VI.

Environmental Issues
 VI. Environmental Issues

Physiographic Regions

For the purpose of this assessment, the conti- make up nearly 10 percent of the land in the con-
nental United States was divided into four tiguous 48 states. With minor exceptions, the
general types of physiographic regions, each of variance in elevation is less than 500 feet and for
which has certain specific characteristics and more than half of the Coastal Plains is less than
vulnerabilities to environmental damage. The 100 feet. This low topographic relief results in ex-
four physiographic regions are: 1 ) the Continental tensive marshy areas. Coastal marshes, estuaries,
Shelf which includes the broad, shallow gulf and near-shore waters are all considered part of
coast shelf, the steeper sloping Atlantic shelf, and the Coastal plains area. In contrast, the coastal
the narrow steep-edged pacific coast shelf; 2) the plain in California is narrow, limited by the
Coastal Plains adjoining the Pacific Ocean, Atlan- coastal mountains, and has a poorly developed
tic Ocean, and the Gulf of Mexico, particularly marsh system.1
those of California, Texas, and Louisiana; 3) the
The geologic formations are quite young,
Interior Basins, such as the Great Plains, Great
usually Cretaceus, Tertiary, and Quaternary in
Lakes, and the central valley of California; and 4)
age. These sedimentary deposits represent
the Rocky Mountains and other mountainous
various onshore, nearshore, and offshore environ-
regions.
mental depositions. The formations generally dip
gently seaward and outcrop in belts roughly
Continental Shelf parallel to the inner and outer edges of the
Coastal Plains.2
The Continental Shelf, a shallow, flat, sub-
merged land area at the margin of the continent, Although many coastal wetlands have been
slopes gently downward away from the designated as wildlife refuges and recreation
shoreline. The width of the shelf ranges from less areas, large parts of the Nation’s Coastal Plains
than 5 miles along portions of the southern are covered by major population centers. In the
California coastline, to a few hundred miles along arid Southwest, Coastal Plain inhabitants rely
parts of the gulf coast. The topography of a shelf heavily on local ground water supplies. The U.S.
is highly dependent on its location; the Atlantic Coastal Plains which have the potential for the
Continental Shelf is relatively flat and shallow greatest EOR activity are those of southern
compared to the deeper southern California bor- California, Louisiana, and Texas.3
derland which has a series of parallel steep-
walled ridges and subsea canyons.
Interior Basins
Hazards common to all Continental Shelf oil
recovery operations include tidal action, wave The Interior Basins include all land areas of the
action, storm waves, and collisions with ships. In United States except the mountainous areas and
addition, hurricanes in the gulf and Atlantic the Coastal Plains. Within the interior drainage
coasts, landslides and earthquakes in the basins, there are geologic basins which may con-
southern California borderland, difficulty of con- tain large quantities of oil entrapped beneath the
trol, and unstable bottom substrate pose further surface. Generally; the geologic formations are
hazards. older than those in the Coastal Plains.

Ichar[es B. Hunt, /%ys;ograph y of the United states, W.

Coastal Plains H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, Calif. 1967.
Zlbid.
The Coastal Plains along the Atlantic and gulf ~Enhanced 0;/ R e c o v e r y , N a t i o n a l petroleum COUIIC il,
coasts are as much as 100 to 200 miles wide, and December 1976.

91
92 . Ch. VI-Environmental Issues

Some EOR activity is expected to take place in the Rocky Mountains, particularly in Wyoming.
the Interior Basins, particularly those of the mid- These mountain areas offer diverse benefits to
continent and central California. Typically, the society since they are prime wildlife and recrea-
urban centers and farm areas of these basins de- tional areas; with their relatively high snowpack,
pend heavily on local ground water supplies. The they are frequently a major source of ground
ground water aquifers of these basins are water for adjacent plains. These generally are
recharged by local rivers and by runoff from bor- remote unpopulated areas, where direct EOR im-
dering mountains. pacts on the human population are limited but
where adverse impacts on the natural environ-
Mountain Ranges ment can be significant.

The mountainous areas are rich in timber and

minerals. Some EOR operations are anticipated in

Causes of Environmental Effects

The following elements and processes are considered: disposal of spent material;
common to all EOR methods: a recovery fluid; an consumption of site-associated natural
injection system; surface processing; and dis- resources; discharge emissions; fugitive
posal of spent materials. emissions; and off site supply and support
efforts.
The processes and the materials used within
the confines of the system pose no environmen- A simple matrix model was developed to com-
tal threat. Environmental problems result only pare the relative significance of environmental
when the materials are allowed to escape. The impacts from spills, well failure, reservoir leaks,
following mechanics may be responsible for such and operations from thermal, miscible, and
escape: chemical EOR methods in each of the four
1) Transit Spills—Spills which may occur physiographic regions. The matrix reflects a sub-
when material is being prepared at or jective assessment and relative ranking of the sig-
transported to the field site. nificance of potential impacts from negligible or
nonexistent (1), to potentially significant (4). The
2) Onsite Spills—Spills which may occur at values assigned on table 35 are comparable only
the field site from surface lines and/or when applied to a specific EOR process and en-
storage facilities. vironmental component such as thermal and air.
3) Well System Failure--Escape of materials Table 35 relates to potential hazards from each
which may occur from failure of the injec- EOR project by physiographic area. To suggest
tion or producing well due to casing leaks possible total impact of each EOR process, table
or channeling. 36 was developed. This matrix attempts to pre-
4) Reservoir Migration--Fluid may migrate dict the relative degree of development of the
outside of the confining limits of a reser- EOR method as a function of the physiographic
voir through fractures or through a well area. Should time and/or experience indicate
bore which interconnects reservoirs. different values, they could be substituted with-
out invalidating the matrix presented.
5) Operations —The effects caused by
routine activities and by the support By selecting the appropriate value from table
facilities and activities associated with 36 and multiplying it by the value for the same
EOR production. To determine environ- process and physiographic area on table 35, an
mental problems during operations, the estimate of the weighted environmental impact
effect of each of the following must be of any or all effects can be calculated. Table 37 is
 Ch. VI-Envionmental Issues . 93

- - v . l-- .-l-n - - - -

-
c
m
m
u
c
.5
- - - - l- l-!-m ~ - - m

- - - - - - - - . - - r

—
m

— —

—
m

o
5

—
94 . Ch. VI-Environmental Issues

the sum of each environmental component in a EOR projects may have the greatest potential for
physiographic area times the appropriate value environmental impacts and thermal the least, or
from table 36. After determining the value for the biota may be the most impacted and land the
each of the physiographic areas for an EOR proc- least. Sweeping conclusions should be drawn
ess, they are total led and the value transferred to with caution, however, because individual sites
table 37. and production conditions for EOR, and thus
possible environmental impacts, vary signifi-
The values in table 37 suggest possible relative
cantly from setting to setting.
environmental impacts. For example, chemical

Tabie 36
Potential Distribution of Environmental Impacts for Table 37
Enhanced Oii Recovery Cross Plot of Environmental Impacts for Enhanced Oil
Recovery
(Prediction of the Relative Degree of Development of the
EOR Method as a Function of Physiographic Areas) (This Model Cross Plots the Impact Matrix With the
Distribution Model To Obtain a Relative Analysis of the
Physiographic Area Total Process Impacts)
Continental ] Coastal I Interior I
Method Shelf Plain Basin Mountains Environmental Components
Method Air I Water I Land ! Biota ! Total
Thermal. . . 1 4 2 2
Miscible . . 1 3 3 2
Chemical. . 1 3 4 2
Chemical 50 112 50 117 329
SCALE UNITS: 1 - Improbable; 2- Negligible; 3- Moderate;
Total. . . . 178 258 132 272
4- Significant; 5- Extensive I I I 1 I

Potential Impacts on the Environment

There are at least seven media in which EOR coastal California. Surface water pollution is im-
operations could have environmental impacts: portant in areas with high surface runoff and at
air, surface water, ground water, land use, seismic sites adjacent to surface water bodies. Noise is a
disturbances and subsidence, noise, and biologi- concern in both urban and open areas, although
cal and public health. While each of the four natural ecosystems differ widely in their sen-
physiographic regions can experience environ- sitivity to noise.
mental repercussions in these seven media, cer-
The matrix described previously attempts to
tain types of impacts will be far more important
identify the physiographic regions most likely to
in some regions than in others. For example, air
experience each type of environmental impact.
pollution is a concern primarily in urbanized por-
The most likely means of generating these im-
tions of the Coastal Plains and in Interior Basins
pacts are discussed below. Although some effort
where air quality is already in violation of Clean
is made to quantify these impacts, it is not possi-
Air Act standards. 4 Similarly, land-use conflicts
ble to do so precisely with the data available.
arise in heavily populated areas where land
values tend to be high and multiple-potential
uses exist for a given parcel of land. Ground Air Quality Impacts
water use and pollution is a grave concern in
areas where ground water is a principal compo- While all EOR methods (thermal, miscible, and
nent of the water supply, such as in central and chemical) can cause air pollution, thermal
methods are most likely to generate air pollution
i~onicoring and Air Quality Trends Re~orf, U.S. Environ- impacts. Steam and hot-water flooding rely on
mental Protection Agency, Office of Air and Waste Manage- steam generators. These generators usually use
ment, 1976. the fuel supply available on location (oil being
 Ch. VI-Environmental Issues . 95

the most common fuel source), and emit sulfur lower because of better combustion regulation
d i o x i d e ( S 02 ), oxides of nitrogen (NO X ), hy- and more efficient burner designs
drocarbons, carbon monoxide (CO), carbon diox- Table 38
ide (CO2 , and other combustion products from Emission Factors for Fuel Oil Combustion
exhaust pipes, In situ combustion can release (Pounds Emitted per 1,000 Gallons Burned)
these same compounds as fugitive emissions and
as exhaust from high volume air compressors.
These types of impacts from thermal EOR ac-
Aldehydes, ., . . . . . . . . 1 1 2
tivities are likely to be localized and to be signifi-
Hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . 2 3 3
cant primarily in areas that are already in viola- 4 5
co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
tion of, or are near the limits of, the Federal Am- NO X (as NO . . . . . . . .
2 105 40-80 12
bient Air Quality Standards. In addition, NO X SO* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 S* 157 s“ 142 S*
released together with hydrocarbons escaping Particulate . . . . . . . . . . 8 23 10

from the oil production process constitute a mix- s ● = Percent sulfur in oil
ture with the potential to generate oxidant far
Steam generator emissions in pounds emitted
downwind from the point of release. Further,
per 1,000 barrels of oil produced can be calcu-
nondegradation requirements may become im-
lated from table 38 using the values given for
portant in remote areas.
residual oil. The results of this calculation are
The following sections discuss the mecha- given in table 39. Estimates in table 39 are based
nisms by which air quality impacts are generated on the consumption of 0.3 barrel of oil for every
and attempts to assess environmental air quality 1.0 barrel of gross production. This level of con-
effects of various EOR methods in the four sumption approximates commercial-scale steam
physiographic regions. The impact estimates are generator operations in the San Joaquin Valley in
based on data which are now available. As more California. The emission factors presented in ta-
data become available, more meaningful pro- ble 39 are estimates only and do not necessarily
jections of air pollution impacts will be possible. portray accurate emissions of in-field EOR steam
generators. The figures in the table can be linearly
Air Pollution Impacts of
scaled to account for variations in consumption.
Thermal Recovery Methods
Recently, there has been serious consideration
Although some estimates of the air pollutant
of use of coal as an inexpensive fuel to provide
emissions from steam flooding projects are
steam for thermal recovery, including use in
available, there are very few quantitative data.
California. Use of coal could cause somewhat
Estimates of air pollution impacts of steam flood-
higher emissions in every category.
ing can be made if both the amount of fuel to be
burned and the emissions per unit volume of the Table 39
fuel burned are known. Emissions from the oil Steam Generator Emissions
[Pollutants Emitted per 1,000 Barrels of Gross Oil Produced)
production, (i.e., hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulfide
Hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Ibs
(H2S), and other emissions escaping from the pro-
SO* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,OOO Ibs
duction wells), are in addition to these exhaust
NO,. . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800 Ibs
gases. Particulate. , , , ... , , ... , ., ... , . . . . . 280 Ibs
Emission factors for fuel oil combustion are ● For crude containing 2 percent sulfur, without flue gas desulfuriza-

shown on table 38. Most thermal EOR processes tion.

will burn fuel oil or comparable petroleum prod- NOTE: This table assumes that 0.3 barrel of fuel oil IS burned for ev-
ery 1.0 barrel of gross production. Due to a shortage of data,
ucts and will fall into the residual oil classifica- fugitive emissions are excluded for the analysis.
tion. The powerplant classification would apply
only to the largest boilers used in EOR. Oxides of
‘j. A. Eldon and J. A. Hill, “Impacts of OCS Oil Develop-
nitrogen (NOX ) emissions from powerplants and
ment on Los Angeles Air Quality, ” In Southern California
other large sources are higher because of the Outer Continental Shelf Oil Development: Analysis of Key
higher combustion temperatures encountered, /ssues, U. C.L.A. Environmental Science and Engineering
while hydrocarbon and particulate emissions are Program, Los Angeles, Calif., 1976.
 96 . Ch. V/—Environmental Issues

The new performance standards for fuel oil total emissions of Los Angeles County, Extensive
combustion were not used in making this calcula- exhaust gas scrubbing, consumption of low-sulfur
tion because oilfield steam generators rarely ex- fuel oil, and reduced scale of operation would be
ceed the 250 million British Thermal Units (Btu) necessary in order to reduce S02 emissions to ac-
per hour capacity covered by these regulations. ceptable levels. Although these processes could
reduce the emissions to lower levels, the result-
A probable density of steam generators, and a
ant emissions will still be significant, at least on a
level of steam generation required for a given
local scale, since they are released into a heavily
well production rate, must be considered in order
polluted airshed. Furthermore, they are released
to estimate the overall pollution impact of a
from a relatively small source area by comparison
steam flood project.
with the entire county, and could produce sub-
The total emission rates from a field can be stantial impacts along a downward trajectory
calculated using data in table 39. The resulting over a heavily populated region.
emission estimates can then be used in the
evaluation of the impact of steam flood EOR on Emissions from in situ combustion are highly
any specific region. As an example, the dependent on the oil formation, the type of
Wilmington Oil Field produced 67 million barrels crude oil, and the manner in which the project is
of crude oil in 19736 by primary production; the operated. The high density of the crude oil in
field may eventually be a candidate for EOR. California and low economic returns experienced
Steam flooding may be applicable due to the low thus far indicate a low potential for in situ com-
American Petroleum Institute (API) gravity (high bustion, even though most oilfields in California
density) and high viscosity of California crude, can be spontaneously ignited by unheated air in-
and the considerable thickness of the oil-bearing jections alone. To date, there are very few data
stratum. The production of 30 million barrels per available regarding the emissions from in situ
year by steam flooding (a potential for the combustion projects. It is anticipated that in
Wilmington field) would involve the combustion order to meet air-quality pollution-control stand-
of some 9 million barrels per year of fuel in the ards, especially in some areas of southern Califor-
field steam generators. With the emission factors nia, gas collection and treatment systems will be
developed above, this combustion rate corre- required,
sponds to the air pollutant emissions rate given in
In situ combustion and steam flooding are ex-
table 40.
pected to have the greatest air-quality impacts in
Table 40 regions of low inversions, low wind speeds, and
Projected Emissions from Steam Flooding of a Major already polluted air, such as California’s coastal
Oil Field Compared to Los Angeles County Emissions
plains and central valley. In remote mountainous

Pollutant I Emissions from a 3 0

million bbl/year field I Los Angeles
County Total
regions, if background air quality is generally
good and meteorological dispersion is favorable,
NO X . . . . . . . . 32 tons/day 1,000 tons/day a smaller impact may be expected. It should be
Particulate . . 12 tons/day 120 tons/day
noted, however, that high mountain valleys often
so 2 . . . . . . . . . 81 tons/day* 300 tons/day
Hydrocarbons. 2 tons/day 1,000 tons/day
experience severe inversions and air stagnation.
Furthermore, nondegradation standards may ap-
*An 011 sulfur content of 2 percent was assumed
ply for mountainous recreational areas. Thus air
Table 40 also shows the total current emis- pollution impacts cannot be disregarded for such
sions for Los Angeles County. Enhanced oil areas. While light air-pollution emission over the
recovery emissions calculated for this example, Continental Shelf would normally be considered
with the exceptions of hydrocarbons and oxides inconsequential, there are areas in which these
of nitrogen, would be a significant fraction of the emissions must be carefully controlled, as in the
southern California borderland. Any emissions
6Ca/jfornja 0;/ and Cas F;elds, Vol. 2, cat Ifornla Division released there have a high probability of being
of Oil and Gas, Report No. TR12, 1974. transported to shore, where they will contribute
 Ch. V/—Environmental Issues ● 97

to an already serious air pollution problem. 7 D u e to quantify without detailed information con-
to the low thermal and mechanical turbulence of cerning concentrations of H 2 S and C0 2 t h a t
air over water, dispersion of air pollutants over would be emitted from gas injection recovery
water is much slower than over land. 8 The Atlan- projects.
tic coast is just the reverse of the California situa-
Because there has been considerable concern
tion in that the prevailing winds are from the
and a large degree of misunderstanding about
west, so that emissions generated along the coast
H 2 S and its potential safety and health threat to
usually would be transported out over the Atlan-
humans, the environment, and to equipment,
tic Ocean. The gulf coast tends to be a combina-
further discussion is warranted. Concern has been
tion of the Atlantic and Pacific coast situations;
generated to a large degree from an incident that
depending upon the time of the year, the prevail-
occured at Denver City, Tex., in 1975, which
ing wind direction can be either from the north or
resulted in nine fatalities. Hydrogen sulfide is
the south.
toxic, flammable, explosive, corrosive, and may
be naturally present in reservoirs. The concentra-
Air Pollution Impact of
tion of H2 S which constitutes a harmful quantity
Miscible Flooding Recovery Methods
depends upon the subject being considered,
Because miscible flooding does not involve whether humans, the environment, or equip-
high rates of either fuel combustion or in situ ment. Therefore, regulations have been adopted
combustion, it is probable that C0 2 injection will by various governmental agencies to require all
have a much smaller air-quality impact than will stages of H2S operations to conform to safety and
the thermal methods discussed earlier. However, environmental standards. 9 Smith, the principal
if hydrogen sulfide (H2 S) is injected into a reser- author of Texas Rule 36 which regulates this in-
voir and subsequently escapes, poisoning of jection method, states that a dangerous condi-
humans and wildlife could result. There have tion would prevail if leaks of a certain volume ex-
been instances of this in the past. However, it is ist, weather conditions complimentary to gas
very unlikely that H2 S will be used as a primary cloud ground accumulation exist, and persons
constituent in any future major gas injection proj- unaware of the situation are present.10 Texas Rule
ects. Carbon dioxide is nontoxic, but capable of 36 and regulations adopted by other States have
causing suffocation if concentrations are high been formulated to prevent the above conditions
enough. It will most likely be obtained from in- from occurring. Hydrogen sulfide emission can be
dustrial activities (coal gasification), or natural associated with normal oil production and is not
reservoirs. The main air pollution impact resulting necessarily complicated by any of the EOR proc-
from C02 recovery methods will be the release esses, although the amounts encountered would
of hydrocarbons and H 2 S from formations into be amplified by increased production. Therefore,
which C0 2 is injected. An important air quality while the H2 S problem exists for oil production in
concern is that C0 2 combined with H2 S in a gas general, excessive concern for magnified H$
mixture might have inadequate buoyance to dis- problems related to EOR is unwarranted.
perse quickly, With the reduced buoyance, H2 S
remains concentrated at ground level long
enough to pose a threat to human and animal life Air Pollution Impacts of
because of its toxicity. Such effects are difficult Chemical Recovery Methods
Chemical recovery methods do not produce
7J. A. Eldon and J. A. Hill, “Impacts of OCS Oil Develop- emissions during application. Any air quality
ment on Los Angeles Air Quality, ” In Southern California emissions from chemical EOR methods would be
Outer Continental Shelf Oil Development: Analysis of Key
/ssues, U. C.L.A. Environmental Science and Engineering
Program, Los Angeles, Calif., 1976. ‘Enhanced Oil Recovery, National Petroleum Council,
Ep. Michael, C, S, Raynor, and R. M. Brown, “Atmospheric December 1976.
Dispersion from an Offshore Site,” in Physical Behavior O f IOC. D. Fhrhardt, Jr., “Environmental and Safety Regula-
Radioactive Contaminants in the Atmosphere, p. 91, interna- tions In Sour Gas and Crude Operations, ” in Society of
tional Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 1974. Petroleum Engineers of AIME Paper Number SPE 5191, 1974.
98 . Ch, VI-Environmcnldl Issues

indirect, in that they would occur from the pro- characteristics and previous development of a
duction of various chemicals and the power reservoir. Geographic location, reservoir depth,
generation required in the pumping process. In and condition of the wells are factors which
the case of the chemicals, air pollution impacts determine the potential adverse impacts of EOR
from production plants are already covered by activity on the hydrologic environment. The main
existing air quality control regulations. Some light environmental impact on the surface waters will
hydrocarbons, ethers, or alcohols are expected to be the actual consumptive use of the water. In
be used in chemical recovery methods. These semiarid areas, water may be required which is
would presumably be derived from petroleum now being used for agriculture or other purposes.
refineries whose air pollution emissions are of
Of the three EOR methods considered, chemi-
concern, but these may not be new emissions
cal methods have the greatest potential for ad-
arising solely from EOR. If EOR were not utilized,
verse impacts on surface water resources because
the same refineries would very possibly manufac-
water consumed (fresh water) 1 ) would be equal
ture other petrochemical products from the same
to or greater than for miscible or thermal EOR
raw materials. Therefore, the air pollution im-
methods used, and 2) spills of concentrated
pacts of the chemical recovery methods “will be
chemicals would be environmentally more detri-
secondary in nature and covered by existing EPA
mental to water supplies than spills or emissions
State regulations.
from other EOR processes. The likelihood that
well failures or reservoir leakage due to break-
Surface Water down of the reservoir would lead to contamina-
tion of surface waters is considered to be
Enhanced oil recovery methods will require minimal.
significant quantities of water over and above
The environmental effects on surface water of
primary recovery methods. It is anticipated that
thermal EOR methods will be greater than those
the EOR fresh water requirements would be high-
of miscible methods but less than those from
er than the demand in present techniques of
chemical processes. As with chemical EOR
waterflooding. A review of the literature did not
methods, fresh water consumption in routine
provide firm data on the amount of water re-
operations will have the greatest impact on the
quired for EOR. In order to quantify the water re-
environment. Past experience has shown that
quirement, it is assumed in this assessment that
spills, well fractures, and reservoir leakage are in-
one to six barrels of fresh water is needed for
frequent and basically nondetrimental during
each barrel of oil recovered, This quantity of
thermal EOR operations.
water consumption would have a greater effect
on the environment in most regions than any Miscible EOR methods will have the smallest
other EOR impact. environmental effect on surface water. As with
the previous two methods, the quantities of
As shown in figure 14, California, Texas, and
water consumed in this EOR process—which
western Louisiana are areas where water use is
presumably would be diverted from farming and
high and supplies short.11 In fact, severe short-
other activities —would constitute the greatest
ages are predicted by the year 2000. Although
environmental impact.
large quantities of water are required for EOR, the
environmental impact on surface waters from Surface water requirements will be largest for
EOR activities is anticipated to be only slightly EOR activity in the Interior Basins, smaller in the
greater than that from secondary recovery Coastal Plains, and smallest on the Continental
(waterflood) methods. The extent of hydrologic Shelf where few EOR projects are expected to oc-
environmental effects will depend upon the cur.

Within the Continental Shelf area, it is antici-

I lwater Information Center Publication, Water Atlas of pated that routine operations would cause the
the United States, Water Information Center, Inc., Port most environmental damage. Chemical spills,
Washington, N. Y,, 1973. well failure, and reservoir leakage are thought to
 Ch. VI—Envfronmental Issues ● 99

i’

%.

I ’ y - !’

1 0
-
100 . Ch. V/-Environmental Issues

be the only mechanisms by which environmental waterfloods and operators could be expected to
effects would occur other than those which are a take additional precautions to prevent loss of
part of routine operations. these fluids during the EOR process.

On the Coastal Plains, consumptive water use As with surface waters, use of water from
would frequently have the greatest environmen- aquifers for EOR operations could put a strain on
tal impact from EOR production. One exception freshwater supplies in areas where reserves were
to this would be chemical spills which could oc- limited. In areas where the rate of consumption
cur in this environmentally sensitive phys- exceeds the rate of recharge, the impacts would
iographic area. Thermal EOR methods might have be severe. Recent field tests indicate that brine-
a slightly greater environmental impact than tolerant EOR processes are feasible, and could
miscible EOR methods. For regions where air significantly reduce the impact of EOR operations
quality already is poor, of course, air pollution on freshwater aquifers if used.
impacts from thermal methods could be substan-
tial.
Land Use
Interior Basins would most likely be affected
by chemical EOR methods. Miscible EOR The impact of EOR operations on land use will
methods would have the least environmental im- not be significant. Additional surface facilities re-
pact of the three EOR methods. Almost without quired for EOR activities will be relatively small,
exception, the greatest environmental effect on even for large projects. Relatively few additional
the Interior Basins would be water use. As with flow lines and pipelines will be needed outside
the Coastal Plains, the Interior Basins could also of the reservoir area, except in the case of C0 2
experience a significant environmental impact injections. Where large quantities of C02 are re-
from chemical spills, primarily in transit to the in- quired, pipelines will be required to deliver
jection well sites. The mountainous geographic economically the C02 to the project sites. Con-
areas might be relatively less affected even struction of these pipelines poses potential en-
though they are environmentally sensitive areas. vironmental hazards.

For some EOR projects additional wells will be

Ground Water drilled, and redrilling of wells will occur in older
fields. These activities will cause minor distur-
potential for ground water contamination bances for short periods but no long-term im-
resulting from fluid injections associated with pacts will be evident, provided care is taken in
EOR operations appears minimal. This conclusion the field development.
is supported by the lack of ground water con-
tamination problems associated with conven-
tional waterfloods. Only 74 ground water injec- Geologic Hazards
tion problems resulted from operating 44,000 in-
jection. wells in Texas between 1960 and 1975 Potential geologic hazards connected with
(an incidence rate of 1.1/10,000 per year); only 3 EOR methods are subsidence and possible
of these occurred during the last decade (an inci- seismic activity. A great deal of subsidence data
dence rate of .02/10,000 per year). Similar safe associated with primary oil recovery have been
operating records exist in the other major oil-pro- collected in the Long Beach, Calif., area.12 When
ducing States with large numbers of waterfloods. compared with primary recovery methods, it is
Because EOR injection operations are basically anticipated that subsidence actually will be
the same as waterfloods, often using the same in- reduced during EOR operations. The reason for
jection wells in the same formations, an increase this reduction is that fluids will be left in the
in the rate of ground water contamination is not
expected. In fact, it is anticipated that the safety IZM. N. Mayuga, and D. R . A l l e n , “Long Beach Subsid-

record will improve because EOR injection fluids ence,” Focus on Environmental Geology, R. W, Pank, Ox-
are more costly than the water now used in ford University Press, New York, N. Y., p. 347, 1973.
 Ch. Vi–-Environmental Issues . 101

reservoir after the oil is removed, except when in problems, most can be adequately addressed and
situ thermal methods are used. avoided.

There has been some research relating seismic Many areas where EOR activities would take
activity to the use of secondary recovery place have already undergone primary and sec-
methods. Results of this research imply that ondary development, and environmental impacts
seismic activity will not be increased by EOR will therefore not result from EOR activities
methods. The Rocky Mountain Arsenal near alone. Some of the potential impacts are com-
Denver, Colo., conducted deep well injections mon-to all processes, while others are the result
which resulted in an increase in seismic activity of or dependent upon a particular process. Table
i n t h e D e n v e r A r e a13 I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d , 41 identifies the activities that might be expected
however, that these injections were generally to create biological impacts.
made into deep crystalline rock which did not or-
Table 41
dinarily contain fluids. Injected fluid acted as a Potential Biological Impacts Resulting From EOR
lubricant to the existing stress zone which is
Process - Independent Impacts
believed to have caused the increased seismic
Consumption of water
activity. Obviously, oil recovery from reservoirs New well drilling (land-use/habitat impacts)
would not be considered analogous to the Rocky Extended time frame of activities
Mountain Arsenal situation. Pipeline to provide water
Increased refinery effluents

Noise Process - Dependent Impacts

Thermal: Air emissions
Cooling and consumptive water use
Although the compressors and other equip- Energy source
ment used in EOR generate high levels of noise, it Miscible: Air emissions
is unlikely that this noise will cause any serious Pipeline and source of CO2
environmental impact. The loudest noises, such pH changes
Chemical: Manufacturing, handling, and disposal of
as those which would accompany preparation for
chemicals
the fracturing of the reservoir or injection of
steam in a cyclic steam process, are of short dura-
Process Independent Impacts
tion. In regions where the local biota or human
population would be adversely affected by noise, Probably the most significant potential adverse
maximum muffling and noise abatement pro- biological impact of EOR will result from the in-
cedures will need to be imposed. Occupational creased water consumption associated with this
Safety and Health Act (OSHA) regulations will technology. Because fresh water (rather than
serve as a standard for safeguarding humans.14 saline water) is generally required, EOR process
consumption of water will not only compete
directly with domestic, agricultural, and other in-
Biota dustrial uses, but could result in a localized
drawdown of surface water, severely affecting
Enhanced oil recovery technologies present a aquatic flora and fauna within the area of the
variety of potential biological effects. These are drawdown.
summarized according to relative significance in
table 35, and most do not appear very serious. The Interior Basin and Mountain regions may
While some do pose potentially significant be the most seriously affected by this consumpt-
ive use of water. Interior Basin areas already face
some of the most serious water allocation
“’’Geophysical and Geological Studies of the Relation- problems, and wetland or aquatic ecosystems
ships between the Denver Earthquakes and the Rocky
have already been substantially affected in many
Mountain ARsenal Well-Part A,” Quarterly of the Colorado
School of Mines, Vol. 63, No. 1, 1968. parts of this zone. While they have not ex-
14A. p. G. peters~n and E, E. Cross, Jr. Handbook Of NO;5e perienced the same demands for water use,
Measurement, General Radio Corp, 7th Ed., 1974. Mountain wetland areas are comparatively more
102 . Ch. V/-Environmental Issues

fragile and vulnerable to drawdown. Also, con- generally be made of existing roads, facilities,
sumptive use of water in the Coastal Plains could and other structures,
increase salt water intrusion, and significantly
Although EOR techniques may, on occasion,
alter coastal wetland communities.
permit more rapid production of oil, they will
Potentially serious impacts may also result generally extend the time during which produc-
from new well drilling activity. Because EOR tion activities take place by 10 to 20 years. This
techniques will always be applied in areas of pre- will result in continued traffic, noise, dust and air
vious drilling activity, support facilities and ac- emissions, and other actions of potential impact
cess roads will generally be available. However, on biota. These will not usually be important,
depending on the density of facilities needed for since the areas will already have been subject to
EOR, new construction may be significant. In the primary recovery activity and because the re-
past, significant impacts have resulted from well maining biota often will have adapted to man’s
drilling activities in wetland and aquatic areas, routine activities after an initial period of dis-
particularly in the Coastal Plains and mountain placement or disturbance. Some exceptions in-
areas. These impacts have generally resulted from clude activities adjacent to or otherwise affecting
loss of habitat associated with a well drilling site, breeding and nesting areas or migratory routes.
or from alterations (such as canals, ditches, and Some particular species (frequently endangered
roads) to provide access. Canals used as access species) are not compatible with man’s activities.
for drilling operations in coastal areas have Continued operations might preclude their return
caused significant adverse effects on shallow or survival in localized areas, although this would
aquatic habitat and on marsh wetlands. These be an infrequent occurrence.
impacts have largely been caused by alteration of
Because EOR processes will often require new
the hydroperiod and the fresh water—salt water
or increased supplies of water, or water of
interface. The changed salinity regimes which
different quality, the construction of water sup-
have resulted have caused severe alteration of
ply pipelines could also affect the biological en-
wetland types as well as the fauna inhabiting
vironment. Such activity will result in direct loss
them. The activities associated with construction
of some habitat, and could affect the biota in
of access to sites in the Coastal Plains, par-
other ways. For example, construction of
ticularly dredging and filling, have also created
pipelines across wetlands may be accompanied
substantial impacts.’ 5 The resulting changes may
by the digging of a ditch, canal, or diked road;
be permanent.
these would interrupt or alter the surficial
Because of the fragile nature of mountain sheetflow of water. Again, these impacts can be
ecosystems and the long times they frequently reduced through careful route selection and
need to recover from impacts, road construction methods of construction. Frequently, pipelines
in Mountain regions also poses a threat of signifi- will already exist to deliver water to production
cant impact. fields. It may be possible to use the opportunity
“These impacts are not a necessary conse- created by new construction to rectify problems
caused by existing pipelines.
quence of new well drilling activity. Although
potentially significant, most can be avoided by a
Process Dependent Impacts
thorough initial understanding of the system
which may be disturbed, followed by careful Each EOR process could have some specific
construction and drilling practices. Because EOR biological impact. It appears that some of these
activity occurs in areas of previous activity, will be of less significance than the potential im-
economics dictate that maximum usage will pacts previously described. All of the EOR proc-
esses will result in air and water emissions, which
must be controlled to be in compliance with the
I $[dward T. LaRoe, Effects oi Dredging, F1//ing, and Chan-
applicable air and water quality standards.
nellzatfon on Estuarine Resources, pp. 134-1 44; “Proceed-
ings, Fish and Wildlife Values of the Estuarine Habitat, A However, it is important to recognize that attain-
Seminar for the Petroleum Industry, ” p. 184, U.S. Depart- ment of standards will not avoid all biological im-
ment oi the Intenor, Fish and Wildlife Service, 1973. pacts.
 # Ch VI—Environmental lssue~ ● 103

Therrnal.-Steam injection processes will have impact of such discharge would generally be very
large demands for water, creating a potential for localized and of little significance.
increased impacts caused by water consumption
Thermal EOR processes frequently result in
and the need for water pipelines.16 Steam injec-
recovery of large amounts of oil-associated
tion will also require substantial energy for steam
water, which is usually reinfected.1’ However, if
generators and compressors. Existing facilities are
the water is not reinfected and is discharged
usually powered by onsite generators fueled by
without treatment, the chronic release of this
petroleum products (oil or gas) produced at the
water, with entrained oil and traces of heavy
well. These are noisy and air polluting. If EOR
metals, could adversely affect aquatic biota.
operations become widespread, the industry
might desire to switch to electrically powered air Thermal processes will also produce solid
compressors and other equipment. The off site waste material, including fly ash from scrubbers
production and supply of electricity (very likely used to control air emissions. The most direct im-
from coal) could result in off site biological effects pact will be in the need for land area to dispose
which would vary in significance with the type of solid wastes (and the loss of habitat which that
and location of power generation. may cause). Shipment of material to suitable sites
will cause some adverse impacts. Biological im-
The air emissions produced by both steam in-
pacts of an efficiently designed and operated
jection and in situ combustion thermal EOR tech-
system can be kept small.
niques WIII pose potentially slgnificant biological
impacts. If uncontrolled, the impacts of these Miscible.--+robably the most significant po-
emissions could be most severe in the California tential biological impacts resulting from the C0 2
coastal plain and Interior Basin areas because miscible EOR process will be those relating to the
these areas not only appear the most likely supply and transportation of C0 2 . For EOR use,
regions for use of thermal EOR techniques but C 02 w i l l o r i g i n a t e f r o m C 02 w e l l s , o r a s a
also have dirtier air than most other regions. The byproduct of other industrial activity. It will
most critical effects would be on humans and usually be transported to the field by pipelines,
vegetation, although the chronic effects on although in s m a l l p r o j e c t s C 02 m a y b e
wiIdlife could also be significant. Air polIutants transported by refrigerated truck or tank car.
from EOR operations can probably be controlled; While C02 itself is not toxic, the activities associ-
however, there has been little applied research in ated with its collection and transportation may
this direction to date. It is reasonable to expect have adverse biological impacts. Carbon dioxide
that a serious research effort would make possi- pipelines can have the same biological impacts
ble considerably reduced impacts. discussed for water pipelines above. The primary
areas presently identified for C02 production are
Thermal projects also need to dispose ot
the Four Corners area, the northeast New Mex-
heated water after it has been used for coo!ing. If
ico-southeast Colorado area, central Mississippi,
discharged into surface waters, hot water can
Texas, Utah, and Wyoming. These areas, and
lead to changes in marsh and aquatic plant and
places along the pipeline routes to Texas, will
anirnaI Iife and promote the growth o f
have the most significant potential for impact,
phytoplankton algae, including blue-green algae,
but the impacts will be localized That is, they
which can harm natural flora, fish, and wildlife.
will be restricted to the immediate area of C02
The thermal impact could be avoided by the use
production and the pipeline route.
of cooling ponds, which could create localized
air impacts of generally small consequence. Well As with thermal processes, miscible processes
failures or reservoir leakage could also result in wiII result in increased air emissions. The release
the release of thermal pollutants; however, the of C0 2 itself would not have adverse biological
effects, although adverse effects could result

“)tnhanccd Of: R(I( (Jv(rv, Vdt lonal Petroleum Counc I I, -—.—

December 1976. 1“Ibid
104 . Ch. VI—Environmental lssues~

from the release of other gaseous contaminants, Table 42

such as H2 S. If properly treated, or if reinfected, Potential Chemicals Used in Chemical Flooding
these emissions will have insignificant impacts.
Chemicals Proposed for Surfactant Flooding:
1 he release of C02 under pressure to aquatic ● Broad spectrum petroleum sulfonates

● Synthetic petroleum sulfonates

systems, as might occur with well failures or
* Sulfated ethoxylated alcohols
reservoir leakage, could result in a decrease in pH
* Alcohols
of the water body. The biological significance of “ Ethoxylated alcohols
this pH change would depend on the size of the Chemicals Proposed as Bactericldes:
water body, amount of C0 2 released, and the * Sodium dichlorophenol
duration of release. However, aquatic life, * Sodium pentachlorophenol
especially freshwater fish, is particularly suscepti- Formaldehyde
Gluteraldehyde
ble to increased acidity. While the potential for
Paraformaldehyde
such an occurrence is extremely small, the im- Alkyl phosphates
pact, if it occurred, could be locally significant. Alkylamines
Acetate salts of coco diamines
Chemical.-Although several chemicals that Acetate salts of coco amines
could be used in EOR processes have been Acetate salts of tallow diamines
described in literature, it appears in practice that AlkyIdlmethl ammonium chloride
only a few will actually have extensive use. Table C OCO dlmethyl ammonium chloride
Sodium salts of phenols
42 lists chemicals described in patent literature.
Substituted phenols
Chemicals commonly used include broad Sodium hydroxide
spectrum petroleum and synthetic petroleum Calcium sulfate
s u l f o n a t e s ; a l c o h o l s ; polyacrylamide and Chemicals Proposed for Alkdline Flooding:
polysaccharide polymers; sodium * Sodium hydroxide
* Sodium silicate
dichlorophenol and sodium pentachtorophenol;
Ammonium hydroxide
sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate. 18 T h e s e
Sodium carbonate
do not appear particularly hazardous in the con- Potassium Hydroxlde
centrations used, nor do they become concen- Chemicals Proposed for Mobility Control:
trated in food chains. However, the manufactur- * Polyacrylamide
ing, handling, and disposal of these chemicals * Polysaccharide
Aldoses B Series
pose potential biological impacts.
Aldoses L Series
Car boxy methylcelIulose
If chemical flooding methods are widely
Carboxyvinyl polymer
adopted, there must be a substantial increase in Dextrdns
the production of some of these chemicals, Deoxyribonucleic acid
especially the surfactants. Expanded manufactur- Ketoses B Series
ing capacity could result in localized adverse im- Ketoses L Series
Polyethylene oxide
pacts through loss of habitat and potential air and”
Polyisobutylene in benzene
water emissions. Conjugated saccharides
Disaccharides
Transportation of the chemicals commonly
Monoosaccharides
used for EOR operations is not likely to pose a Tetrasaccharldes
major hazard. Many are frequently shipped as Chemicals Proposed as Oxygen Scavengers:
solids, which reduces the potential for a spill. Sodium hydrosulfite
Small spills of Iiquids, both during transportation Hydrazine
Salts of bisulfite

“Most c ommmrly used

! 8Enh~n~ eo (Jjl R {>( ovi’ry, National Petroleuln Council, Tlve above tdble was modified from [nharrced 011 Rec owry,
December 1976. National Petroleum Council, December 1976.
and onsite use, are to be expected, but the quality impact. Most chemicals will be absorbed
biological impact will be limited since they are within the reservoir and the amount produced
primarily of low toxicity. wilI be small. Although the chemicals are not par-
Even though tests have shown that chemicals ticularly toxic, some (particularly the polysac-
common I y used i n EOR processes have a 10 w charide polymers) could act to increase biologi-
acute toxicity, the long-term effect of such cal oxygen demand (BOD) in the receiving water
chemicals on the environment has not been and this would adversely affect fish species. Po-
evaluated. Not until such long-term studies have tential biological impact can be avoided by dis-
been conducted on the chemicals used in EOR posing of chemically Iaden produced water by
processes can the potential for adverse environ- either relnjecting it into the oil-producing reser-
mental impacts be dismissed. voir, injecting it into other saline aquifers, or
Disposal of produced water containing the treating it to remove contaminants before dis-
chemicals will pose another potential water- posal into surface waters.