Signals & Systems

EEE/INSTR F 243
BITS Pilani ANU GUPTA
Pilani Campus EEE
 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Introduction
[Link]
Circuits & Signals
EEE C272 / INSTR C272

Instructor-in-charge : ANU GUPTA

Instructors: Satish Mohanti, Luky Sharan, Jitendra

, Vinita Tiwari, Sachin Maheshwari

Email (I/C): anug@[Link]

Course web page : intrabits

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Course Objectives

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Scope of the course

•Discuss the role, type, mathematical representation of signals in

designing systems
•Learn various mathematical descriptions and analysis methods
of systems

Concepts applicable in diverse areas—biomedical engg, energy

generation, acoustics, chemical process, speech processing

Text Book:
T1: Lathi B P, “ Signal Processing & Linear Systems”, Oxford
University Press, 2006.
T2: Nagrath I J, Sharan S N, Ranjan Rakesh & Kumar S,
“Signals & Systems”, TMH, 2001.

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Evaluation Scheme

EC Evaluation Duratio Marks Date, Time & Nature of

No Component n Venue Component
. (min)
1 Midsemester Test 90 90 Open Book
3 Weekly Tutorials ----- 60 Spread Closed
throughout the
semester
4 On-line Test ----- 40 To be announced Open Book
in the class (7
April 2013)
4 Comprehensive 180 110 Closed Book
Total 300

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Need of the course

Most signals are naturally generated whereas

systems are to be designed and built to process
signals.
It deals with the basic methods (transforms) used
in signal processing with an aim to provide the
necessary background in signals and systems
for follow-up courses
In areas control, communication, microelectronic
circuits, filter design, and digital signal
processing

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 Important topics needed in
these follow-up courses
Signals: Frequency spectra, which are used for discussing bandwidth,
selecting sampling and carrier frequencies, and specifying systems,
especially, Filters to be designed.

Systems: Rational transfer functions, which are used in circuit analysis and
in design of filters and control systems. In filter design, we find transfer
functions whose frequency responses meet specifications based on the
frequency spectra of signals to be processed.

Implementation: State-space (ss) equations (an internal description), which

are most convenient for computer computation, real-time processing, and
op-amp circuit or specialized hardware implementation.
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Background required

• Integration
• Differentiation
• Differential equations
• Trigonometric functions, sinusoids, sinusoids as
exponentials, various identities
• Complex numbers , arithmetic
• Coordinate systems—cartesian, polar, changing from
one to other
• Matrices
• Use of electronic calculator for above operations

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Signals

We shall take Simplest real-world signals

Various types of signals,

Way to characterize signals

Develop their frequency spectra

Estimate their bandwidths

Learn a way to do it using computer computation.

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Learn role of signals in designing systems in the
following three domains:

Time domain, where all processing is carried out.

Frequency domain, where design specifications
are given.
Transformed domain, where most design methods
are developed.

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Systems

An entity that processes a set of signals to yield another set

of signals----Hardware realization, software realization
Need not be big-All transducers and sensors are systems.
Other types--Amplifiers, filters, and motors, converters,
computer program--

We shall develop four mathematical descriptions:

Convolutions
Differential (difference) equations
State space equations (an internal description)
Transfer functions (an external description)

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Signals
• signal may have one or more independent
variables. The more independent variables
in a signal, the more complicated the
signal.

• In this course, we study signals that have

only one independent variable.
Classification of Signals---
Continuous
A signal, as the term implies, is a set of information or data.

• Continuous-time and discrete-time signals

• Analog and digital signals
• Periodic and aperiodic signals
• Causal, Noncausal, anticausal
• Energy and power signals
• Even and odd signals
• Deterministic and random signals
• Time-Invariant and Time-Varying Systems

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C.T. , D.T (qualifies nature of x axis)
• A signal that is specified for every value of time t
is a continuous- time signal. Such a signal will
be denoted by x(t)

• A signal that is specified only at discrete values

of t is a discrete-time signal. Such a signal will
be denoted by x[nT] , x[n]
 Sinusoid in CT & DT
Sinusoidal signal--
f(t)= A cos w0t, T0= 2π/ω0

In the continuous-time case, the period of a

sinusoid can take on any value; integral, fractional,
or even irrational.

Sinusoidal sequence--
f[n] = cos w0nT = cos Ωn
where Ω = w0T

The discrete-time signal, in contrast, is specified only at integral values of n.

so it is periodic only if Ω = 2π × some rational number
i.e fit an integral number (No) of samples in an integral number (m) of
cycles of its

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ANALOG, DIGITAL (qualifies nature of y axis)
• A signal whose amplitude can take on any
value in a continuous range is an analog
signal.

• A digital signal, on the other hand, is one

whose amplitude can take on only a finite
number of values.
COMBINATION
PERIODIC, APERIODIC
• A signal f(t) is said to be periodic if for some positive
constant To , such that f(t) = f(t + To) , for all t
• The smallest value of To that satisfies the periodicity
condition is the period
• Properties-----
• A periodic signal f(t) remains unchanged when time-shifted
by one period. A periodic signal must start at t = - ∞ and
continue forever. Everlasting signals.

• A periodic signal f(t) can be generated by periodic

extension of any segment of f(t) of duration To (the period).
•
• A signal is aperiodic if it is not periodic.
 Example

Show that the sinusoidal signal is periodic and that its fundamental period is 2π/wo.

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 CAUSAL, NONCAUSAL, ANTI CAUSAL
• A signal that does not start before t = 0 is a causal signal.
f(t) is a causal signal if f(t) = 0, t < 0

• A signal is anticausal signal if f(t) =0 for all t >= 0. Anti

causal is a flipped version of causal signal

A signal that starts before t = 0 is a noncausal signal.

• An everlasting signal is always noncausal but a noncausal

signal is not necessarily everlasting.

A true everlasting signal cannot be generated in practice

A causal signal

An anticausal signal

A noncausal signal
 ENERGY, POWER
Strength of signal
• Strength of signal is computed by amplitude and
duration of signal. So, area under a signal f(t) gives
possible measure of its size .
• To account for positive and negative areas cancellation,
we find area under f2(t), which is always positive.
• A signal with finite energy is an energy signal

Constraint---Energy has to be finite, so signal amplitude  0

as ItI  ∞
Else integral will not converge.
• A signal with infinite energy is a power signal.
• When the amplitude of f(t) does not  0 as It t ∞, we
find time average of the energy [mean-squared value of f(t]).

• For a signal f (t ), we define its power P as

• The mean of an entity averaged over a large time interval

approaching infinity exists if the entity is either periodic
or has a statistical regularity.

• If such a condition is not satisfied, the average may not

exist.
Size of the signal-
energy , power signal

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Example

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Energy signal—
signal amplitude  0 as ItI  ∞ . Power=0

Power signal---
.
Energy = infinite

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Exception

Signals that satisfy neither property are referred to as

neither energy signals nor power signals.

Example----
A ramp signal x(t) = t ; t>0 increases indefinitely as It I
∞, and neither the energy nor the power exists for this
signal.

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Examples

Determine whether the following signal is energy signals, power signals,

or neither.

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• x(t) = 4

• x (t)= Ce jω0 t
Even, Odd

A signal f(t) is referred to as an even signal if

f(- t ) = f( t ),
fe(t) is symmetrical about
the vertical axis,

A signal f(t) or x[t] is referred to as an odd signal if

f( - t ) = - f( t ),
fo(t) is anti symmetrical about
the vertical axis,

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Decomposition in terms of
even , odd signals
Any signal f(t) or x[t] can be expressed as a sum of two
signals, one of which is even and one of which is odd.
That is,

fe(t) = ½ [ f ( t ) + f (- t ) ] even part of f( t )

fo(t) = ½ [ f ( t ) - f(- t ) ] odd part of f(t )

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• Sketch and label the even and odd
components of the signals
Even , odd component

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Where is the flaw?
define range of t

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Way out

• Definition of even / odd function is followed in plots i.e

even is function + mirror image of function
• Sum of even , odd must give function back
• Even/odd plot must show symmetry/ asymmetry

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Examples
• Find the even and odd components of x ( t ) = ejt

• Show that the product of two even signals or of

two odd signals is an even signal
Let x ( t ) = x 1( t ) x 2 ( t ) .
If x1(t) and x2( t ) are both even, then

x (- t ) = x 1 (- t ) . x2(- t ) = x 1 ( t ) . x2( t ) = x ( t )
Properties of even, odd

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example

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• If x(t) is even then prove
• Show that the complex exponential signal is
periodic and that its fundamental period is
2π/ω0.
Deterministic, Random

A signal whose physical description is known

completely, either in a mathematical form or a
graphical form, is a deterministic signal.
SINUSOID

A signal whose values cannot be predicted

precisely but are known only in terms of
probabilistic description, such as mean value,
mean squared value, and so on is a random
signal. NOISE

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Classification of discrete
signals
• Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
• Analog and digital signals
• Periodic and aperiodic signals
• Causal, Noncausal, anticausal
• Energy and power signals
• Even and odd signals
• Deterministic and random signals
• Time-Invariant and Time-Varying Systems

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Discrete time signal
Sampling of CT signal

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Representation of discrete
signals

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Periodic / aperiodic discrete
function

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Periodicity applied to sinusoid

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Example
 Sinusoid in Discrete time

Sinusoidal sequence--
f[n] = cos w0nT = cos Ωn
where Ω = w0T

The discrete-time signal, in contrast, is specified only at integral

values of n.
so it is periodic only if Ω = 2π × some rational number
i.e fit an integral number (No) of samples in an integral number
(m) of
cycles of its

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Periodic, Aperiodic

Periodic discrete-time signals are defined as

A sequence (discrete-time signal) x[n] is periodic with period
N if there is a positive integer N for which
x[n + N] =x[n] all n

for all n and any integer m.

The fundamental period No of x[n] is the smallest positive
integer N for which above eq. holds.

Any sequence which is not periodic is called a nonperiodic (or

aperiodic sequence) .

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BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
• Show that the complex exponential seq. is
periodic

i.e. fit an integral number (No) of samples in an integral number (m) of cycles of
its envelop
 Find the condition on the value of Ts so that x [n ] is
periodic with fundamental period N0

x[n] is periodic if the ratio Ts/T0, of the sampling interval and the
fundamental period of x ( t ) is a rational number.
• Consider the sinusoidal signal
Imp. points

Note that

•the sum of two continuous-time periodic signals may not

be periodic

•the sum of two periodic sequences is always periodic

•a sequence obtained by uniform sampling of a periodic

continuous-time signal may not be periodic

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Example

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So , the sum of two periodic signals is periodic only if the ratio of
their respective periods can be expressed as a rational
number.
Then the fundamental period is the least common multiple of T1
and T2

If the ratio T1 /T2 is an irrational number, then the signals x1(t)

and x2(t) do not have a common period and x(t) cannot be
periodic.

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Example

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we can always find integers m and k to satisfy

it follows that the sum of two periodic sequences is also

periodic and

its fundamental period is the least common multiple of N1

and N2.

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Causal, Noncausal, Anti
Causal

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Even, Odd

A signal x (n) is referred to as an even signal if

x[-n]=x[n]

A signal x[n] is referred to as an odd signal if

x[-n]=-x[n]

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Any signal x[n] can be expressed as a sum of two signals,
one of which is even and one of which is odd. That is,

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Properties of even, odd

• if x[n] is an odd signal, then

• if x1[n] is odd and x2[n] is even, then their product is odd.

• If x[n] be an arbitrary signal, then

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BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
Energy, Power

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Example

If x [ n ] is even then prove

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Signal Operations

• Useful Signal Operations—

• Time Shifting
• Time Scaling
• Time Inversion (Time Reversal)

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Time shifting

• Signal f(t) , same signal delayed by T seconds φ(t).

• Whatever happens in f(t) at some instant t also happens
in φ(t) at t+T

• f(t - T) represents f(t) time-shifted by T seconds.

• If T is positive, the shift is to the right (delay). --f(t - 2)
• If T is negative, the shift is to the left (advance).--f(t + 2)

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Time Scaling
C. T.

• The compression or expansion of a signal in time is known as

time scaling.
• Signal f(t) , same signal compressed (in time by factor 2) φ(t).
• Whatever happens in f(t) at some instant t also happens to
φ(t) at the instant t/2

• f(t) expanded in time by a factor of 2

• No loss of data in time scaling

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Time Scaling
D. T.
• Time Compression: Decimation or Down sampling
• Signal fc[k] is the signal f[k] compressed by a factor 2
fc [k] = f [2k]
• fc[0] = f[0], fc[l] = f[2], fc[2] = f[4], - - -
• fc[k] is made up of even numbered samples of f[k]
• This operation loses part of the data
• Time Expansion

• fe[0] = f[0], fe[l] = f[1/2], fe[2] = f[I], fe[3] = f[3/2], fe[4] = f[2], fe[5] = f[5/2]
• Therefore, for f e [k], its
• Odd numbered samples fe[l], fe[3], fe[5], ... are all zero, or undefined
• The process of time expansion and inserting the missing samples using
an interpolation is called interpolation or upsampling.
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BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
Time Inversion (or Reversal or
reflection)
• Time invert a signal , mirror image of f(t) , replace t by –t
• In f [k], replace k with –k
• This operation rotates the signal about the vertical axis.

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Important observation

• Upon time shift and time reversal , energy/ power of

signal remains same . This implies that system causing
shift in signal does not pump energy in it.

• Upon time scaling, energy/ power of signal increases as

magnitude is not reducing. This implies that we need a
system to operate on signal to do scaling of signal which
pumps energy in it.
• Example---positive feedback

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Combined Operations

simultaneous use of more than one of the above operations.

f(at - b)
• Shift and scale
• Scale and shift

• f(2t - 6). ---shift f(t) by 6 (t t-6), then scale resultant

function by 2 (t2t)

• f(2t-6)= f(2(t-3))----scale function by 2 (t2t) and then shift

resultant function by 3 (replace t with t - 3)

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Using variable z Using variable t
• Example • Example
• Given x(t), find x(2t+3) • Given x(t), find x(2t+3)
• 2t z • 2t t
• Plot x(z+3) • Plot x(t+3)
• Replace z  2z • Replace t  2t

• Alternatively--- • Alternatively---
• Given x(t), find x(2t+3) • Given x(t), find x(2t+3)
• t-3/2 z • t-3/2 t
• Plot x(2z) • Plot x(2t)
• Replace z  z-3/2 • Replace t t-3/2

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Examples

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Discrete signal operations

USEFUL SIGNAL OPERATIONS;

• TIME SHIFTING

• TIME SCALING

• TIME REVERSAL

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Time shift

To shift a sequence by M units (M integer), we replace n with

n − M. Thus x[n − M] represents x[n] shifted by M units.

If M is positive, the shift is to the right (delay).

If M is negative, the shift is to the left (advance).

Accordingly, x[n − 5] is x[n] delayed (right-shifted) by 5 units,

and x[n + 5] is x[n] advanced (left-shifted) by 5 units

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Time Shifting

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Time scaling

Consider a signal x[k] compressed by factor M.

Compressing a signal x[k] by factor M yields xd[k] given by

x[k] = x[Mk]

Because of the restriction that discrete-time signals are

defined only for integer values of the argument, we must
restrict M to integer values.

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The values of x[Mk] at k = 0, 1, 2, 3,... are x[0], x[M], x[2M], x[3M],....

This means x[Mk] selects every Mth sample of x[k] and deletes all
the samples in between

For this reason, this operation is called decimation. It reduces the

number of samples by factor M. For this reason, decimation is also
called downsampling.

If x[k] is obtained by sampling a continuous-time signal, this

operation implies reducing the sampling rate by factor M.
Time compression---Down sampling or decimation
Time expansion--Up sampling or interpolation
Time Reversal

we rotate x[k] about the vertical axis to obtain the time reversed signal xr[k]

xr[k] = x[-k]
To time-reverse a signal, we replace k with − k so that x[−k] is the time reversed
x[k].

example, if x[k] = (0.9)−k for 3 ≤ k ≤ 10, then x[k] = (0.9)−k for 3 ≤ −k ≤ 10; that is, −3
≤ k ≤ −10

The origin k = 0 is the anchor point, which remains unchanged under time-reversal
operation because at k = 0, x[k] = x[−k] = x[0].

Note --reversal of x[k] about the vertical axis is x[−k], the reversal of x[k] about the
horizontal axis is −x[k].
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Examples

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 BITS Pilani
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