“Earth science” is a broad term that encompasses four main branches of study, each of
which is further broken down into more specialized fields.
BRANCHES OF EARTH SCIENCE
Geology
Geology is the study of the substances that make up the Earth, the processes that
shape it, and of how these materials and processes have changed the Earth over time.
Geology is very important as everything we do depends on our relationship to the
planet we live on.
Two important subfields of geology are vulcanology (the study of volcanoes),
and seismology (the study of earthquakes). Understanding these processes can help
enable us to predict and mitigate the effects of natural disasters such as volcanic
eruptions, major quakes, tsunamis and landslides. Geologists are also at the forefront
of the quest for natural resources such as oil, natural gas, and other raw materials.
Hydrologists study the availability and distribution of the Earth’s freshwater
resources including both surface water and aquifers. Physical geography is the study
of the Earth’s landforms. Paleontologists are interested in Earth’s history. Geologists
may work for industry, government agencies, universities or other settings. Most
geologists do field work at least part of the time.
Meteorology
Meteorology is the study of Earth’s atmosphere and how changes in temperature, air
pressure, humidity and winds affect the weather. Perhaps more than any other science,
meteorology is concerned with using data to make predictions of future events.
Broadcast meteorologists are probably the most familiar; men and women who
interpret and report weather data on television or radio to inform the public and
protect us when severe weather threatens. Forensic meteorologists often work for
lawyers or insurance agencies. Their job is to determine how weather conditions may
have contributed to accidents or caused damage to property.
Climatologists study the large-scale weather patterns for a given region over long
periods of time. Meteorologists and climatologists work closely with other scientists
to determine the possible effects of global climate change and whether human
activities are affecting global temperatures.
Oceanography
Oceanography, or marine science, is the interdisciplinary study of the sea.
Oceanographers may study currents, storms or waves. Oceanographers may use
sophisticated technology to map the ocean floor or evaluate whether movement of
subsea tectonic plates might cause rifting and tsunami waves. Oceanographers are
frequently biologists who seek to understand and protect marine ecosystems.
It is said that we know more about the surface of the moon than we do about the
oceans of our own world. Earth has more oceans than land environments, and the seas
may hold the keys to energy and food resources. We desperately need more
information to protect the oceans while we are using them for our own survival.
Oceanographers may work for governments, for the fishing or energy industries, or
shipping concerns. Most oceanographers travel a lot and should enjoy working on the
water. [Photos: Hawaii's New Underwater Volcano]
Astronomy
Astronomy is the study of Earth’s neighbors in the solar system and beyond. Optical
astronomy is direct observation of the visible universe using a variety of telescopes
and visual probes such as the Hubble Space Telescope. Radio astronomy can detect
radiation from wavelengths well beyond the visible spectrum, but they must also have
enormous “dishes” to collect the radio waves. In the past these size limitations made
the enormous radio telescopes cumbersome and difficult to aim. Today with the
modern ability to link radio telescopes almost instantly by using computer technology,
there are many more applications for this science. Astronomers are making
discoveries about the size, composition, energy and evolution of distant stars and
galaxies.
Planetologists study the planets of our solar system and beyond. Space probes send
photos and data from distant systems. In our own solar system the robot probe
Curiosity crawls the surface of Mars to analyze soil samples and transmit data to
Earth. Cosmologists seek to understand the origin of the universe. Most astronomers
work for government space agencies or universities.
The Earth sciences, studying the impact that humans have on the Earth and how
natural processes affect us, provide vital information for our future as a species. Our
future depends on understanding how the Earth can provide food, water and energy
for our growing population. Perhaps one day we will be able to apply these lessons to
inhabit another planet as well.
Inner Structure of the Earth
Crust
The crust is the thinnest layer of the Earth and is the layer we live on. It is made up of a
variety of rocks and can reach up to 70km thick in places. The crust itself is divided into
large chunks called tectonic plates. There are around 7 large and 12 small plates, which
‘float’ on top of the mantle beneath them. The plates themselves are made up of 2 different
types of crust, continental crust under the land and oceanic crust under the sea. Continental
crust is thick (25-70km) and light because it is made of rocks with a low density. Oceanic
crust is thin (6-11km) and heavy because it is made of rocks (mostly volcanic rocks) that
have a high density. The oceanic crust covers 2/3 of the Earth’s surface.
Mantle
The mantle is the thickest layer of the Earth at 2,900km thick. It makes up nearly 80% of
the volume of the Earth. The mantle itself is divided into 2 layers, the upper and lower
mantles and the heat within these layers drives convection currents. The upper mantle is
semisolid rock called magma that flows slowly due to convection currents. It is less than
1,000°C in temperature. The lower mantle is kept solid due to pressure and is between
1,000-3,500°C. If you had to describe the mantle as a whole, it is classed as a liquid.
Outer Core
The outer core is made of liquid iron and nickel and is between 3,500-4,000°C. As the
liquid metal swirls around, it induces a current that generates the Earth’s magnetic field.
Heat from the core powers the convection currents in the mantle. It is 2,900km thick.
Inner Core
The inner core is the hottest part of the Earth reaching temperatures between 4,000-
4,700°C, which are as hot as the surface of the sun. It is made of solid iron and nickelthat
are under so much pressure they cannot melt. It is 1,200km thick and heavy radioactive
elements within the core generate the intense heat as they decay.