Traffic Engineering Module IV

MODULE IV

4.1 Road Markings

Road markings are used as a means of controlling traffic. They are highly important on roads and
intersections as they promote road safety and bring about smooth and harmonious flow of traffic
along guided paths of travel. They also serve to supplement the messages conveyed by road signals
and signs. In some cases, they are used alone to convey certain regulation, information or warning that
cannot otherwise be effectively made known to the road users.

The limitations include gets covered by snow, poor visibility when wet and need for frequent
renewals when painted on surfaces exposed to traffic, road markings. The advantage with road
markings is that they convey the required information to the driver without distracting his attention
from carriageway.

4.1.2 Types of road markings

Road markings are basically of two types: carriageway markings and object markings. The former
types of markings are those that are applied to the carriageway itself. The latter type covers markings
on objects such as abutment, piers, kerbs, traffic islands, culvert headwalls, etc.

Carriageway markings are of the following categories: Centre line, Traffic Jane lines, No-
overtaking zone markings, Pavement edge lines, Carriageway width reduction transition markings,
Obstruction approach markings, Stop lines, Pedestrian crossings, Cyclist crossings, Route direction
arrows, Word messages, Markings at approaches to intersections, Parking space limits and Bus stops.

Object markings are of the following categories: Objects within the carriageway, Kerb
marking for visibility, Kerb marking for parking restriction, Objects adjacent to the carriageway.

4.1.3 General principles of longitudinal pavement markings

The general principles of longitudinal pavement markings are:

1. Solid lines are restrictive in nature and it is an offence to cross or straddle such a line.
2. Broken lines are restrictive in character, and vehicles can cross such a line provided this can be
done with safety.
3. Combination of a solid and broken lines is used, where the traffic moves to the left , a vehicle
should not cross the continuous line adjacent to and to the left of a broken line on the right of the
lane in which it is moving.
4. Double lines indicate maximum restrictions.

4.1.4 Material and colour

The material commonly used for pavement, kerb object marking is paint. Ordinary paints for road
markings covered by Indian Standards do not have a good degree of brightness and hence fail to catch
instantaneously the driver’s eyes. They also have short life. The better alternative is hot applied
thermoplastic paints, which are now-a-days specified for roads. Improved night visibility is obtained
by the use of minute glass beads incorporated in the markings to produce a retro-reflective surface.
Other materials that may also be used include pre-fabricated sheet materials, glue-down plastic
stripes, metal and plastic inserts and road studs.

The commonly used colours for road markings are white and yellow.

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Table 4.1 Colour of roads markings as per Indian practice

Colour Uses
All carriageway markings except those intended for
White
parking restrictions.
Markings intended for parking restrictions.
Yellow
Continuous centre and barrier line markings.
Alternate bands of white and black Kerb and object markings.

4.1.5 Centre lines

A centre line marking is provided to demarcate the centre of a carriageway and to separate traffic in
opposite directions.

Fig. 4.1 Centre lines and lane markings

The pattern of centre line markings depends on whether the road is in an urban section or rural
section. On rural sections, the segments and gaps are double in length than for urban locations. The
length of gap is shorter near approaches to intersection and on curves than on straight reaches. The
gap is half the value on straight sections.

4.1.6 Traffic lane lines

These are provided to divide the carriageway into separate lanes for traffic travelling in same direction
on either side of centre line or median strip. It promotes travel in proper lanes and reduces the
meandering tendency of drivers, thus ensuring safety and maximum capacity.

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4.1.7 No overtaking zone markings

No overtaking zone markings two provided on summit curvets, horizontal curves and in two and three
lane highways overtaking and passing maneouvers must be prohibited because of non-availability of
safe overtaking sight distance or other hazardous conditions.

The marking for a no-overtaking zone consists of a combination line along the centre line.
The combination line consists of a double line, the left hand element of which shall be a solid barrier
line. The right hand element will be either a normal broken centre line or solid barrier line governing
the traffic from the opposite direction. Where a solid barrier line is to the right of the broken line, the
overtaking restriction shall apply only to the opposing traffic. If both lines are solid, no overtaking is
permitted in both the directions.

Fig. 4.2 No overtaking zone markings

4.1.8 Pavement edge lines

Pavement edge lines are used to indicate the edges of carriageways which have no kerbs. They
serve as a visual guidance for the drivers, indicating to them the limits upto which the driver can
safely drive. They especially are useful during adverse weather and poor visibility. Where the paved
shoulder is of a lesser structural strength than the main pavement, the edge lines are used to promote
travel on the main pavement itself. Edge lines are in the form of a single continuous line placed about
15 cm from the edge. The width of the line is 15-20 cm.

4.1.9 Carriageway width reduction transition markings

Reduction in the carriageway width is made known by a combination of carriageway markings and
road signs.

Fig. 4.3 Carriageway marking showing reduction from 4 lanes to 2 lanes

4.1.10 Obstruction approach markings

Obstruction approach markings are necessary to guide traffic on the approach to fixed obstructions
within the carriageway. The markings must be designed to guide the traffic away from the
obstruction.

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Fig. 4.4 Obstruction approach markings

4.1.11 Stop lines

Stop lines are solid white lines provided transversely to the carriageway and used to indicate the point
behind which vehicles are required to stop in compliance with a STOP-sign, traffic signal or traffic
police. The width of the stop line as per current Indian Practice is:

1. Urban and sub-urban roads: 20 cm

2. Rural roads: 30 cm

Stop lines are ordinarily located not less than 2 m and not more than 3 m in advance and
parallel to the nearest boundary of the pedestrian crossing marking. Where there is no pedestrian
crossing, the stop line is placed not less than 1.25m and not more than 9 m from the nearest
carriageway edge of the intersecting road.

Fig. 4.5 Details of stop line

4.1.12 Pedestrian crossings

Pedestrian crossings are very important for pedestrian safety as they guide pedestrians in proper paths.
They are marked at all intersections where there is substantial conflict between vehicle and pedestrian
movements. In addition, they may also be provided at non-intersectional locations, where there is
concentrated pedestrian movement.

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The location of the pedestrian crossings should be selected properly to ensure adequate
visibility, sufficient space on the footway for the pedestrians to wait and freedom from obstructions.
As per current Indian requirements the minimum width of the pedestrian crossing should be 2 m and
the maximum width should be 4 m.

Fig. 4.6 Pedestrian crossing

4.1.13 Cyclist crossings

Cyclist crossings should have the same width as the cycle tracks. They are marked by means of
squares 50 cm  50 cm at a centre-to-centre spacing of 100 cm.

4.1.14 Route direction arrows

Route direction arrows are used to guide effectively the traffic in the correct direction and lanes.
Because of low angle at which such markings are viewed by the drivers, these markings must be
elongated in the direction of traffic to be properly legible.

Fig. 4.7 Route direction arrows

4.1.15 Word messages

They are used to convey information to guide, warn or regulate traffic. Some of the common
messages used are: STOP, SLOW, SPEED 25, etc.

4.1.16 Markings at approaches to intersections

For orderly and guided traffic movement at intersections, markings can be profitably employed.
Markings at intersections can be a combination of centre-lines, turn markings, lane markings, stop

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lines, route direction arrows, etc.

Fig. 4.8 Layout of an intersection with carriageway markings

4.1.17 Parking space limits

The delineation of the parking space limits promotes more efficient use of the parking spaces and
helps in preventing encroachment on fire hydrant zones, bus stops, loading zones and locations where
parking of vehicles will be undesirable.

4.1.18 Object markings

Obstructions in the carriageway are marked by alternating black and white stripes, sloping down at an
angle of 45º towards the side of the obstruction on which traffic passes. When the vertical clearance of
an underpass is less than the prescribed minimum, available clearance is marked by painting vertical
strips, alternately black and white. Kerb of all islands is normally painted with either alternate black
and white strips or a chequered black and white design.

For indicating restrictions on waiting and parking, the kerb (top and face) or the carriageway
is generally marked with a continuous yellow line. Objects such as guard rails, guard stones, drums or
trees are generally marked in solid white colour.

Fig. 4.9 Object markings

4.2 Traffic Signals

At intersection where there are a large number of crossing and right-turn traffic, there is possibility of
several accidents as there cannot be orderly movements. Traffic signals are control devices which
could alternately direct the traffic to stop and proceed at intersections using red and green traffic light
signals automatically. The main requirements of traffic signal are to draw attention, provide means
and time to respond and to have minimum waste of time.

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The advantages of traffic signals are:

1. They provide orderly movement of traffic and increase the traffic handling capacity of
intersections at grade.
2. They reduce accidents, mainly the right angled collisions and pedestrian type.
3. Pedestrians can cross the roads safely at the signalised intersection.
4. The signals allow crossing of the heavy traffic flow with safety.
5. A properly co-ordinated signal system allows a reasonable speed along the major roads.
6. Signals provide a chance to crossing traffic of minor road to cross the path of continuous flow of
traffic stream at reasonable intervals of time.
7. Automatic traffic signal may workout to be economical when compared to manual control.
8. The quality of traffic flow is improved by forming compact platoons of vehicles, provided all the
vehicles move at approximately the same speed.

The disadvantages of traffic signals are:

1. The rear-end collisions may increase.

2. Improper design and location of signals may lead to violations of the control system.
3. Failure of the signal due to electric power failure or any other defect may cause confusion to the
road users.
4. Excessive delay to vehicles may be caused, particularly during off-peak hours.
5. Drivers may be induced to use less adequate and less safe routes to avoid delay at signals.

The period of time required for one complete sequence of signal indications is called cycle. A
part of the signal cycle allocated to a traffic movement or a combination of traffic movement is called
phase. Any of the division of the signal cycle during which signal indications do not change is called
the interval.

4.2.1 Type of traffic signals

The signals are classified into the following types:

1. Traffic control signals

a. Fixed-time signal
b. Manually operated signal
c. Traffic actuated (automatic) signal
2. Pedestrian signal
3. Special traffic signal

Fig. 4.10 Traffic signal

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The traffic control signals have three coloured light glows facing each direction of traffic
flow. The red light is meant for Stop, the green light indicates Go and the amber light allows the
clearance time for the vehicles which enter the intersection area by the end of green time, to clear.
Additional signals showing green lights for separate movements of turning traffic may also be
provided where necessary.

Fixed-time signal or pre-timed signals are set to repeat regularly a cycle of red, amber and
green lights. The timing of each phase of the cycle is predetermined based on the traffic studies and
they are the simplest type of automatic traffic signals which are electrically operated. The main
drawback of the signal is that sometimes the traffic flow on one road may be almost nil and traffic on
the cross road may be quite heavy. Yet as the signal operates with fixed timings, the traffic in the
heavy stream will have to stop at red phase.

Traffic actuated signals are those in which the timings of the phase and cycle are changed
according to traffic demand. In semi-actuated traffic signals the normal green phase of an approach
may be extended upto a certain period of time for allowing a few more vehicles approaching closely,
to clear off the intersection with the help of detectors installed at the approaches. In fully actuated
traffic signals the detectors and a computer assigns the right of way for various traffic movements on
the basis of demand and pre-determined programming. But these are very costly to be installed at all
intersection.

Manually operated signal includes the traffic police assigned to duty to watch the traffic
demand from suitable observation point during the peak hours on various approaches and to vary the
timings of the phases and cycle according to the actual traffic demand.

Pedestrian signals include walk signal given by red standing man and do-not-walk signal
given by green walking man. Pedestrian signal are meant to give the right of way to pedestrians to
cross a road during the walk period when the vehicular traffic shall be stopped by red signal on the
traffic signals of the road.

Special traffic signal includes flashing beacons are meant to warn the traffic. At flashing red
signals, the drivers of vehicles shall stop before entering the nearest cross walk at an intersection or at
a stop line, when marked flashing amber signals are caution signals meant to signify that drivers may
proceed with caution.

4.2.2 Type of traffic signal system

When there are series of signals on a city road at each intersection with cross road, the signal system
may be operated with only one controller. But it is desirable that a vehicle moving along a main road
at normal speed should not have to a stop at every signalised intersection till getting the Go signal.
Hence there should be proper co-ordination of the signal system to provide a through band. There are
four general types of co-ordination of signals for road network:

[Link] Simultaneous System

In this system all the signals along a given road always show the same indication at the same time. As
the division of cycle is also the same at all intersections, this system does not work satisfactorily.

[Link] Alternate System

In this system, alternate signals or groups of signals show opposite indications in a route at the same
time. This system is also operated by a single controller, but by reversing the red and green indicator

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connections at successive signal systems. This system generally is considered to be more satisfactory
than the simultaneous system.

[Link] Simple Progressive System

It ensures a continuous operation of groups of vehicles along the main road at a reasonable speed. The
signal phase each signal unit works as fixed time signal, with equal signal cycle length controlling Go
indications along this road is scheduled to work at the pre-determined time schedule. The phases and
intervals at each signal installation may be different, but each signal unit works as fixed time signal,
with equal signal cycle length.

[Link] Flexible Progressive System

In this system it is possible to automatically vary the length of cycle, cycle division and the time
schedule at each signalized intersection with the help of a computer. This is the most efficient system

4.2.3 Warrants for traffic control signal installation

Traffic control signals should not be installed unless one or more of the following signal warrants are
met.

1. Minimum vehicular volume warrant: The average traffic volume for eight hours should be atleast
650 motor vehicles per hour on major streets with single lane and 800 vehicles on the streets with
two or more lanes. The number of motor vehicles approaching the intersection on minor street is
atleast 200 vehicles per hour on single lane street and 250 vehicles per hour when there are two or
more lanes.

2. Interruption of continuous traffic flow on the major street with 1000 to 1200 vehicles per hour
that there is undue delay or hazard to traffic on minor road with traffic of 100 to 150 vehicles per
hour in one direction only during any eight hours of an average.

3. Minimum pedestrian volume warrant: 150 or more pedestrians per hour cross a major street with
over 600 vehicles per hour on both approaches, (1000 vehicles per hour in the case of main street
with raised median).

4. Accident experience warrant: When other measures have failed to decrease the accident frequency
or when five or more accidents (involving over Rs. 2000 due to injury and damage) have occurred
within 12 months period. However signal installation should not seriously disrupt the traffic flow.

5. Combination of warrants when no single warrant is satisfied but indicating two or more warrants
of (i), (ii) or (iii) above are satisfied to the extent of 80 percent or more of the stated volume.

4.2.4 Design of signal

In the design of a signalised intersection, the objective should be to provide sufficient capacity for the
volume of traffic approaching the intersection. The design should aim at total delay, building short,
queues and providing a high probability of passing through the intersection. Signal timing should be
in accordance with traffic flow on intersection. The cycle lengths are normally 40 to 60 seconds for
two phase signal. Longer cycle lengths are in use for complex traffic flow and for more than two
phases.

[Link] General Principles of Signal Design

1. Stop time or red phase R1 of a signal is the sum of go and clearance intervals or green and amber
phases for the cross flow i.e., G2 + A2 at a two phase signal. During this interval, the pedestrian

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crossing time may also be incorporated for the road, if turning movements are not permitted.

2. Towards the end of red phase, there may be a short duration when the amber lights are put-on
along with red light signal in order to indicate Get Set to go. This phase is the last part of red
phase itself and may be called 'red-amber' or 'initial amber'. The vehicles are not supposed to
cross the stop line during the red amber period.

3. Clearance time or clearance amber phase is provided just after the green phase before the red
phase, to fulfil two requirements:
a. Stopping time for approaching vehicle to stop at stopline after the signal changes from green
to amber and not to cross the line by the time the signal changes to red phase.
b. Clearance time for the vehicle which is approaching the stop line at legal speed while the
signal changes from green to amber, allowing sufficient time for the vehicle to cross the
intersection area as it may not be possible for the vehicle to stop before the stop line at that
stage.
Usually 2.0 to 4.0 seconds would be suitable for the amber phase.

4. Go time or green time is decided based on the approach volume during peak hour and to enable
the queued vehicles to clear off in most of the cycles.

[Link] Trial Cycle Method

The 15 minute traffic counts n1 and n2 on road 1 and 2 are noted during the design peak hour flow.
Some suitable trial cycle C1 second is assumed and the number of the assumed cycles in the 15
minutes or 15  60 seconds period is found to be (15  60)/C1 i.e. (900/C1). Assuming average time
headway as 2.5 seconds, the green periods G1 and G2 of roads 1 and 2 are calculated to clear the
traffic during the trial cycle.

The amber periods A1 and A2 are either calculated or assumed suitably (3 to 4 seconds) and the length
C1′ is calculated, equal to (G1 + G2 + A1 + A2) seconds. If the calculated cycle length C1′ works out to
be equal to the assumed cycle length C1, the cycle length is accepted as the design cycle. Otherwise
the trials are repeated till the trial cycle length works out approximately equal to the calculated value.

[Link] Approximate method of pedestrian and traffic signals

The following design procedure is suggested for the simple design of a two phase signal unit at cross
roads, along with pedestrian signals:

1. Based on approach speeds of the vehicles, the suitable, clearance interval between green and red
period i.e., clearance amber periods are selected. The amber periods may be taken as 2, 3 and 4
seconds for low, medium and fast approach speeds.

2. Based on pedestrian walking speed of 1.2 m per second, the clearance for pedestrian time is also
calculated.

3. Minimum red time of traffic signal is taken as pedestrian clearance time for crossing plus initial
interval for pedestrians to start crossing. This red time is equal to the minimum green time plus
amber time for the cross road.

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4. The minimum green time is calculated as pedestrian clearance time for cross road plus an initial
interval when pedestrians may start to cross minus amber period.
a. with pedestrian signal the initial interval should not be less than seven seconds.
b. where no pedestrian signal is used, five seconds is used as initial interval.

5. The actual green time needed is then increased for the road having heaviest traffic volume per
hour per lane, based on the ratio of approach volume. The cycle length so obtained is adjusted for
the next higher 5-second interval. The extra time is distributed to green timings in proportion to
the approaching volumes of traffic.

6. The values so obtained are calculated on percentage basis if the controller settings are in per cent
of cycle.

7. The timings so obtained are installed in the controller and the operations are then observed at the
site during peak traffic hours. Corrections or modifications are carried out if needed.

[Link] Websters Method

In this method, the optimum signal cycle CO corresponding to least total delay to the vehicles at the
signalized intersection has been worked out. This is a rational approach. The field work consists of
finding:

1. saturation flow S per unit time on each approach of the intersection

2. normal flow q on each approach during the design hour

The ratio y1 = q1/Si and y2 = q2/S2 are determined on the approach roads 1 and 2. In the case of mixed
traffic, it is necessary to convert all the normal flow and saturation flow values in terms of suitable
PCU values which should be determined separately.

The saturation flow is to be obtained from careful field studies by noting the number of
vehicles in the stream of compact flow during the green phases, and the corresponding time intervals
precisely. In the absence of data the approximate value of saturation flow is estimated assuming 160
PCU per 0.3 metre width of the approach. The normal flow of the traffic is also determined on the
approach roads from the field studies for the design period (during the peak or off-peak hours as the
case may be).

The optimum signal cycle is given by:

where L - total lost time per cycle in seconds = 2n + R (n is the number of phase and R is all red-time)
and

Then,

[Link] Design Method as per IRC Guideline

1. The pedestrian green time required for the major and minor roads are calculated based on walking
speed of 1.2 m/seconds and initial walking time of 7 seconds. These are the minimum green time

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required for the vehicular traffic on the minor and major roads respectively.

2. The green time required for the vehicular traffic on the major road is increased in proportion to
the traffic on the two approach roads.

3. The cycle time is calculated after allowing amber time of 2.0 seconds each.

(The steps mentioned above are similar to the Approximate Method)

4. The minimum green time required for clearing vehicles arriving during a cycle is determined for
each lane of the approach road assuming that the first vehicle will take 6.0 secs. And the
subsequent vehicles (PCU) of the queue will be cleared at a rate of 2.0 secs. The minimum green
time required for the vehicular traffic on any of the approaches is limited to 16 secs.

5. The optimum signal cycle time is calculated using Webster's formula. The saturation flow values
may be assumed as 1850, 1890, 1950, 2250, 2550 and 2990 PCU per hour for the approach
roadway widths (kerb to median or centre line) of 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5 and 5.5 m; and for widths above
5.5 m, the saturation flow may be assumed as 525 PCU per hour per metre width.

The lost time is calculated from the amber time, inter-green time and the initial delay of
4.0 seconds for the first vehicle, on each leg.

6. The signal cycle time and the phases may be revised keeping in view the green time required for
clearing the vehicles and the optimum cycle length determined it steps (iv) and (v) above.

4.3 Traffic and Environment

The automobile is doubtless one of the outstanding inventions of man. Business, commerce and
industry, social life of the people and their need to travel are all served by the motor vehicle. The
number of motor vehicles is increasing at an alarming proportion. These have a direct impact on the
environment. The environment has to be kept healthy and safe by applying suitable corrective
measures. The traffic engineer has a great responsibility in ensuring that the road traffic does not spoil
the environment in which people live and transact their day-to-day business.

4.3.1 Detrimental effects of traffic on the environment

The following detrimental effects are of importance :

1. Noise 3. Visual intrusion and degrading the aesthetics

2. Air pollution 4. Severance

[Link] Noise pollution

Noise is unwanted sound. The increasing urbansation in cities and growth of activities therein have
contributed to the mounting volume of noise, intruding upon the quiet life and privacy of the urban
dwellers. The annoyance and discomfort caused by noise can at times assume proportions requiring
urgent attention. Noise in cities is the result of a number of activities such as road traffic, aircraft,
railways, etc.

Effects of noise
The detrimental effects of traffic noise can be considered under the following three major groups:

1. Subjective effects - This can be described by terms such as annoyance, disturbance,

dissatisfaction, bother and noisiness. But these effects are difficult to be measured precisely,

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because a wide variation can exist among subjects in desscribing what level of sound causes them
annoyance or discomfort.

2. Behavioural effects - This cover interference with sleep, speech or any general task. Disturbance
in sleep caused by noise is common in high noise areas. If the noise level is high, it takes longer
time to fall off to sleep and there are greater chances of awakening. Noise can cause interference
in speech and enjoyment of radio and TV programmes. It can cause disturbance in studies and
intellectual pursuits. In classrooms considerable distraction can result in the student's mind due to
continuous high level of traffic noise. The efficiency in performing general tasks involving mental
activity can be impaired by noise.

3. Physiological effects - These includes that cause startle or fright phenomena, and can result in
harmful effects on various parts of the body. At extremely high level and for long periods of
exposure it may produce deafness, but this danger may not be imminent at current levels of noise
in cities.

Generation of noise by road traffic

The generation of noise caused by road traffic includes:

1. Noise generated by various parts of the vehicle.

2. Noise contributed by the interaction between the vehicle and the road surfaces.
3. Noise dependent on the speed, flow and density of traffic.

An important source of noise generation is the vehicle itself. Motor cycles and scooters are
generally noisier than passenger cars. Because of the large horsepower of the diesel engine and the
heavy loads they carry, commercial trucks are a main source of noise. As vehicles grow older and
their mechanical condition deteriorates, the noise generated becomes more.

The tyre-road surface interaction is a major generator of noise. Smooth surfaces generally
produce less noise than rough ones. Grooved cement concrete pavements have been particularly found
to be a source of annoying noise to the neighbourhood. Wet surfaces also contribute to noise.

As the traffic volume (flow) increases, the noise level inevitably rises. Higher speeds also are known
to cause higher noise level. It is believed that at lower speeds the influence of engine and transmission
noise is predominant whereas at high speeds the tyre surface interaction assumes greater importance.
Noise levels increase during acceleration.

Measurement of noise levels

The unit of measurement of noise is the decibel (dB), which is the unit of sound pressure level. The
instrument used for recording sound levels is the sound level meter. People's judgment of what
acceptable noise is and what is not varies. Normally, noise having a level of not more than 60 dB will
be rated by many as quiet. Noise levels of 90 dB and above will be rated by many as extremely noisy.

Control of traffic noise

Techniques available for control of traffic noise are:

1. Changes in design of vehicles - Legislative measures in enforcing vehicle manufacturers to

design the vehicles for a maximum noise level can prove effective if they are enforced properly.
Many countries abroad have enacted such measures. In India, the Motor Vehicles Act makes
provision for the Governments to frame rules to control the noise produced by motor cycles.

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2. Changes in tyres or road surfaces - Changes in tyre tread design and composition can bring
about a reduction in noise level. Smoother surfaces results in less noisier roads. But this
requirement is against the skid resistance requirement.

3. Elimination of noisier vehicles - As vehicles become old, their noise level increases. Legislative
measures can prevent such vehicles from being used on the road.

4. Modifications in traffic operation - Some of the measures that are possible are:
a. Rerouting of commercial vehicles and buses away from the areas.
b. Providing bypasses and ring roads to siphon off the through traffic entering the towns.
c. Providing synchronized traffic signals at street crossings, to reduce the stop-and-go traffic is
flow and consequently eliminating acceleration noise.
d. Prohibiting blowing horns by proper signing and enforcement measures.

5. Designing streets, buildings and areas for producing less noise - These measures are
essentially town planning measures. Narrow streets create noise conditions, a situation commonly
known as the canyon effect. When planning new streets, it is desirable to plan for wider streets. A
related requirement is the height of buildings and their set-back from the street. Noise screens
such as grass, trees or shrubs planted alongside the streets can serve as barriers to the propagation
of sound.

[Link] Air Pollution

Pollution of the atmosphere by fumes and smell emitted by the motor vehicles makes the urban streets
extremely unpleasant. With further growth of vehicle population, the problem is bound to assume
serious proportions. In special situations such as in tunnels, ventilation is a major issue.

Major pollutants
The major source of the pollutant is the exhaust gas emitted by the internal combustion engine,
although evaporative losses from the fuel tank and the carburetor and losses from the crank case
account for some proportion of the hydrocarbons. The following are the major components of the
exhaust gas:

1. Carbon dioxide 5. Carbon monoxide

2. Water vapour 6. Oxides of nitrogen
3. Unburnt petrol 7. Lead compounds
4. Organic compounds produced from the petrol 8. Carbon particles (smoke)

Effect of pollutants
Carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and lead compounds are substances which are of concern from
the point of view of the road users and their health . Small doses of carbon monoxide present in the
air due to road traffic are not a medical danger, but can cause minor effects.

The concentration of nitrogen oxides due to road traffic being small, their presence does not
appear to be a danger to health, but the effect of long-term exposure might cause anxiety. Lead
compounds in small concentrations as are present in the city streets may not be toxic, but the increase
in the concentration may ultimately affect e well-being of the residents.

Smoke contains minute particles of carbon and by itself it is not a health hazard, but it may

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prove dangerous in combination with some other compounds. Smog is a result of the combination of
smoke and fog and can cause hazards to driving and irritation to the eyes.

Measures for controlling air pollution

The following are some of the measures for controlling air pollution from road traffic:

1. Reducing the pollutants at the source, which is the exhaust, evaporation and crank case losses, by
improving the vehicle design and maintenance.
2. Use of small cars instead of bigger ones.
3. Use of public transport system, especially tubes and railways.
4. Use of alternative fuels and methods of propulsion.
5. Restraining traffic through road pricing.
6. Controlling idling engines, by insisting that engines should be stopped during traffic delays.
7. By constructing bypasses and ring roads to reduce traffic in the mid-town.

In India, the Motor Vehicles Act, makes provision enabling the State Governments to frame
rules to control the emissions such as smoke, visible vapour, sparks, ashes, grit and oils. The Air
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981 enacted by the Central Government gives necessary
legal provisions in India.

[Link] Visual Intrusion and Degrading the Aesthetics

An undetectable, but yet significant effect of road traffic in the urban and rural areas has been the
steady intrusion that has taken place in the visual surroundings. In the urban sphere, the motor vehicle
has been competing for space for movement.

The beauty of monumental and historical buildings has been marred by the clutter of the iron
and steel of these man-made machines. The calmness and openness of parks and squares has been
invaded and spoiled. Service stations, garages and petrol filling stations have sprung up along the road
and added their part to the degradation of the general scene.

To attract the attention of the motorist numerous signs, signals and bill-boards have sprung up
all along the streets, damaging the beauty of the surrounding landscape, historical landmarks and
architectural masterpieces. Destruction of vegetation causing landslides and soil erosion are some of
the common bad effects.

It is possible to guard the surroundings from the ill effects of visual intrusion by joint
planning amongst traffic engineers, town planners and architects. The needs of traffic and the
buildings they serve should be considered broadly and a suitable traffic architecture devised. The form
and shape of the buildings and the requirements of the residential areas should not be dictated by
traffic but should be related to it. Traffic should be subordinated to the environmental needs.

The visual ill-effects of parking can be got over by designing suitable off-street facilities for
parking and enforcing regulations for on-street parking. It is possible to control unsightly bill-boards
by suitable regulatory measures. An example of such a practice can be seen in the I.R.C. Policy on
Control of Roadside Advertisements.

Landscaping of rural highways can preserve and enhance the aesthetics. Proper care is needed
in route location and geometric design of highways to preserve the natural beauty.

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Traffic Engineering Module IV

Ribbon development along highways is a result of growth of mad traffic and has many ill-
effects. Some of the measures recommended by irc to reduce these are:

1. Acquisition of adequate right-of way.

2. Control of access.
3. Construction of bypasses around congested town.
4. Provision of parallel service roads to meet the needs of local traffic.
5. Prevention and removal of encroachments.

[Link] Severance and Land Consumption

Severance is the general term denoting the psychological, cultural and physical disturbance caused by
a traffic facility on the neighbourhoods, the land, the society and its life styles. Highways and streets
consume an enormous amount of land, and the compulsory acquistion of the some can make inroads
into the homogeneous and closely-knit life of a community and can cause disruption, to its way of
life.

The amount of land taken by streets and highways is so large that it has created problems of
rehabilitation and relocation. There are other competing sectors where land would be greatly needed,
for eg., urban slum clearance, housing and agriculture.

While the needs of land for streets and highways cannot be set aside and have to be reckoned
with, the following guidelines can be kept it view in planning new facilities or improvement of
existing ones to keep the effects of severance and land consumption as low as possible.

1. Historic and cultural sites areas must be preserved

2. Severance of school playgrounds from the school precincts should be avoided.
3. Whenever a new road is being located through a closely knit and homogenous locality the special
needs of the community for the pursuit of their daily life (i.e. educational medical, cultural,
religious needs) should be carefully looked into and no undue dislocation caused.
4. Recreational areas (parks, etc.), virgin forest lands and conservation lands should not be disturbed
by highway location.
5. Where severance is unavoidable, suitable provision should be made for people to cross the road.
Underpasses and over-bridges should be provided to mitigate the hardships.
6. The highways should be planned such that they have the least impact on the ecological system.

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