Chapter 7

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

• Stress and strain: What are they?

• Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
• Plastic behavior: At what point do dislocations
cause permanent deformation? What
materials are
most resistant
• Toughness and to permanent
ductility: deformation?
What are they and how
do we measure them?
• Ceramic Materials: What special provisions/tests are
made for ceramic materials?
Stress & Strain
COMMON STATES OF STRESS

Tension Compression

Torsion
Shear
 Tensile Stress-Strain
(Engineering)

• Tensile stress (σ) : • Tensile strain (ε) :

Ft
δ /2
Area, A
Lo
wo
δ /2
Strain is
δL /2 always
Ft δL /2 dimensionless.

σ=
Ft
N/m2 or lb/in2 ε = δ (no unit)
Ao Lo
−δL
Original area before loading εL = (lateral strain)
wo
 Poisson’s Ratio

compression εL
δ /2
ε
Lo
tension wo
-ν δ /2
• Poisson's ratio (ν) : δL /2
δL /2
ν = − εL (no unit) δ
ε ε =
Lo
(0.25 ∼ 0.35)
−δ
εL = L (lateral strain)
* Unless Poisson’s ratio is 1, wo
there is always volume change.
 Tensile Testing
• Typical tensile specimen • Typical tensile
test machine

load cell

specimen
extensometer

gauge (portion of sample with moving cross head

=
length reduced cross section)
 Shear Stress-Strain
(Engineering)

• Shear stress (τ) : • Shear strain (γ) :

Ft F Fs

Area, A Fs

Fs

F Ft

Fs γ = tan Α (no unit)

τ= N/m2 or lb/in2
Ao
Initial area
Elastic deformation
vs.
Plastic deformation
 ELASTIC DEFORMATION
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial
δ
deformation
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
δ
 LINEAR ELASTIC PROPERTIES

• Modulus of Elasticity, E: F
(also known as Young's modulus
and elastic modulus)
σ
• Hooke's Law:
E
σ=Eε ε
Linear-
elastic F
Units: simple
E: [GPa] or [psi] tension
test
Pounds force
per square inch
Linear vs. Non-linear elasticity

Linear Non-linear
Properties from Bonding: Elastic Modulus (E)
(Remember what we learned from Ch. 2.)

E ∼ (dF/dr)r0 & F = dE/dr ⇒ E ~ (d2E/dr2)r0

curvature at ro
Energy

unstretched length
ro
r
smaller Elastic Modulus

larger Elastic Modulus

 OTHER ELASTIC PROPERTIES
τ
• Elastic Shear modulus, G: G
γ
τ=Gγ

• Elastic Bulk modulus, K: P

P P P
∆V
P= -K ∆V
Vo
Vo
-K Init. vol = Vo
Vol chg.= ∆V
 YOUNG’S MODULI:
Metals Graphite Composites
Ceramics Polymers /fibers

1200
Alloys
Semicond Eceramics
1000
800
600
Diamond

Si carbide
> Emetals
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only

E(GPa) 200
Molybdenum
Steel, Ni
Si nitride
CFRE(|| fibers)*
>> Epolymers
Tantalum <111>
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass-soda AFRE(|| fibers)*
60 Aluminum Glass fibers only
Magnesium, GFRE(|| fibers)*
40 Tin

9
Concrete Isotropic vs. anisotropic
10 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE* (single crystalline,
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10
8 CFRE( fibers)*
polycrystalline,
6 AFRE( fibers)*
4
Polyester
PET
and noncrystalline
PS
2 PC Epoxy only
materials)
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4

0.2 LDPE
 PLASTIC DEFORMATION (METALS)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

δelastic + plastic δplastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent
linear linear
deformation! elastic elastic
δ
δplastic
 PLASTIC (PERMANENT) DEFORMATION

• Simple tension test: Elastic+Plastic

at larger stress
stress, σ

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

εp strain, ε
Elastic
recovery
plastic strain
Strength, Toughness, Ductility, etc.
 YIELD STRENGTH (YS), σy
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when εp = 0.002
stress, σ
Roughly speaking,
σy the yield strength is stress
where plastic deformation
starts.

strain, ε
εp = 0.002
 YIELD STRENGTH
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140)qt
σy(ceramics)

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

1000
Yield strength, σy (MPa)

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)a >>σy(metals)

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

700 W (pure)
600 Cu (71500)cw
500 Mo (pure)
Steel (4140)a
>> σy(polymers)
400
Steel (1020)cd

Hard to measure,
300
Hard to measure,

Al (6061)ag
200 Steel (1020)hr
Ti (pure)a ¨
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500)hr

100
dry
70 PC
60 Al (6061)a Nylon 6,6
50 PET
40 PVC humid
PP
30 HDPE

20

LDPE
Tin (pure)
10
 TENSILE STRENGTH (TS)
• Maximum possible engineering stress in tension.

TS
stress

necking

Typical response of a metal

strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are
aligned and about to break (We’ll do this next class).
 True stress-strain
• So far, everything was ‘engineering’ stress-strain.
Looks like
TS material deforms
spontaneously.
engineering
stress

How does this

make sense? True strain-stress curve
strain
Engineering Ft
stress σ= In reality, A does change!
Ao And, stress needs to keep increasing
to get more strain.
 True stress-strain
The sum of all the
True Stress True Strain: instantaneous
engineering strains
σT = F/Ai εT = ln (lf/lo)
Instantaneous
cross-sectional area

However, life is not simple.

• ‘Corrected’ fit to the true stress-strain response
(empirical equation):
hardening exponent (≤ 1)
n
σT = C εT ( ) ? (next page)

“true” stress (F/A) “true” strain: ln(L/Lo)

 HARDENING
• An increase in σy due to plastic deformation.
(We will learn ‘why’ next week.)

σ
σy
1
σy
0
d
reload
unloa

ε
Increase of YS from σy0 to σy1.
 TENSILE STRENGTH
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib
TS(ceram)
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

2000 Steel (4140)qt

AFRE(|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE(|| fiber) ~TS(met)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa CFRE(|| fiber)
Steel (4140)
Cu (71500)cw Si nitride
Cu (71500)hr Al oxide
~ TS(comp)
Steel (1020)
300 Al (6061)ag
200
Ti (pure)a
Ta (pure)
>> TS(poly)
Al (6061)a Si crystal
100 wood(|| fiber)
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET
40 Concrete PVC GFRE( fiber)
30 PP CFRE( fiber)
AFRE( fiber)
HDPE
20 Graphite
LDPE

10

wood( fiber)

1
 DUCTILITY (%EL)
L f − Lo
• Strain at failure: %EL = x100
Lo

smaller %EL
stress, σ (brittle)
Ao
Lo Af Lf
larger %EL
(ductile)

strain, ε
εf εf
Ao − A f
• Another ductility measure %AR = x100
Ao
* %AR and %EL are often comparable.
--Reason: crystal slip does not change material volume.
--%AR > %EL possible if internal voids form in neck.
Modulus of Resilience

Energy that could

be stored in material
as an elastic deformation.

Approximately,
ε
 y
Area = UR =  σdε =
0

½ σyεy = σy2
E
 TOUGHNESS

• Energy to break a unit volume of material

Engineering small toughness (ceramics)

tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, σ

Small toughness
unreinforced polymers

Engineering tensile strain, ε

 HARDNESS
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., (1 to 1000g) of indent after
10mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
• Rockwell, Brinell, & Knoop and Vickers tests
Mechanical Properties of
Ceramic Materials
(Measurement)
 MEASURING ELASTIC MODULUS, E
(Ceramics)
• Room T behavior is usually elastic, with brittle failure.
• 3-Point Bend Testing often used.
--tensile tests are difficult for brittle materials.
cross section
F
L/2 L/2
d R
b δ= midpoint
rect. circ.
deflection
• Determine elastic modulus according to:

F F L3 F L3
x E=
F δ 4bd3 δ 12π R 4
slope = rect. circ.
δ cross cross
δ section section
linear-elastic behavior
 MEASURING STRENGTH (Ceramics)
• 3-point bend test to measure room T strength.
cross section F
L/2 L/2
d R
b
rect. circ.

location of max tension

• Flexural strength (σfs)*:

Material σfs(MPa) E(GPa)
fail 1.5FmaxL FmaxL Si nitride 700-1000 300
σ fs = σ m =
2 bd πR3 Si carbide 550-860 430
rect. Al oxide 275-550 390
F glass (soda) 69 69
Fmax x

δ * σfs is often referred as TS.

δmax
 SUMMARY

• Stress and strain: These are size-independent

measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches σy.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The strain at failure.