria-Hungary

1889 Italy conquers ​Eritrea​ and S

​ omaliland

1892 14 August​ - The ​Italian Socialist Party​ (PSI) formed by F

​ ilippo Turati​, which
became the mainstream left-wing party by the 1910s, achieving its highest ever
election result in 1919 with 32% of the vote. The party split during WW1 over
disagreements about whether to enter the war.

1896 1 March​ - ​The Battle of Adowa​ sees Italy defeated in attempt to conquer
Abyssinia

1910 Benito Mussolini​ joins the Italian Socialist Party (PSI), becoming editor of its
newspaper Avanti!

1911 29 September​ - ​Italo-Turkish War​ begins as Italy seizes Libya

1914 June​ - ​Red Week​ occurs in Italy as widespread industrial unrest breaks out with
mass strikes, triggered triggered by the killing of three anti-militarist protesters.
4 August​ - ​World War One​ begins as Britain declares war on Germany after
Germany had declared war on Russia and France. On 3 August, influenced by
anti-Austrian nationalist sentiments, Italian Prime Minister ​Antonio Salandra
declared that ​Italy would remain neutral​, maintaining that the Triple Alliance had
only been a defensive alliance and Austria-Hungary had been an aggressor.
15 November​ ​- Mussolini sets up the newspaper ​Il Popolo d’Italia​ as a platform
for his political views, advocating ​militarism​ and ​irredentism​.
24 November​ ​- Mussolini is ​expelled from the Socialist Party​ and as editor of
Avanti! for his stance on the war. Mussolini had become increasingly outspoken in
his support for entry into war, claiming that war with Austria-Hungary would unite
 the nation and lead to social revolution, as well as completing the process of
Risorgimento​ by uniting Italians in Austria-Hungary into Italy.

1915 26 April​ ​- ​The Treaty of London​ is signed in secret with Britain, France and
Russia. Italy was promised major gains by the Entente, including the Tyrol,
Dalmatia, Fiume, Trieste and a protectorate over Albania. In return Italy was to
declare war on the Central powers within one month.
23 May​ - Italy enters the First World War by ​attacking Austria-Hungary​.

1917 24 October​ - Italy is defeated in the ​Battle of Caporetto​, leading to the collapse of
the Italian Second Army and the breakthrough of Austro-Hungarian forces. It was
Italy’s worst defeat and damaged the credibility of the government. Over 10,000
were killed, 30,000 wounded and 265,000 taken prisoner. The advance was only
stopped after French and British forces were sent to reinforce the line.

1918 24 October​ ​- ​The Battle of Vittorio Veneto​ begins which forced the collapse of the
Austro-Hungarian army, culminating in the ​Armistice of Villa Giusti​ on 3 November
which ended the war, leading to the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian state which
pressurised Germany into surrendering on 11 November.
9 November​ - ​Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicates​; ​Friedrich Ebert​, leader of the SPD,
takes over as Chancellor and Minister President of Prussia.
11 November​ - Germany signs an ​armistice to end World War One​. Italy had lost
over 600,000 men dead with a casualty rate of 39.1% of all its forces. Germany
had lost 15% of its active male population and a further 470,000 civilian deaths
due to food shortages and malnutrition. The impact of defeat led to a ​revolution in
Germany​. In Italy, victory only brought economic crisis and a two year period of
intense social conflict known as the ​Biennio Rosso​ which contributed to the rise of
the ​Fascist Blackshirt militia​.

1919 4 January​ - ​The Spartacist Uprising​ begins in Germany as the newly formed
Communist Party of Germany​ (KPD) and ​Independent Social Democratic Party
(USPD) launched a general strike in an attempt to seize power. The revolt is
eventually put down in violence by the ​Freikorps militia​ of ex-soldiers.
5 January​ - The nationalist ​German Workers’ Party​ (DAP) founded by ​Anton
Drexler​ in Munich. It would later be renamed the ​National Socialist German
Workers’ Party​ (NSDAP) in 1920 after Adolf Hitler joined the party.
23 March​ - Mussolini founds the ​Fasci Italiani da Combattimento​ (Italian Fasci of
Combat) in Milan through the merger of earlier fascist groups. The FIC created
fascist units called fascio di combattimento (The Fighting Group) which recruited
many disgruntled war veterans with its right-wing revolutionary rhetoric.
28 June​ - ​The Treaty of Versailles​ is signed by Germany. Germany loses 13% of
its territory and 10% of its population. Its army is limited to 100,000 men, banned
from having an air force, its navy restricted to 6 battleships, Anschluss with Austria
forbidden, 132 billion gold marks in reparations, all its colonies stripped and
blamed for the war. For Italy, the failure to secure Italian interests in Fiume and
Dalmatia led to the resignation of ​Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando​ on 23 June.
10 September​ - ​The Treaty of St. Germain​ gives Italy control of the Austrian
South Tyrol, Trentino, and Istria but Italy did not gain Fiume and Dalmatia as
expected, inflaming Italian pride and legitimising the nationalist argument of a
​ abriele D’Annunzio​.
‘​mutilated victory​’, a term coined by Italian nationalist G
12 September​ - ​Adolf Hitler​ joins the German Workers’ Party in Munich, quickly
 rising to become the Party’s most active orator and chief of propaganda.
12 September​ - ​The Fiume Affair​ occurs as nationalist ​Gabriele D’Annunzio​ leads
2,600 ex-soldiers to occupy the Yugoslavian port of Fiume by force, declaring it
annexed to the Kingdom of Italy. D’Annunzio and his legionnaires were forced to
evacuate in December 1920 after the Italian navy bombarded the city.
16 November​ - ​Italian general elections​ are held with the reigning liberal coalition
losing its majority as the ​Italian Socialist Party​ and the Catholic ​Italian People’s
Party​ gain the majority of votes. The lack of clear winner only served to
exacerbate social and political instability within Italy.

1920 10 January​ - ​The League of Nations​ formally comes into being as established by
Part I of the Treaty of Versailles.
24 February​ - ​The German Workers’ Party​ is renamed the ​National Socialist
German Workers’ Party​ (NSDAP) and adopts the swastika as its symbol.
13 March​ - ​The Kapp Putsch​ occurs as members of the Freikorps led by Dr.
Wolfgang Kapp​ attempt a coup in Berlin. The putsch failed after a general strike
was called by workers in the city. This in turn led to an ​uprising of workers in the
Ruhr​ which was only ended when ​President Ebert​ gave the army and Freikorps
permission to execute workers. The response to the Kapp Putsch splintered the
left-wing in Germany and angered the extreme-right, undermining the legitimacy of
the Weimar government.
15 June​ - Liberal statesman ​Giovanni Giolitti​ appointed Prime Minister in an
attempt to restore order and avoid civil war in Italy by forming a centre-right
coalition called the ‘National Blocs’.
9 November​ ​- ​The National Fascist Party​ (PNF) is established under the control
of Mussolini from the merger of the ​Fasci Italiani da Combattimento​ and other
nationalist groups. The PNF was supported by its paramilitary wing known as the
blackshirts​ or Voluntary Militia for National Security (MVSN) after 1923. They used
violence to attack socialists and other rivals of the PNF.

1921 21 January​ - ​Italian Communist Party​ (PCI) founded.

15 May​ - ​General elections in Italy​. 35 seats went to Fascists (PNF), 108 to
Catholic Party, 138 to Socialists and Communists. Giolitti’s ​National Bloc​ coalition
is defeated by the Socialists, with ​Ivanoe Bonomi​ appointed Prime Minister.
Mussolini wins election to the Chamber of Deputies for the PNF party.
28 July​ - Adolf Hitler elected party chairman of the ​NSDAP​, gaining the title
‘​Fuhrer​’ and establishing the ​Fuhrerprinzip​ which reorganised the Party into a top
down, highly centralised entity with Hitler as absolute leader.
3 August​ ​- ​The Sturmabteilung​ (SA) or Storm Detachment founded by Hitler.
Originally named the ‘Gymnastic and Sports Division’ of the party, they became
known as the Storm Detachment for their fierce defense of party meetings against
communist agitators. They would become the paramilitary wing of the NSDAP.

1922 26 February​ - Coalition government led by socialist Prime Minister ​Ivanoe Bonomi
collapses, being replaced by a weak coalition led by ​Luigi Facta​.
16 April​ ​- ​The Treaty of Rapallo​ signed between Germany and the USSR which
restored diplomatic and economic relations.
October​ - General strike called in Italy by the communists and socialists in an
attempt to oppose growing fascist influence. It’s failure triggered Mussolini’s March
on Rome.
16 October​ ​- ​The March on Rome​ begins as Mussolini meets with leading
 Fascists to agree on seizing power.
24 October​ ​- Fascist congress held in Naples, with 40,000 Black shirts declaring
their intention to march on Rome.
27 October​ - Fascist squads attempt to seize control of government buildings in
north and central Italy. Prime Minister Facta asks the King to declare martial law,
but after initially agreeing, the King changed his mind and sided with Mussolini.
30 October​ - Mussolini arrives in Rome and is appointed Prime Minister by ​King
Victor Emmanuel III​. Mussolini led a coalition government with only 4 out 12
cabinet posts being given to Fascists.
November​ - Italian government wins vote of confidence and voted in emergency
powers to reform administration and the tax system.

1923 11 January​ - French and Belgian troops ​occupy the Ruhr​ after Germany failed to
pay its ​reparations bill​ in 1922. In response, the German government ordered a
campaign of passive resistance. This required the government to continue to pay
striking workers by printing money. This exacerbated already high levels of
inflation with the German mark, creating ​hyperinflation​ which caused the mark to
plummet in value, wiping out savings and pensions, particular amongst the middle
classes.
February​ ​- The ​Italian Nationalist Association​ joins with Mussolini’s ​National
Fascist Party​ in Italy.
29 August​ ​- ​The Corfu Affair​ occurs as Italy invades Corfu after an Italian official
was killed on the Greek border with Albania. The League condemns the actions
and Mussolini agrees to withdraw due to British threats but secures payment of 50
million lire of compensation from the Greek government. Mussolini’s reputation is
enhanced.
November​ - ​The Acerbo Law​ is passed in Italy, stating that the party that won the
most votes in elections would automatically be given two-thirds of seats in
parliament provided they received over 25% of the vote. The remaining seats
would be shared out proportionally amongst the other parties.
8 November​ ​- ​The Munich Beer Hall Putsch​ is launched in Bavaria as Hitler
attempts to take over the regional government. Hitler was arrested and writes
Mein Kampf​ in jail at Landsberg Prison. He sets out his ideological and racial
vision for Germany based on ​Pan-Germanism​ and ​Social Darwinism​. He argued
that Germany needed more ‘​living-space​’ in Eastern Europe and that this would
involve dispossessing ‘inferior’ nations and people.

1924 27 January​ - ​The Treaty of Rome​ with Yugoslavia gives Italy the port of Fiume.
This emboldens Mussolini to further incite Croatian nationalism within Yugoslavia.
6 April​ - ​Italian General Elections​. Fascists increase their representation in
parliament from 7% to 65%, winning 374 seats in parliament. This returned
Mussolini as prime minister and the the National Fascist Party the largest in Italy.
10 June​ - Italian liberal ​Giacomo Matteotti​ murdered by ex-squadristi Fascists
eleven days after giving a speech in parliament condemning Fascist violence.
1 September​ - ​The Dawes Plan​ is implemented between the US and Germany,
providing Germany with a 800 million mark loan, a reorganisation of the
Reichsbank and the evacuation of foreign troops from the Ruhr. The measures
stabilised the German economy, leading to a short-term boom in the 1920s.
20 December​ - Hitler is released from ​Landsberg Prison​, having served less than
a year of his sentence.
1925 January​ - ​The Battle for Grain​ launched in Italy, imports reduced by 75% due to
increase in grain production.
3 January​ - Mussolini publically takes responsibility for the violence of the
Fascists following an ultimatum from the ​MVSN​ on 31 December for Mussolini to
act against growing opposition. This marked the beginning of his dictatorship as
laws restricting or cancelling democratic liberties soon followed.
21 January​ ​- Albania elects the Italian-sponsored ​Ahmet Zogu​ as President.
5 October​ - ​The Locarno Pact​. Mussolini demonstrates his commitment to the
European status quo by signing the Locarno Treaties which confirmed Germany’s
Western borders. This ushered in a new period of cooperation known as the
‘Locarno Spirit’.
9 November​ - ​The Schutzstaffel​ (SS) is created as Hitler’s personal protection
squad.
24 December​ - Italian Law on Powers of Head of Government gives ​Mussolini
significant executive powers, changing his formal title to Head of the Government.
Political parties and trade unions are banned and press strictly controlled. Elected
local officials replaced by ​appointed officials​.

1926 18 August​ ​- ​The Battle for the Lira​ is launched in Italy by Mussolini.
8 September​ - Germany, under the Chancellorship of ​Wilhelm Marx​ and Foreign
Minister ​Gustav Stresemann​, joins the ​League of Nations​.
27 November​ - ​The Pact of Friendship and Security​ between Italy and Albania,
with Albania becoming a de jure protectorate of Italy.

1927 June​ - Mussolini encourages Croatian separatists led by ​Ante Pavelic​ who wanted
to break away from the newly created state of Yugoslavia. The angered
Yugoslavia into signing a secret military pact with France on 11 November.

1928 2 August​ ​- ​The Italo-Ethiopian Treaty of Friendship​ with Abyssinia is signed,

increasing economic links and promising to refer all future disagreements to the
League of Nations.
27 August​ ​- Germany and Italy sign the ​Kellogg-Briand Pact​, committing member
states to renounce the use of war and the called for the peaceful resolution of
disputes.

1929 January​ - Mussolini encourages Macedonian separatists in Yugoslavia,

supporting the ​Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organisation​ (IMRO) in a
campaign of assassinations against Yugoslav officials, culminating in the
assassination of ​King Alexander I​ of Yugoslavia in 1934.
31 August​ ​- ​The Young Plan​ agrees to give further loans to Germany and new
reparation scheme established, giving Germany a further 50 years to repay.
3 October​ - The sudden death of German foreign minister ​Gustav Stresemann​.
24 October​ - ​The Wall Street Crash​. The US recalled all its loans and financial
support to Europe, causing the ​German economy​ to crash. Unemployment rose to
5 million by 1931 and 6 million in 1932. Farmers were hit particularly hard as food
prices fell, with industrial production declining by 50%. The Weimar government
was undermined as ​Chancellor Bruning​ struggled to tackle the crisis, calling for
elections in 1930 in order to increase his support. In ​Italy​, unemployment reached
2 million and industry collapsed, damaging Mussolini’s credibility.
December​ - France begins construction of the ​Maginot Line​, taking ten years to
complete and would cost over 3 billion French francs.
1930 14 September​ - In the ​Federal Election​, the Nazi Party gains 18.3% of the vote in
the Reichstag elections, winning 6 million votes and increasing their seats in the
Reichstag from 12 to 107. The Social Democratic Party remained the largest party
with 143 seats.

1931 13 November​ - The ​lstituto Mobiliare Italiano​ created in Italy to give financial
support to banks and industries. Also brought allocation of raw materials under
government control and increased nationalisations of key industries.

1932 24 January​ - After a 13 year campaign that saw countless war crimes committed
including the use of chemical weapons and concentration camps, the Italian
colony of ​Libya is pacified​ as declared by governor ​Pietro Badoglio​.
13 March​ - ​The Presidential Elections​ in Germany as Hitler loses against General
Paul Von Hindenburg​ but won 11 million votes (30%) in the first round of voting
and 13 million votes (36%) in the second round. This rise in popularity encouraged
the belief amongst conservatives that Hitler could be used by the elites as a
means to restore order.
1 June​ - ​Franz von Papen​ is appointed Chancellor in Germany after Heinrich
Bruning is removed from power.
31 July​ ​- In the ​Federal Elections​, the Nazi party gains 37% of the vote, becoming
the largest party with 230 seats. The SPD come second with 133 seats. 305 seats
were needed for a majority.
6 November​ - In the ​Federal Elections​, the Nazi vote drops to 33% and 196.
3 December​ ​- Defense Minister ​Kurt von Schleicher​ is appointed Chancellor. He
attempted to split the Nazi Party by opening talks with the left-wing of the Party led
by ​Gregor Strasser​. For this, he was killed during the Night of the Long Knives.

1933 30 January​ - Hitler is ​appointed Chancellor of Germany​ with the NSDAP gaining
three seats in the new cabinet: Hitler as Chancellor; ​Wilhelm Frick​ as Minister of
the Interior; and ​Hermann Goring​ as Minister of the Interior for Prussia.
27 February​ - ​The Reichstag Fire​ breaks out which is blamed on the Communists
by Hitler. ​The Decree of the Reich President for the Protection of People and
State​ is decreed by President Hindenburg which is used by the Nazis to suspend
freedom of the press, speech, and association. Leading communists were also
arrested and imprisoned.
5 March​ ​- In the ​Federal Elections​ the Nazis win 43.9% of the vote and 288 seats,
continuing as the largest party in the Reichstag, yet falling short of the 324 seats
needed for a majority.
24 March​ - ​The Enabling Act​ is passed, giving Hitler the power to pass laws
without the consent of the Reichstag. The Act was voted by ⅔ majority, with Hitler
gaining the support of the ​Centre Party​ and D ​ NVP​, and by preventing the
communists from taking their seats. Hitler used the act to ban all political parties
and trade unions, consolidating his power.
15 July​ - ​The Four-Power Pact​ (Quadripartite Pact) signed in Rome between Italy,
France, Germany and Britain. Under Mussolini’s influence, the Pact was designed
to increase the role of ‘Great Powers’ in international diplomacy at the expense of
smaller powers and was heralded as a success for Mussolini.
23 October​ - Hitler withdraws Germany from the ​World Disarmament Conference
at Geneva​, blaming the French for refusing to allow Germany to have parity in
arms. He also withdrawals from the League of Nations, calling it a French
‘conspiracy’ to keep Germany weak.
1934 26 January​ - A ​10-Year Non-Aggression Pact​ between Germany and Poland
signed. The Pact broke the French diplomatic encirclement of Germany by
drawing Poland away from its 1921 alliance with France. The Pact also
strengthened the British view of Hitler as a sensible international statesman.
25 July​ ​- ​The July Putsch​ occurs as Austrian Chancellor ​Engelbert Dollfuss​ is
assassinated by Nazi supporters. Italy sends 100,000 troops to its border with
Austria at the Brenner Pass to prevent Hitler’s attempts at Anschluss. Hitler
backed down. Dollfuss was replaced as Chancellor by the right-wing ​Kurt von
Schuschnigg​.
30 June​ - ​The Night of the Long Knives​ begins as Hitler purges the SA and other
leaders, with over 200 people killed including Gregor Strasser, Ernst Rohm, and
Kurt von Schleicher.
2 August​ ​- ​President Hindenburg dies​ - With the support of the army, Hitler
merges the offices of Chancellor and President, becoming Fuhrer of Germany.
Commander-in-chief ​Werner von Blomberg​ orders all members of the ​Wehrmacht
to take an ​oath of loyalty​ to the Fuhrer.
19 August​ ​- ​Plebiscite held​ asking the German public whether they approved of
Hitler merging the offices of President and Chancellor, with 90% agreeing.
18 September​ - The USSR joins the ​League of Nations​.
5 December​ - ​The Wal Wal Incident​ occurs as clashes between Italian and
Abyssinian troops on the border lead to the deaths of 30 Italians.

1935 13 January​ - ​The Saar Plebiscite​ occurs as 90.9% of the population in the Saar
votes to return to Germany from French control. Supervised by the League of
Nations, it was a triumph for Hitler and strengthened his position within Germany
and Europe.
16 March​ - Hitler publicly announces ​German rearmament​, reintroducing
conscription for over 500,000 men and revealing the existence of the Luftwaffe,
which had been strengthened in secret to over 2,500 planes.
14 April​ ​- ​The Final Declaration of the Stresa Conference​ is signed between Italy,
France and Britain, aiming to reaffirm the Locarno Treaties and confirm Austrian
independence. It was designed as a warning to Hitler. The ‘Stresa Front’ agreed to
prevent any future changes to the post-war European settlement.
18 June​ - ​The Anglo-German Naval Agreement​ is signed, breaking the Stresa
Front. Britain hoped to appease Hitler by agreeing to German naval rearmament
and did so without consulting France or Italy. Total tonnage of the Kriegsmarine
was limited to 35% of the total tonnage of the British Royal Navy.
31 August​ ​- First​ ​US Neutrality Act​ passed, stipulating that in a state of war, the
president was required to declare an arms embargo on all belligerents. This was
passed by isolationists in response to the brewing Abyssinian and Manchuria
crises.
15 September​ - ​The Nuremberg Laws​ were passed in Germany, stripping Jews of
German citizenship and banning relationships with Jews.
3 October​ ​- ​Italy invades Abyssinia​ with over 500,000 troops and support soldiers.
7 October​ - Council of League declares Italy to be an aggressor in Abyssinia and
sanctions are proposed on Italy by Canadian diplomat ​Walter Riddell​.
18 November​ - League imposes ​limited sanctions​ on Italy but were ineffective as
they did not include the sale of oil, nor did it close the Suez Canal to Italian
shipping.
10 December​ - The secret ​Hoare-Laval Pact​ offers Italy half of Abyssinia in return
 for an end to hostilities. The deal was withdrawn after the details were leaked to
the press, humiliating the British and French governments and undermining the
League of Nations.

1936 17 January​ ​- Mussolini informs the German ambassador, ​Ulrich von Hassell​, that
he no longer objects to Anschluss, marking a turning point in Italo-German
relations.
22 February​ - Mussolini agreed to German remilitarisation of the Rhineland in a
meeting with ambassador ​Ulrich von Hassell​, ending Italian support for the
Locarno Treaties.
4 March​ ​- ​The Franco-Soviet Mutual Assistance Treaty​ is ratified, which Hitler
argued violated the spirit of the Locarno Pact and was threatening to Germany.
Hitler uses this as a pretext for the remilitarisation of the Rhineland.
7 March​ - ​German troops march into the Rhineland​ whilst Britain and France do
nothing to stop him. This move is accompanied by a peace offer by Hitler.
5 May​ - Italy ​conquered Abyssinia​ with the capture of Addis Ababa. Emperor Haile
Selassie fled to Britain. Abyssinia became part of Italian East Africa with Eritrea
and Somaliland. The invasion came at a high price as the budget deficit rose to 16
billion lire, along with the cost of maintaining 250,000 troops.
11 July​ ​- ​The Austro-German Agreement​ is signed as Hitler and Austrian
Chancellor Schuschnigg promise non-intervention in Austria in return for Austrian
recognition of being a ‘German state’.
15 July​ - The League ​votes to end sanctions​ on Italy.
17 July​ - Italy and Germany intervene in the ​Spanish Civil War​ with Italy sending
over 70,000 troops to support General Franco, drawing Italy and Germany into
closer collaboration.
1 September​ ​- ​The Four Year Plan​ is introduced by Hitler, pushing the German
economy towards autarky and rearmament.
9 September​ ​- Britain and France setup the ​Non-Intervention Committee​ to
prevent personnel and materiel reaching warring parties in Spain.
25 October​ - ​The Rome-Berlin Axis Treaty​ signed by Italian foreign minister
Galeazzo Ciano​ and German foreign minister ​Konstantin von Neurath​.
5 November​ ​- ​The Hossbach Memorandum​ is compiled, Hitler outlines his
awareness that war with France and Britain was inevitable and that Germany
should prepare for war by 1943-45 at the latest. It mentioned that Germany should
aim to annex Austria and Czechoslovakia as first steps.
25 November​ - ​The Anti-Comintern Pact​ is signed between Germany and Japan
to combat Soviet influence.

1937 26 April​ ​- The German ​Condor Legion​ bombs the Spanish town of Guernica,
killing over 200 civilians
1 May​ - Third​ ​US Neutrality Act​ passed, stipulating that travel on belligerent ships
in times of war was unlawful. ‘Cash-and-carry’ rule also required belligerent
nations to pay in cash for all purchases and transport them on their own ships.
28 May​ - ​Neville Chamberlain​ becomes Prime Minister of Britain, seeking a more
conciliatory approach to Germany that would become known as ​appeasement​.
6 November​ ​- Italy joins the ​Anti-Comintern Pact​ with Germany and Japan, an
anti-Soviet alliance.
11 December​ - Italy withdraws from the League of Nations.

1938 4 February​ - ​The Blomberg-Fritsch Affair​ occurs as scandals involving Generals

 Werner von Blomberg and Werner von Fritsch are used by Hitler to replace them
with more compliant men. The duties of the Ministry of War were then transferred
to a new organisation called the ​Supreme Command of the Armed Forces​ (OKW)
led by ​Wilhelm Keitel​, which weakened the traditional army command, giving Hitler
de facto control of the army.
12 February​ - Austrian Chancellor Schuschnigg pressured by Hitler into ​signing
an ultimatum​. He returns to Austria and on 9 March announces a plebiscite on
independence scheduled for 13 March.
12 March​ - ​Hitler invades Austria​ to enforce Anschluss which is announced on the
13 March by Hitler after visiting his hometown of Linz. The Austrian army was
ordered not to resist. Austria became the province of Ostmark, and ​Arthur
Seyss-Inquart​ was appointed governor.
10 April​ - ​Austrian plebiscite on Anschluss​ confirmed by 99% vote.
24 April​ - ​The Karlsbad Programme​ is presented to the Czech government by
Sudeten German Party leader ​Konrad Heinlein​. It consisted of eight demands
including autonomy and special rights for the Sudeten Germans.
20 May​ - ​The May Crisis​ occurs as rumours of German military preparations on
the Czech border begin to circulate. As a result, the Czech government ordered a
partial mobilisation of forces, with Britain and France sending warning to Hitler.
Hitler was forced to deny the rumours, making it appear that he had backed down
to French and British threats.
5 September​ ​- With violence increasing in the Sudeten region, Czech President
Benes ​submitted the Fourth Plan​, agreeing to all the demands of the Sudeten
Germans for autonomy. Hitler told Heinlein to reject this proposal, deciding upon
war instead.
15 September​ ​- ​The Berchtesgaden Meeting​ occurs as British Prime Minister
Neville Chamberlain meets with Hitler to discuss the Sudeten issue. It is agreed to
transfer the Sudetenland to Germany in return for peace.
24 September​ - ​The Godesberg Memorandum​ is issued by Hitler insisting that
Hungarian and Polish demands for Czech land are also met and that German
troops can occupy the Sudetenland by 28 September. The Czechs and French
reject the demands. War seems likely.
29 September​ - ​The Munich Conference​ occurs Mussolini, Hitler, Chamberlain
and Daladier meet and sign the Munich Agreement. Sudetenland would be given
to Germany on 1 October, Poland to be given Teschen, Hungary given South
Slovakia, and all powers would guarantee the independence of Czechoslovakia.
Without any input, Czech President ​Edvard Benes​ was forced to resign. War is
averted.

1939 February​ ​- Mussolini announces his long-term programme of breaking out of the
‘prison’ of the Mediterranean to the Fascist Grand Council.
15 March​ - ​Hitler invades the rest of Czechoslovakia​, breaking the Munich
Agreement and going beyond simple treaty revision. Mussolini was not consulted.
Slovakia was made an independent state, whilst ​Bohemia and Moravia​ were
declared a protectorate of Germany.
18 March​ - British policy towards Germany changes, with Chamberlain
announcing that no reliance can be placed on any assurances by Nazi leaders.
20 March​ - ​Germany demands Danzig​ from Poland and Memel from Lithuania.
30 March​ - ​The Anglo-Polish Agreement​ is signed, with a British guarantee to aid
Poland in the event of an attack by Germany.
 2 April​ ​- Hitler declares the ​Anglo-German Naval Agreement​ and ​Polish-German
Non-Aggression Pact​ of 1934 to be null and void. Planning for ‘Operation White’,
the Nazi attack on Poland begins.
7 April​ - ​Italy invades its protectorate of Albania​ in a show of strength in an effort
to intimidate Yugoslavia. Over 100,000 troops and 600 aircraft are used. King Zog
fled to Greece and Tirana was captured on 8 April. On 12 April, the Albanian
parliament deposed King Zog and voted to unite with Italy in ‘personal union’.
15 April​ ​- Albania withdrew from the League of Nations and Mussolini declares
the official creation of the ​Italian Empire​. ​King Victor Emmanuel III​ is crowned King
of Albania.
22 May​ - Italy and Germany sign the ​Pact of Friendship and Alliance​ or Pact of
Steel military alliance. Its secret protocols were aimed towards a union of military
policies against Britain and France.
24 August​ ​- ​The Nazi-Soviet Pact​ is signed between Germany and the USSR.
Italy was only informed two days before the Pact. Each pledged to remain neutral
in the event of either nation being attacked by a third party. Its secret protocols
divided Northern and Eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of
influence. Poland was divided between the two.
25 August​ - ​The British-Polish military alliance​ signed, extending British military
cooperation with Poland in the event of war.
31 August​ ​- Mussolini proposes a conference to resolve the Poland issue.
1 September​ - ​Germany invades Poland​ at 4.45am, starting the European War
and Italy declares itself a non-belligerent.
3 September​ - Britain and France ​declare war on Germany​.
17 September​ - Soviet troops invade Eastern Poland.

1940 9 April​ - ​German troops invade Denmark and Norway​ in order to secure Swedish
coal and steel supplies.
10 May​ ​- ​Germany invades Holland, Belgium and France​ simultaneously, ending
the ​Phoney War​ in the West.
4 June​ - 330,000 British troops evacuated from Dunkirk in ​Operation Dynamo​.
10 June​ ​- ​Mussolini declares war​ on Britain and France.
22 June​ - ​France surrenders to Germany​ near Compiegne.
25 June​ - ​Armistice signed​ between Italy and France.
13 September​ - ​Italy invades Egypt​ from the Italian colony of Libya.
28 October​ - ​Italy invades Greece​ from Albania.

1941 11 March​ - The US​ ​Lend-Lease Act​ launched a programme for supplying Britain
and other allies with ‘surplus’ armaments in return for bases. Over $50 billion in
supplies were given, ending any pretense of neutrality.
6 April​ - ​German forces invade Yugoslavia and Greece​ in support of Italy
22 June​ - ​Operation Barbarossa​ begins as Germany invades the USSR.
22 June​ - ​Italy declares war on the Soviet Union​.
11 December​ - Germany and Italy declare war on the USA.