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Carbon cycle
The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among
the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth. Along with
the nitrogen cycleand the water cycle, the carbon cycle comprises a sequence of events that are key
to making the Earth capable of sustaining life; it describes the movement of carbon as it is recycled
and reused throughout the biosphere, including carbon sinks.
The global carbon budget is the balance of the exchanges (incomes and losses) of carbon between
the carbon reservoirs or between one specific loop (e.g., atmosphere <-> biosphere) of the carbon
cycle. An examination of the carbon budget of a pool or reservoir can provide information about
whether the pool or reservoir is functioning as a source or sink for carbon dioxide. The carbon cycle
was initially discovered by Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier, and popularized by Humphry
Davy

This diagram of the fast carbon cycle shows the movement of carbon between land, atmosphere, and oceans
in billions of tons per year. Yellow numbers are natural fluxes, red are human contributions, white indicate
stored carbon. Note this diagram does not account for volcanic and tectonic activity, which also sequesters and
releases carbon.
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Global climate
Carbon-based molecules are crucial for life on Earth, because it is the main component of biological
compounds. Carbon is also a major component of many minerals. Carbon also exists in various
forms in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is partly responsible for the greenhouse effect and is
the most important human-contributed greenhouse gas.
In the past two centuries, human activities have seriously altered the global carbon cycle, most
significantly in the atmosphere. Although carbon dioxide levels have changed naturally over the past
several thousand years, human emissions of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere exceed natural
fluctuations. Changes in the amount of atmospheric CO2 are considerably altering weather patterns
and indirectly influencing oceanic chemistry. Current carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere exceed
measurements from the last 420,000 years and levels are rising faster than ever recorded, making it
of critical importance to better understand how the carbon cycle works and what its effects are on
the global climate.

Main components
The global carbon cycle is now usually divided into the following major reservoirs of carbon
interconnected by pathways of exchange:

 The atmosphere
 The terrestrial biosphere
 The oceans, including dissolved inorganic carbon and living and non-living marine biota
 The sediments, including fossil fuels, fresh water systems and non-living organic material.
 The Earth's interior, carbon from the Earth's mantle and crust. These carbon stores interact with
the other components through geological processes
The carbon exchanges between reservoirs occur as the result of various chemical, physical,
geological, and biological processes. The ocean contains the largest active pool of carbon near the
surface of the Earth.[2] The natural flows of carbon between the atmosphere, ocean, terrestrial
ecosystems, and sediments is fairly balanced, so that carbon levels would be roughly stable without
human influence.[4][5]

Atmosphere
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Epiphytes on electric wires. This kind of plant takes both CO2 and water from the atmosphere for living and
growing.

Carbon in the Earth's atmosphere exists in two main forms: carbon dioxide and methane. Both of
these gases absorb and retain heat in the atmosphere and are partially responsible for
the greenhouse effect. Methane produces a larger greenhouse effect per volume as compared to
carbon dioxide, but it exists in much lower concentrations and is more short-lived than carbon
dioxide, making carbon dioxide the more important greenhouse gas of the two.
Carbon dioxide leaves the atmosphere through photosynthesis, thus entering the terrestrial and
oceanic biospheres. Carbon dioxide also dissolves directly from the atmosphere into bodies of water
(oceans, lakes, etc.), as well as dissolving in precipitation as raindrops fall through the atmosphere.
When dissolved in water, carbon dioxide reacts with water molecules and forms carbonic acid, which
contributes to ocean acidity. It can then be absorbed by rocks through weathering. It also can acidify
other surfaces it touches or be washed into the ocean.
Human activities over the past two centuries have significantly increased the amount of carbon in the
atmosphere, mainly in the form of carbon dioxide, both by modifying ecosystems' ability to extract
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and by emitting it directly, e.g., by burning fossil fuels and
manufacturing concrete.

Terrestrial biosphere

A portable soil respiration system measuring soil CO2 flux

The terrestrial biosphere includes the organic carbon in all land-living organisms, both alive and
dead, as well as carbon stored in soils. About 500 gigatons of carbon are stored above ground in
plants and other living organisms,]while soil holds approximately 1,500 gigatons of carbon. Most
carbon in the terrestrial biosphere is organic carbon, while about a third of soil carbon is stored in
inorganic forms, such as calcium carbonate. Organic carbon is a major component of all organisms
living on earth. Autotrophs extract it from the air in the form of carbon dioxide, converting it into
organic carbon, while heterotrophs receive carbon by consuming other organisms.
Because carbon uptake in the terrestrial biosphere is dependent on biotic factors, it follows a diurnal
and seasonal cycle. In CO2 measurements, this feature is apparent in the Keeling curve. It is
strongest in the northern hemisphere, because this hemisphere has more land mass than the
southern hemisphere and thus more room for ecosystems to absorb and emit carbon.
Carbon leaves the terrestrial biosphere in several ways and on different time scales.
The combustion or respiration of organic carbon releases it rapidly into the atmosphere. It can also
be exported into the oceans through rivers or remain sequestered in soils in the form of inert carbon.
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Carbon stored in soil can remain there for up to thousands of years before being washed into rivers
by erosion or released into the atmosphere through soil respiration. Between 1989 and 2008 soil
respiration increased by about 0.1% per year. In 2008, the global total of CO2 released from the soil
reached roughly 98 billion tonnes, about 10 times more carbon than humans are now putting into the
atmosphere each year by burning fossil fuel. There are a few plausible explanations for this trend,
but the most likely explanation is that increasing temperatures have increased rates of
decomposition of soil organic matter, which has increased the flow of CO2. The length of carbon
sequestering in soil is dependent on local climatic conditions and thus changes in the course
of climate change. From pre-industrial era to 2010, the terrestrial biosphere represented a net
source of atmospheric CO2 prior to 1940, switching subsequently to a net sink.

Oceans[edit]
Main article: Oceanic carbon cycle
Oceans contain the greatest quantity of actively cycled carbon in this world and are second only to
the lithosphere in the amount of carbon they store. The oceans' surface layerholds large amounts of
dissolved inorganic carbon that is exchanged rapidly with the atmosphere. The deep layer's
concentration of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) is about 15% higher than that of the surface
layer. DIC is stored in the deep layer for much longer periods of time. Thermohaline
circulation exchanges carbon between these two layers.
Carbon enters the ocean mainly through the dissolution of atmospheric carbon dioxide, which is
converted into carbonate. It can also enter the oceans through rivers as dissolved organic carbon. It
is converted by organisms into organic carbon through photosynthesis and can either be exchanged
throughout the food chain or precipitated into the ocean's deeper, more carbon rich layers as dead
soft tissue or in shells as calcium carbonate. It circulates in this layer for long periods of time before
either being deposited as sediment or, eventually, returned to the surface waters through
thermohaline circulation.
Oceanic absorption of CO2 is one of the most important forms of carbon sequestering limiting the
human-caused rise of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. However, this process is limited by a
number of factors. Because the rate of CO2 dissolution in the ocean is dependent on the weathering
of rocks and this process takes place slower than current rates of human greenhouse gas
emissions, ocean CO2 uptake will decrease in the future. CO2 absorption also makes water more
acidic, which affects ocean biosystems. The projected rate of increasing oceanic acidity could slow
the biological precipitation of calcium carbonates, thus decreasing the ocean's capacity to absorb
carbon dioxide.

Geological carbon cycle

The geologic component of the carbon cycle operates slowly in comparison to the other parts of the
global carbon cycle. It is one of the most important determinants of the amount of carbon in the
atmosphere, and thus of global temperatures.
Most of the earth's carbon is stored inertly in the earth's lithosphere. Much of the carbon stored in
the earth's mantle was stored there when the earth formed. Some of it was deposited in the form of
organic carbon from the biosphere. Of the carbon stored in the geosphere, about 80%
is limestone and its derivatives, which form from the sedimentation of calcium carbonate stored in
the shells of marine organisms. The remaining 20% is stored as kerogens formed through the
sedimentation and burial of terrestrial organisms under high heat and pressure. Organic carbon
stored in the geosphere can remain there for millions of years.
Carbon can leave the geosphere in several ways. Carbon dioxide is released during
the metamorphosis of carbonate rocks when they are subducted into the earth's mantle. This carbon
dioxide can be released into the atmosphere and ocean through volcanoes and hotspots. It can also
be removed by humans through the direct extraction of kerogens in the form of fossil fuels. After
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extraction, fossil fuels are burned to release energy, thus emitting the carbon they store into the
atmosphere.

Human influence

Human activity since the industrial era has changed the balance in the natural carbon cycle. Units are in
gigatons

CO2 in Earth's atmosphere if half of global-warming emissions are notabsorbed.

(NASA computer simulation).

Since the industrial revolution, human activity has modified the carbon cycle by changing its
components' functions and directly adding carbon to the atmosphere.[2]
The largest human impact on the carbon cycle is through direct emissions from burning fossil fuels,
which transfers carbon from the geosphere into the atmosphere. The rest of this increase is caused
mostly by changes in land-use, particularly deforestation.
Another direct human impact on the carbon cycle is the chemical process
of calcination of limestone for clinker production, which releases CO2.[23] Clinker is an
industrial precursor of cement.
Humans also influence the carbon cycle indirectly by changing the terrestrial and oceanic biosphere.
Over the past several centuries, direct and indirect human-caused land use and land cover change
(LUCC) has led to the loss of biodiversity, which lowers ecosystems' resilience to environmental
stresses and decreases their ability to remove carbon from the atmosphere. More directly, it often
leads to the release of carbon from terrestrial ecosystems into the atmosphere. Deforestation for
agricultural purposes removes forests, which hold large amounts of carbon, and replaces them,
generally with agricultural or urban areas. Both of these replacement land cover types store
comparatively small amounts of carbon, so that the net product of the process is that more carbon
stays in the atmosphere.
Other human-caused changes to the environment change ecosystems' productivity and their ability
to remove carbon from the atmosphere. Air pollution, for example, damages plants and soils, while
many agricultural and land use practices lead to higher erosion rates, washing carbon out of soils
and decreasing plant productivity.
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Humans also affect the oceanic carbon cycle. Current trends in climate change lead to higher ocean
temperatures, thus modifying ecosystems. Also, acid rain and polluted runoff from agriculture and
industry change the ocean's chemical composition. Such changes can have dramatic effects on
highly sensitive ecosystems such as coral reefs, thus limiting the ocean's ability to absorb carbon
from the atmosphere on a regional scale and reducing oceanic biodiversity globally.
Arctic methane emissions indirectly caused by anthropogenic global warming also affect the carbon
cycle, and contribute to further warming in what is known as climate change feedback.
On 12 November 2015, NASA scientists reported that human-made carbon dioxide (CO2) continues
to increase above levels not seen in hundreds of thousands of years: currently, about half of the
carbon dioxide released from the burning of fossil fuels remains in the atmosphere and is not
absorbed by vegetation and the oceans.
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Nitrogen cycle

Schematic representation of the flow of nitrogen through the land environment. The importance of bacteria in
the cycle is immediately recognized as being a key element in the cycle, providing different forms of nitrogen
compounds assimilable by higher organisms

The nitrogen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which nitrogen is converted into various
chemical forms as it circulates among the atmosphere and terrestrial and marine ecosystems. The
conversion of nitrogen can be carried out through both biological and physical processes. Important
processes in the nitrogen cycle include fixation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification. The
majority of Earth's atmosphere (78%) is nitrogen, making it the largest pool of nitrogen. However,
atmospheric nitrogen has limited availability for biological use, leading to a scarcity of usable
nitrogen in many types of ecosystems. The nitrogen cycle is of particular interest
to ecologists because nitrogen availability can affect the rate of key ecosystem processes,
including primary production and decomposition. Human activities such as fossil fuel combustion,
use of artificial nitrogen fertilizers, and release of nitrogen in wastewater have dramatically altered
the global nitrogen cycle

The processes of the nitrogen cycle

Nitrogen is present in the environment in a wide variety of chemical forms including organic
nitrogen, ammonium (NH+
4), nitrite (NO−
2), nitrate (NO−
3), nitrous oxide (N2O), nitric oxide (NO) or inorganic nitrogen gas (N2). Organic nitrogen may be in
the form of a living organism, humus or in the intermediate products of organic matter
decomposition. The processes of the nitrogen cycle transform nitrogen from one form to another.
Many of those processes are carried out by microbes, either in their effort to harvest energy or to
accumulate nitrogen in a form needed for their growth. The diagram above shows how these
processes fit together to form the nitrogen cycle.
Nitrogen fixation
Atmospheric nitrogen must be processed, or "fixed", in a usable form to be taken up by plants.
Between 5x1012 and 10x1012 g per year are fixed by lightning strikes, but most fixation is done by
free-living or symbiotic bacteria known as diazotrophs. These bacteria have
the nitrogenase enzyme that combines gaseous nitrogen with hydrogen to produce ammonia, which
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is converted by the bacteria into other organic compounds. Most biological nitrogen fixation occurs
by the activity of Mo-nitrogenase, found in a wide variety of bacteria and some Archaea. Mo-
nitrogenase is a complex two component enzyme that has multiple metal-containing prosthetic
groups.[3] An example of the free-living bacteria is Azotobacter. Symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria
such as Rhizobium usually live in the root nodules of legumes (such as peas, alfalfa, and locust
trees). Here they form a mutualistic relationship with the plant, producing ammonia in exchange
for carbohydrates. Because of this relationship, legumes will often increase the nitrogen content of
nitrogen-poor soils. A few non-legumes can also form such symbioses. Today, about 30% of the
total fixed nitrogen is produced industrially using the Haber-Bosch process,[4]which uses high
temperatures and pressures to convert nitrogen gas and a hydrogen source (natural gas or
petroleum) into ammonia.

Assimilation
Plants take nitrogen from the soil by absorption through their roots as amino acids,
nitrate ions, nitrite ions, or ammonium ions. Most nitrogen obtained by terrestrial animals can be
traced back to the eating of plants at some stage of the food chain.
Plants can absorb nitrate or ammonium from the soil via their root hairs. If nitrate is absorbed, it is
first reduced to nitrite ions and then ammonium ions for incorporation into amino acids, nucleic acids,
and chlorophyll. In plants that have a symbiotic relationship with rhizobia, some nitrogen is
assimilated in the form of ammonium ions directly from the nodules. It is now known that there is a
more complex cycling of amino acids between Rhizobia bacteroids and plants. The plant provides
amino acids to the bacteroids so ammonia assimilation is not required and the bacteroides pass
amino acids (with the newly fixed nitrogen) back to the plant, thus forming an interdependent
relationship. While many animals, fungi, and other heterotrophic organisms obtain nitrogen by
ingestion of amino acids, nucleotides and other small organic molecules, other heterotrophs
(including many bacteria) are able to utilize inorganic compounds, such as ammonium as sole N
sources. Utilization of various N sources is carefully regulated in all organisms.

Ammonification
When a plant or animal dies or an animal expels waste, the initial form of nitrogen is organic.
Bacteria or fungi convert the organic nitrogen within the remains back into ammonium (NH+
4), a process called ammonification or mineralization. Enzymes involved are:

 GS: Gln Synthetase (Cytosolic & Plastic)

 GOGAT: Glu 2-oxoglutarate aminotransferase (Ferredoxin & NADH dependent)
 GDH: Glu Dehydrogenase:
 Minor Role in ammonium assimilation.
 Important in amino acid catabolism.
Nitrification
The conversion of ammonium to nitrate is performed primarily by soil-living bacteria and other
nitrifying bacteria. In the primary stage of nitrification, the oxidation of ammonium (NH+
4) is performed by bacteria such as the Nitrosomonas species, which converts ammonia
to nitrites (NO−
2). Other bacterial species such as Nitrobacter, are responsible for the oxidation of the nitrites (NO−
2) into nitrates (NO−
3). It is important for the ammonia (NH
3) to be converted to nitrates or nitrites because ammonia gas is toxic to plants.

Due to their very high solubility and because soils are highly unable to retain anions, nitrates can
enter groundwater. Elevated nitrate in groundwater is a concern for drinking water use because
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nitrate can interfere with blood-oxygen levels in infants and cause methemoglobinemia or blue-baby
syndrome. Where groundwater recharges stream flow, nitrate-enriched groundwater can contribute
to eutrophication, a process that leads to high algal population and growth, especially blue-green
algal populations. While not directly toxic to fish life, like ammonia, nitrate can have indirect effects
on fish if it contributes to this eutrophication. Nitrogen has contributed to severe eutrophication
problems in some water bodies. Since 2006, the application of nitrogen fertilizer has been
increasingly controlled in Britain and the United States. This is occurring along the same lines as
control of phosphorus fertilizer, restriction of which is normally considered essential to the recovery
of eutrophied waterbodies.

Denitrification
Denitrification is the reduction of nitrates back into nitrogen gas (N2), completing the nitrogen cycle.
This process is performed by bacterial species such as Pseudomonas and Clostridium in anaerobic
conditions. They use the nitrate as an electron acceptor in the place of oxygen during respiration.
These facultatively anaerobic bacteria can also live in aerobic conditions. Denitrification happens in
anaerobic conditions e.g. waterlogged soils. The denitrifying bacteria use nitrates in the soil to carry
out respiration and consequently produce nitrogen gas, which is inert and unavailable to plants.

Anaerobic ammonia oxidation

In this biological process, nitrite and ammonia are converted directly into molecular nitrogen (N2)
gas. This process makes up a major proportion of nitrogen conversion in the oceans. The balanced
formula for this "anammox" chemical reaction is: NH+
4 + NO−
2 => N2 + 2H2O (ΔG° = -357 kJ mol-1).

Human influences on the nitrogen cycle

As a result of extensive cultivation of legumes (particularly soy, alfalfa, and clover), growing use of
the Haber–Bosch process in the creation of chemical fertilizers, and pollution emitted by vehicles
and industrial plants, human beings have more than doubled the annual transfer of nitrogen into
biologically available forms. In addition, humans have significantly contributed to the transfer of
nitrogen trace gases from Earth to the atmosphere and from the land to aquatic systems. Human
alterations to the global nitrogen cycle are most intense in developed countries and in Asia, where
vehicle emissions and industrial agriculture are highest.
Nitrous oxide (NO2) has risen in the atmosphere as a result of agricultural fertilization, biomass
burning, cattle and feedlots, and industrial sources. NO2 has deleterious effects in the stratosphere,
where it breaks down and acts as a catalyst in the destruction of atmospheric ozone. Nitrous oxide is
also a greenhouse gas and is currently the third largest contributor to global warming, after carbon
dioxide and methane. While not as abundant in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, it is, for an
equivalent mass, nearly 300 times more potent in its ability to warm the planet.
Ammonia (NH3) in the atmosphere has tripled as the result of human activities. It is a reactant in the
atmosphere, where it acts as an aerosol, decreasing air quality and clinging to water droplets,
eventually resulting in nitric acid (HNO3) that produces acid rain. Atmospheric ammonia and nitric
acid also damage respiratory systems.
The very-high temperature of lightning naturally produces small amounts of NOx, NH3, and HNO3, but
high-temperature combustion has contributed to a 6 or 7 fold increase in the flux of NOx to the
atmosphere. Its production is a function of combustion temperature - the higher the temperature, the
more NOx is produced. Fossil fuel combustion is a primary contributor, but so are biofuels and even
the burning of hydrogen. The higher combustion temperature of hydrogen produces more NOx than
natural gas combustion.
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Ammonia and nitrous oxides actively alter atmospheric chemistry. They are precursors
of tropospheric (lower atmosphere) ozone production, which contributes to smog and acid rain,
damages plants and increases nitrogen inputs to ecosystems. Ecosystem processes can increase
with nitrogen fertilization, but anthropogenic input can also result in nitrogen saturation, which
weakens productivity and can damage the health of plants, animals, fish, and humans.
Decreases in biodiversity can also result if higher nitrogen availability increases nitrogen-demanding
grasses, causing a degradation of nitrogen-poor, species diverse heathlands.

Environmental impacts
Additional risks posed by increased availability of inorganic nitrogen in aquatic ecosystems include
water acidification; eutrophication of fresh and saltwater systems; and toxicity issues for animals,
including humans. Eutrophication often leads to lower dissolved oxygen levels in the water column,
including hypoxic and anoxic conditions, which can cause death of aquatic fauna. Relatively sessile
benthos, or bottom-dwelling creatures, are particularly vulnerable because of their lack of mobility,
though large fish kills are not uncommon. Oceanic dead zones near the mouth of the Mississippi in
the Gulf of Mexico are a well-known example of algal bloom-induced hypoxia. The New York
Adirondack Lakes, Catskills, Hudson Highlands, Rensselaer Plateau and parts of Long Island
display the impact of nitric acid rain deposition, resulting in the killing of fish and many other aquatic
species.
Ammonia (NH3) is highly toxic to fish and the level of ammonia discharged from wastewater
treatment facilities must be closely monitored. To prevent fish deaths, nitrification via aeration prior
to discharge is often desirable. Land application can be an attractive alternative to the aeration.
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Phosphorus cycle

Phosphorus Cycle on land

The phosphorus cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement
of phosphorus through the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Unlike many other
biogeochemical cycles, the atmosphere does not play a significant role in the movement of
phosphorus, because phosphorus and phosphorus-based compounds are usually solids at the
typical ranges of temperature and pressure found on Earth. The production of phosphine gas occurs
in only specialized, local conditions.
On the land, phosphorus (chemical symbol, P) gradually becomes less available to plants over
thousands of years, because it is slowly lost in runoff. Low concentration of P in soils reduces plant
growth, and slows soil microbial growth - as shown in studies of soil microbialbiomass. Soil
microorganisms act as both sinks and sources of available P in the biogeochemical [Link],
transformations of P are chemical, biological and microbiological: the major long-term transfers in
the global cycle, however, are driven by tectonic movements in geologic time.
Humans have caused major changes to the global P cycle through shipping of P minerals, and use
of P fertilizer, and also the shipping of food from farms to cities, where it is lost as effluent

Phosphorus in the environment

The aquatic phosphorus cycle

Ecological function
Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plants and animals. Phosphorus is a limiting nutrient for
aquatic organisms. Phosphorus forms parts of important life-sustaining molecules that are very
common in the biosphere. Phosphorus does not enter the atmosphere, remaining mostly on land
and in rock and soil minerals. Eighty percent of the mined phosphorus is used to make fertilizers.
Phosphates from fertilizers, sewage and detergents can cause pollution in lakes and streams.
Overenrichment of phosphate in both fresh and inshore marine waters can lead to massive algae
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blooms which, when they die and decay, leads to eutrophication of fresh waters only. An example of
this is the Canadian Experimental Lakes Area. These freshwater algal blooms should not be
confused with those in saltwater environments. Recent research suggests that the predominant
pollutant responsible for algal blooms in salt water estuaries and coastal marine habitats is Nitrogen.
Phosphorus occurs most abundantly in nature as part of the orthophosphate ion (PO4)3−, consisting
of a P atom and 4 oxygen atoms. On land most phosphorus is found in rocks and minerals.
Phosphorus rich deposits have generally formed in the ocean or from guano, and over time, geologic
processes bring ocean sediments to land. Weathering of rocks and minerals release phosphorus in
a soluble form where it is taken up by plants, and it is transformed into organic compounds. The
plants may then be consumed by herbivores and the phosphorus is either incorporated into their
tissues or excreted. After death, the animal or plant decays, and phosphorus is returned to the soil
where a large part of the phosphorus is transformed into insoluble compounds. Runoff may carry a
small part of the phosphorus back to the ocean. Generally with time (thousands of years) soils
become deficient in phosphorus leading to ecosystem retrogression.

Biological function
The primary biological importance of phosphates is as a component of nucleotides, which serve as
energy storage within cells (ATP) or when linked together, form the nucleic acids DNA and RNA.
The double helix of our DNA is only possible because of the phosphate ester bridge that binds the
helix. Besides making biomolecules, phosphorus is also found in bone and the enamel of
mammalian teeth, whose strength is derived from calcium phosphate in the form of Hydroxylapatite.
It is also found in the exoskeleton of insects, and phospholipids (found in all biological
membranes). It also functions as a buffering agent in maintaining acid base homeostasis in the
human body.

Process of the cycle

Phosphates move quickly through plants and animals; however, the processes that move them
through the soil or ocean are very slow, making the phosphorus cycle overall one of the slowest
biogeochemical cycles.
Initially, phosphate weathers from rocks and minerals, the most common mineral being apatite.
Overall small losses occur in terrestrial environments by leaching and erosion, through the action of
rain. In soil, phosphate is absorbed on iron oxides, aluminium hydroxides, clay surfaces, and organic
matter particles, and becomes incorporated (immobilized or fixed). Plants and fungi can also be
active in making P soluble.
Unlike other cycles, P is not normally found in the air as a gas; it only occurs under highly reducing
conditions as the gas phosphine PH3.

Phosphatic minerals
The availability of phosphorus in an ecosystem is restricted by the rate of release of this element
during weathering. The release of phosphorus from apatite dissolution is a key control on ecosystem
productivity. The primary mineral with significant phosphorus content, apatite [Ca5(PO4)3OH]
undergoes carbonation.
Little of this released phosphorus is taken up by biota (organic form), whereas a larger proportion
reacts with other soil minerals. This leads to precipitation into unavailable forms in the later stage of
weathering and soil development. Available phosphorus is found in a biogeochemical cycle in the
upper soil profile, while phosphorus found at lower depths is primarily involved in geochemical
reactions with secondary minerals. Plant growth depends on the rapid root uptake of phosphorus
released from dead organic matter in the biochemical cycle. Phosphorus is limited in supply for plant
growth. Phosphates move quickly through plants and animals; however, the processes that move
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them through the soil or ocean are very slow, making the phosphorus cycle overall one of the
slowest biogeochemical cycles.
Low-molecular-weight (LMW) organic acids are found in soils. They originate from the activities of
various microorganisms in soils or may be exuded from the roots of living plants. Several of those
organic acids are capable of forming stable organo-metal complexes with various metal ions found in
soil solutions. As a result, these processes may lead to the release of inorganic phosphorus
associated with aluminium, iron, and calcium in soil minerals. The production and release of oxalic
acid by mycorrhizal fungi explain their importance in maintaining and supplying phosphorus to
plants.
The availability of organic phosphorus to support microbial, plant and animal growth depends on the
rate of their degradation to generate free phosphate. There are various enzymes such
as phosphatases, nucleases and phytase involved for the degradation. Some of
the abiotic pathways in the environment studied are hydrolytic reactions and photolytic reactions.
Enzymatic hydrolysis of organic phosphorus is an essential step in the biogeochemical phosphorus
cycle, including the phosphorus nutrition of plants and microorganisms and the transfer of organic
phosphorus from soil to bodies of water. Many organisms rely on the soil derived phosphorus for
their phosphorus nutrition.

Human influences
Nutrients are important to the growth and survival of living organisms, and hence, are essential for
development and maintenance of healthy ecosystems. Humans have greatly influenced the
phosphorus cycle by mining phosphorus, converting it to fertilizer, and by shipping fertilizer and
products around the globe. Transporting phosphorus in food from farms to cities has made a major
change in the global Phosphorus cycle. However, excessive amounts of nutrients, particularly
phosphorus and nitrogen, are detrimental to aquatic ecosystems. Waters are enriched in
phosphorus from farms' run-off, and from effluent that is inadequately treated before it is discharged
to waters. Natural eutrophicationis a process by which lakes gradually age and become more
productive and may take thousands of years to progress. Cultural or anthropogenic eutrophication,
however, is water pollution caused by excessive plant nutrients; this results in excessive growth in
the algal population; when this algae dies its putrefaction depletes the water of [Link]
eutrophication may also give rise to toxic algal [Link] these effects cause animal and plant
death rates to increase as the plants take in poisonous water while the animals drink the poisoned
water. Surface and subsurface runoff and erosion from high-phosphorus soils may be major
contributing factors to this fresh water eutrophication. The processes controlling soil Phosphorus
release to surface runoff and to subsurface flow are a complex interaction between the type of
phosphorus input, soil type and management, and transport processes depending on hydrological
conditions.
Repeated application of liquid hog manure in excess to crop needs can have detrimental effects on
soil phosphorus status. Also, application of biosolids may increase available phosphorus in soil. In
poorly drained soils or in areas where snowmelt can cause periodic waterlogging, dereducing
conditions can be attained in 7–10 days. This causes a sharp increase in phosphorus concentration
in solution and phosphorus can be leached. In addition, reduction of the soil causes a shift in
phosphorus from resilient to more labile forms. This could eventually increase the potential for
phosphorus loss. This is of particular concern for the environmentally sound management of such
areas, where disposal of agricultural wastes has already become a problem. It is suggested that the
water regime of soils that are to be used for organic wastes disposal is taken into account in the
preparation of waste management regulations.
Human interference in the phosphorus cycle occurs by overuse or careless use of phosphorus
fertilizers. This results in increased amounts of phosphorus as pollutants in bodies of water resulting
in eutrophication. Eutrophication devastates water ecosystems by inducing anoxic conditions.