5.

6 Wind Loads

Wind load is constructed to mean pressure of wind at design wind

velocity working on buildings, structures, equipments pipings etc.

5.6.1 Wind loads for buildings and other structures

1. Calculation of wind loads : P, F

Design wind pressures (P) for buildings and design

wind forces (F) for other structures shall be
determined in accordance with the appropriate
equations given in Table 2 using the following
procedure:

(1) A velocity pressure q (qz or qh) is determined

in accordance with the provisions of 5.6.1-3.

(2) A gust response factor G (Gh, Gz and G ) is

determined in accordance with the provisions
of 5.6.1-4.

(3) Appropriate pressure or force coefficients are

selected from the provisions of 5.6.1-5.

The equations given in Table 2 are for determination of:

(1) wind loading on main wind-force resisting systems,
and (2) wind loading on individual components and
cladding.

2. Vertical Distribution of Wind Speed : Vz

Wind speed is a function of the height above ground

level and exposure category and may be calculated
as follows:


Vz  Z 
   ；0  Z  Zg
V10  10 

where
 Vz = wind speed at height Z above ground level (in m/s)

V10 = wind speed at 10 meters above ground level (in m/s)

α = power law coefficient, see Table 4

Zg = gradient height (in m), see Table 4

3. Velocity Pressure : qz, qh

The velocity pressure qz (kg/m2) at height z (m)

shall be calculated from the formula:

qz = 0.0625Kz (IV)2

Z
Kz = 2.774( Zg )2 ; for z > 5m

5
= 2.774( Zg )2 ; for z  5m

where the basic wind speed V is selected from Fig 10, the
importance factor I is set forth in Table 3, and values of
 and Zg are given in Table 4.

qh is the velocity pressure evaluated at height z=h.

4. Gust Response Factors : Gz, Gh, G

Gust response factors are employed to account for

the fluctuating nature of wind and its interaction
with buildings and other structures. In certain cases
gust response factors are combined with pressure
coefficients to yield values of GCp and GCpi; in
these cases gust response factors shall not be
determined separately.

For components and cladding the value of the gust

response factor Gz shall be determined from Table 5
evaluated at the height above ground z at which the
component or cladding under consideration is
located on the structure.

Gz = 0.89 + 5.0 Tz

2 . 35 Do
Tz =__________ 
 z 
 
 10 

[Eq. 1]

Values of  and Do are given in Table 4.

For main wind-force resisting systems the value of

the gust response factor Gh shall be determined
from Table 5 evaluated at the building or structure
height h.

Gust response factors G for main wind-force

resisting systems of flexible buildings and structures
shall be calculated by a rational analysis that
incorporates the dynamic properties of the main
wind-force resisting system.

(1) For buildings

1/ 2
 
G  0 . 89  1. 86
P

 4 . 52T1  2 S 
  1  0 . 00656C 
 

(2) For open framework (lattice) structures

1/ 2
 
G  0 . 89  2 . 32
P

 4 . 52T1  2 S 
  1  0 . 00328C 
 

where

P= f JY

13 . 2f n h
f 
sV
 and

 =_structural damping coefficient (percentage of

critical damping)
T1=_exposure factor evaluated at two-thirds the mean
roof ___________________ height of the
2
structure (use Eq.1 with Z  h to calculate T1)
3
S = _structure size factor (see Fig.6)
C = _average horizontal dimension of the building or
structure ________________ in a direction
normal to the wind in m.
J = _pressure profile factor as a function of ratio 
(see Fig.7).
Y = _resonance factor as a function of the ratio  and
the ratio ________________ c/h (see Fig.8),
linear interpolation is permissible.
fn = _fundamental frequency of flexible building or
other ___________________ structure in a
direction parallel to the wind, in Hz.
s = _surface friction factor (see Table 4)
 = _ratio obtained from Table 4.
h =_mean roof height of a building or height of other
structure, _______________ except that eave
height may be used for roof slope of less than 10
degrees, in meter
V =_basic wind speed, in m/s, see Fig 10

5. _Pressure and Force Coefficients : Cp, Cf

Pressure and force coefficients (Cp, Cf) for

buildings and structures and their components and
cladding are given in Figs. 3, 4 and 5 and Tables 6
through 13. The values of the coefficients for
buildings in Figs. 4 and 5 and Table 6 include the
gust response factors; in these cases the pressure
coefficient values and gust response factors shall not
be separated.
 6. Wind Loads for Cross-wind Direction

Buildings shall be evaluated to prevent the vortex

shedding frequency from being close to the nature
frequency of the building.

Even if the lock-in phenomenon will not occur,

wind loads for cross-wind direction shall also be
properly determined . The wind tunnel test may be
used if required.

7. Torsion of Structures

Buildings shall be designed for torsional moments

together with the wind loads for along-wind loads
and cross-wind directions acting simultaneously.
The wind tunnel test may be used if required.

5.6.2 Wind loads for pipe racks

1. General

(1) Design wind forces for pipe racks should be

determined by the equation.

F = qz Gh Cf Af or _
F = qz G Cf Af for flexible
pipe racks (Where F is the applied wind force)
using the following
procedure :

(a) A velocity pressure qz is determined in

accordance with the provisions of 5.6.1-3.

(b) The gust response factor Gh (or G ) is

determined in accordance with the
provisions of 5.6.1-4.

(2) Wind on the pipe rack structure itself should be

calculated based on no shielding. For all
structural members Cf=1.8, or alternatively
Cf=2.0 below the first level and Cf=1.6 for
 members above the first level.

2. Tributary Area for Piping

The tributary area for piping should be based on the

diameter of the largest pipe plus 10% of the width of
the pipe rack. This sum is multiplied by the length
of the pipes (bent spacing) to determine the tributary
area.

3. Tributary Area for Cable Trays

The tributary area for cable trays should be based on

the height of the largest tray plus 10% of the width
of the pipe rack. This sum is multiplied by the
length of the trays (bent spacing) to determine the
tributary area.

4. Force Coefficient for Pipes

The force coefficient Cf=0.7 should be used as a

minimum.

5. Force Coefficient for Cable Trays

For cable trays the force coefficient Cf=2.0.

5.7 Earthquake Load

5.7.1 Earthquake load is construed to mean external lateral

forces by earthquake working on buildings, structures,
equipments, piping and foundations.

5.7.2 Lateral-force Procedure.

1. Static. The static lateral-force procedure of Section

5.7.3 may be used for the following structures:

(1) Regular structures under 50 meters or less than 15

stories in height with lateral-force resistance
provided by systems listed in Table S7 and Table
S8.
 (2) Irregular structures not more than 7 stories or 21
meters in height.
Structures having a flexible upper portion supported on a rigid lower portion where
both portions of the structure considered separately can be classified as being regular,
the average story stiffness of the lower portion is at least 10 times the average story
stiffness of the upper portion and the period of the entire structure is not greater than
1.1 times the period of the upper portion considered as a separate structure fixed at the
base
 Fig. 1 Force Coefficients, C Dg, for Open Frame Structures

Notes:
(1) Frame spacing ratio is defined as SF/B.
(2) Frame spacing, SF, is measured from centerline to
centerline.
(3) Frame width, B, is measured from outside edge to
outside edge.
(4) Number of frames, N, is the number of framing lines
normal to the nominal wind direction (N=4 as shown).
(5) Linear interpolation may be used for values of SF/B not
given.

Notes:

(1) Fs denotes the wind force on the structural frame and appurtenances in
the indicated direction (excludes wind load on equipment, piping and
cable trays).

(2) FT denotes the total wind force on the structure in the direction
indicated, which is the sum of the forces on the structural frame and
appurtenances, equipment, and piping. If appropriate, the equipment
load may be reduced by considering shielding effects per 3.6.2.
 Fig. 2 Design Load Cases

Flexible Buildings and

Structures
Design wind (Height/Least Horizontal
Dimension
>5 or f<1 Hz)
loading Buildings Other Buildings Other
structures structures
Main p=qGhCp-qh(GCpi)# ** F=qzGhCfAf p=q G Cp# F=qz G CfAf
wind-force q: qz for windward wall qz: evaluated q: qz for qz: evaluated
resisting evaluated at height z at height z windward at height z
systems above ground above wall above
qh for leeward wall, side ground evaluated ground
walls, and roof Gh: given in at height z G :provision
evaluated at mean roof Table 5 above of 1.7
height ground
Cf: given in Cf: given in
Gh: given in Table 5 Table 8- qh for Table 8-13
13 leeward
Cp: given in Fig.3 Af: projected
wall
(Table 7 for arched Af: projected area
evaluated
roofs) area normal to
at mean
GCpi: given in Table 6 normal to wind†
roof
wind†
height
G :
provision
of 1.7
Cp: given in
Fig.3
h18m h>18m
Components p=qh[(GCp)- p=q[(GCp)- F=qzGzCfAf p=q[(GCp)- F=qzGzCfAf
and cladding‡ (GCpi)]** (GCpi)]** qz: evaluated (GCpi)]** qz: evaluated
 qh: evaluated q: qz for at height z q: qz for at height
at mean positive above positive z above
roof pressure ground pressure ground
height evaluated Gz: given in evaluated Gz: given in
using at height z Table 5 at height z Table 5
Exposure above above
Cf: given in Cf: given in
C for all ground ground
Table 8-13 Table 8-
terrains qh for qh for
Af: project 13
GCp: given in negative negative
area Af: project
Figs.4a, pressure pressure
normal to area
4b & 4c. evaluated evaluated
wind† normal to
at mean at mean
GCpi: given in wind†
roof height roof
Table 6
GCp: given in height
Fig.5§ GCp: given
GCpi: given in Fig.5
in Table 6 GCpi: given
in Table 6

Table 2 Design Wind Pressure, p, and Forces, F

** Positive pressure acts toward surface and negative pressure acts away from
surface; values of external and internal pressures shall be combined
algebraically to ascertain most critical load.
# Pressure shall be applied simultaneously on windward and leeward walls and
on roof surfaces as shown in Fig.3.
† Af is the projected area normal to the wind except where Cf is given for the
surface area.
‡ Major structural components supporting tributary areas greater 63m2 in
extent may be designed using the provisions for main wind-force resisting
systems.
§ In the design of components and cladding for buildings having a mean roof
height h, 18m<h<27m, GCp values of Fig.4 may be used provided q is taken
as qh and exposure C is used for all terrains.
Note: Pressures are in kg/m2; forces are in kg.
 Table 3 Importance Factor, I (Wind Loads)

Occupancy Category Occupancy or Functions of Structure I

Type 1 Facilities (1) Fire and police stations, communication 1.1

centers.
(2) Hospital which offer emergency rescue after
disaster.
(3) Power-generating structure、waterworks and
structures which offer power or water supply.
(4) Structures which are assigned by
government.

Type 2 Facilities Occupancies and structures therein housing or 1.1

supporting toxic or explosive chemicals or
substances.

Type 3 Facilities Structures used for pubic: 1.1

(1) Occupancies used for kindergarten, school,
hall, library, museum, temple, church,
supplementary class, and gymnasium
(2) Occupancies used for hospital, clinic,
sanatorium and funeral parlor.
(3) Occupancies used for restaurant, department
store, (supper) market, and basement shop
(4) Occupancies used for cinema, entertainment
establishment, cabaret and bowling alley
(5) Hall of stock exchange

(6) Station or airport.

(7) Structure which are assigned by government.

Type 4 Facilities Buildings and structures that represent a low 0.91
hazard to human life in the event of failure, such
as agricultural buildings, certain temporary
facilities, and minor storage facilities

Type 5 Facilities Other structures 1.0

Table 4 Exposure Category Constants

Exposure  Zg Do s 
Category (m)

A 0.36 500 0.025 1.46 2.5/h

B 0.25 400 0.010 1.33 1.0/h

C 0.15 300 0.005 1.00 0.07/h

D 0.11 233 0.003 0.85 0.006/h

Table 5 Gust Response Factors, Gh and Gz

Height above Gh and Gz

ground level, Z (m) Exposure A Exposure B Exposure C Exposure D
0-5 3.27 2.29 1.81 1.58
10 2.75 2.07 1.72 1.53
15 2.50 1.95 1.67 1.51
20 2.34 1.88 1.64 1.49
25 2.23 1.82 1.61 1.47
30 2.14 1.78 1.59 1.46
40 2.02 1.72 1.56 1.44
50 1.93 1.68 1.54 1.43
 60 1.86 1.64 1.52 1.42
70 1.81 1.61 1.51 1.41
80 1.77 1.59 1.50 1.40
90 1.73 1.57 1.49 1.40
100 1.70 1.55 1.48 1.39
110 1.67 1.54 1.47 1.38
120 1.65 1.52 1.46 1.38
130 1.63 1.51 1.46 1.38
140 1.61 1.50 1.45 1.37
150 1.59 1.49 1.44 1.37
 Table 6 Internal Pressure Coefficients for Buildings, GCpi

Condition GCpi

Condition I All conditions except as noted under condition II. +0.375

-0.375

Condition II Buildings in which both of the following are met: +1.125

-0.375
1. Percentage of openings in one wall exceeds the
sum of the percentages of openings in the
remaining walls and roof surfaces by 5% or
more, and

2. Percentage of openings in any one of the

remaining walls or roof do not exceed 20%.

Notes:

(1) Values are to be used with qz or qh as specified in Table 2.

(2) Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away
from the surfaces, respectively.

(3) To ascertain the critical load requirements for the appropriate

condition, two cases shall be considered: a positive values of
GCpi applied simultaneously to all surfaces, and a negative value
of GCpi applied to all surfaces.

(4) Percentage of openings in a wall or roof surface is given by ratio

of area of openings to gross area for the wall or roof surface
considered.
 Table 7 External Pressure Coefficients for Arched Roofs, Cp

Cp

Rise-to-span Windward Center Leeward

Condition ratio,  quarter half quarter

Roof on 0 <  <0.2 -0.9 -0.7 - -0.5

elevated 0.2  <0.3* 1.5 -0.3 -0.7 - -0.5
structure 0.3  0.6 2.75 -0.7 -0.7 - -0.5

Roof
springing
from ground
level 0 <  0.6 1.4 -0.7 - -0.5

* When the rise-to-span ratio is 0.2 0.3, alternate coefficients given

by 6 - 2.1 shall also be used for the windward quarter.

Notes:

(1) Values listed are for the determination of average loads on main
windforce resisting system.

(2) Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away
from the surfaces, respectively.

(3) For components and cladding: (a) at roof perimeter, use the
external pressure coefficients in Fig.4b with  based on spring-
line slope and qh based on Exposure C (b) and for remaining roof
areas, use external pressure coefficients of this table multiplied by
1.2 and qh based on Exposure C.
Table 8 Force Coefficients for Monoslope Roofs over Unenclosed
Buildings and Other Structures, Cf

 Cf for L/B Values of:

(degree) 5 3 2 1 1/2 1/3 1/5

10 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.45 0.55 0.7 0.75

15 0.35 0.45 0.5 0.7 0.85 0.9 0.85
20 0.5 0.6 0.75 0.9 1.0 0.95 0.9
25 0.7 0.8 0.95 1.15 1.1 1.05 0.95
30 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0

Location of Center of Pressure, X/L,

 for L/B Values of:

(degree) 2 to 5 1 1/5 to 1/2

10 to 20 0.35 0.3 0.3

25 0.35 0.35 0.4
30 0.35 0.4 0.45

Notes:

(1) Wind forces act normal to the surface and shall be directed inward
or outward.

(2) Notation:
B: dimension of roof measured normal to wind direction, in
meter;
L: dimension of roof measured parallel to wind direction, in
meter;
X: distance to center of pressure from windward edge of roof, in
meter;
 : angle of plane of roof horizontal, in degrees.
Table 9 Force Coefficients for Chimneys, Tanks and Similar Structures,
Cf

Cf for h/D Values of:

Shape Type of surface 1 7 25

Square (wind normal to a face) All 1.3 1.4 2.0

Square (wind along diagonal) All 1.0 1.1 1.5
Hexagonal or octagonal All 1.0 1.2 1.4

(D q z >1.5)

Round (D q z >1.5) Moderately smooth 0.5 0.6 0.7

Rough (D’/D 0.7 0.8 0.9
0.02) 0.8 1.0 1.2
Very rough
(D’/D  0.08)

Round (D q z 1.5) All 0.7 0.8 1.2

Notes:

(1) The design wind force shall be calculated based on the area of the
structure project on a plane normal to the wind direction. The
force shall be assumed to act parallel to the wind direction.

(2) Linear interpolation may be used for h/D values other than shown.

(3) Notation:
D: diameter or least horizontal dimension, in m
D’: depth of protruding elements such as ribs and spoilers, in m
h: height of structure, in m
qz: velocity pressure evaluated at height z above ground, in kg/m2
 Table 10 Force Coefficients for Solid Signs, Cf

At Ground Level Above Ground Level

 Cf M/N Cf

3 1.2 6 1.2
5 1.3 10 1.3
8 1.4 16 1.4
10 1.5 20 1.5
20 1.75 40 1.75
30 1.85 60 1.85
40 2.0 80 2.0

Notes:

(1) Signs with openings comprising less than 30% of the gross area
shall be considered as solid signs.

(2) Signs for which the distance from the ground to the bottom edge is
less than 0.25 times the vertical dimension shall be considered to
be at ground level.

(3) To allow for both normal and oblique wind directions, two cases
shall be considered:
a) resultant force acts normal to sign at geometric center and
b) resultant force acts normal to sign at level of geometric center
and at a distance _from windward edge of 0.3 times the horizontal
dimension.

(4) Notation:
 : ratio of height to width;
M: larger dimension of sign, in m; and
N: smaller dimension of sign, in m.
 Table 11 Force Coefficients for Open Signs and lattice Frameworks,
Cf

Cf

Flat-sided Rounded Members

 Members D q z  1.5 D q z > 1.5

< 0.1 2.0 1.2 0.8

0.1 to 0.29 1.8 1.3 0.9
0.3 to 0.70 1.6 1.5 1.1

Notes:

(1) Signs with openings comprising 30% or more of the gross area are
classified as open signs.

(2) The calculation of the design wind forces shall be based on the
area of all exposed members and elements projected on a plane
normal to the wind direction. Forces shall be assumed to act
parallel to the wind direction.

(3) The area Af consistent with these force coefficients is the solid
area projected normal to the wind direction.

(4) Notation:
 : ratio of solid area to gross area and
D: diameter of a typical round member, in m.
 Table 12 Force Coefficients for Trussed Towers, Cf

Cf

 Square towers Triangular towers

< 0.025 4.0 3.6

0.025 to 0.44 4.1 - 5.2 3.7 - 4.5
0.45 to 0.69 1.8 1.7
0.7 to 1.0 1.3 + 0.7 1.0 + 

Notes: The area Af consistent with these force coefficients is the solid
area of the front face projected normal to the wind direction.

(1) Force coefficients are given for towers with structural angles or
similar flat-sided members.

(2) For towers with rounded members the design wind force shall be
determined using the values in the table multiplied by the
following factors:

  0.29, factor = 0.67

0.3    0.79, factor = 0.67 + 0.47
0.8    1.0, factor = 1.0

(3) For triangular section towers, the design wind forces shall be
assumed to act normal to a tower face.

(4) For square section towers, the design wind forces shall be assumed
to act normal to a tower face. To allow for the maximum
horizontal wind load, which occurs when the wind is oblique to
the faces, the wind load acting normal to a tower face shall be
multiplied by the factor 1.0 + 0.75 for  < 0.5 and shall be
assumed to act along a diagonal.

(5) Wind forces on tower appurtenances, such as ladders, conduits,

lights, elevators, and the like, shall be calculated using appropriate
force coefficients for these elements.

(6) Notation:
 : ratio of solid area to gross area of tower face
D: typical member diameter, in meter.
 Table 13 Force Coefficients for Tower Guys, CD and CL


(degrees) CD CL

10 0.05 0.05
20 0.1 0.15
30 0.2 0.3
40 0.35 0.35
50 0.6 0.45
60 0.8 0.45
70 1.05 0.35
80 1.15 0.2
90 1.2 0

Notes:

(1) The force coefficients shall be used in conjunction with exposed

area of the tower guy in square meter, calculated as chord length
multiplied by guy diameter.

(2) Notation:
CD : force coefficient for the component of force acting in
direction of the wind;
CL: force coefficient for the component of force acting normal to
direction of the _wind and in the plane containing the angle ;
 : angle between wind direction and chord of the guy, in
degrees.