Briones, Carl Japeth M.

Building Technology

Arc - 2105

 Concrete
The word concrete comes from the Latin word "concretus" (meaning compact or condensed), the
perfect passive participle of "concrescere-" (together) and "crescere" (to grow).
Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse aggregate bonded together with a fluid cement
which hardens over time. Most concretes used are lime-based concretes such as Portland cement
concrete or concretes made with other hydraulic cements, such as ciment fondu. However,asphalt
concrete which is very frequently used for road surfaces is also a type of concrete, where the cement
material isbitumen, and polymer concretes are sometimes used where the cementing material is a
polymer.
In Portland cement concrete (and other hydraulic cement concretes), when the aggregate is mixed
together with the dry cement and water, they form a fluid mass that is easily molded into shape. The
cement reacts chemically with the water and other ingredients to form a hard matrix which binds all the
materials together into a durable stone-like material that has many [Link], additives (such as
pozzolans orsuperplasticizers) are included in the mixture to improve the physical properties of the wet
mix or the finished material. Most concrete is poured with reinforcing materials (such asrebar)
embedded to provide tensile strength, yielding reinforced concrete.
Famous concrete structures include theHoover Dam, the Panama Canal and the Roman Pantheon. The
earliest large-scale users of concrete technology were theancient Romans, and concrete was widely
used in the Roman Empire. The Colosseum in Rome was built largely of concrete, and the concrete
dome of the Pantheon is the world's largest unreinforced concrete dome.] Today, large concrete
structures (for example, damsand multi-storey car parks) are usually made with reinforced concrete.
After the Roman Empire collapsed, use of concrete became rare until the technology was redeveloped
in the mid-18th century. Today, concrete is the most widely used man-made material (measured by
tonnage)
 Lime-
A concrete made from a mixture of lime, sand, and gravel is said to be as lime concrete. It was widely
used before the lime was replaced by Portland [Link] made with lime cement is well known
from more than 5000 years old. It was widely used in all over the world. Sign of its usage can be found
easily after surveying different archaeological sites. In dry conditions, it works extremely well.

Properties of lime concrete

Lime concrete provides good bases to bear the sufficient loads and also provide certain degree of
flexibility. It adjusts very well when it is in contact with surface. Lime concrete also exhibits certain
degree of water proofing property and thus prevents subsoil dampness in floors and walls. Lime
concrete also exhibits volumetric stability. It can be made easily and can be available at much cheaper
rates. It also resists weathering effects and is very durable.

Drawbacks of Lime concrete

 1. Hydraulic lime usually gains strength in time greater than the time in which cement concrete gains
same value of strength.
2. Lime cement takes a long time to cure, and while the ancient world had lots of time, today time is
money.
3. Lime cement does not harden in water but stays soft. So there are situations where it cannot be used.

Uses and precautions

1. Lime concrete is very widely used for foundation bases of load bearing walls, columns, and under
layers of floors.
2. Due to its flexibility it adjusts very well with the underneath base ground and upper construction of
cement base.
3. For better quality of lime concrete it is important to compact & cure concrete properly. Lime causes
rashes on human skin so the persons which are dealing lime concrete should be provided with suitable
rubber gloves.
4. Persons should use oil on their skin to avoid rashes and cracking of their skin due to reaction of lime.
5. To achieve good quality lime concrete, certain admixtures, fibers etc can be used

 Gypsum-
Gypsum concrete is a building material used as a floor underlayment used in wood-frame and concrete
construction for fire ratings, sound reduction, radiant heating, and floor leveling. It is a mixture of
gypsum plaster, Portland cement, and sand. The brand name Gyp-Crete, a Maxxon Corporation
trademark, has come into general use as a term for gypsum concrete by construction professionals and
architects.

Advantage and disadvantage of Gypsum concrete

Gypsum concrete is lightweight and fire-resistant. A 1.5-inch slab of gypsum concrete weighs 13
pounds per square foot versus 18 pounds per square foot for regular concrete. Even though gypsum
concrete weighs less, it still has the same compressive strength as regular concrete, based on its
application as underlayment or top coat flooring. A 7-man work crew can lay 4–6 times as much
gypsum concrete in a work day as regular poured Portland cement. This is due to the ease of leveling
the very runny gypsum concrete versus normal concrete. In addition, if the wooden subfloor is first
coated in a film of latex, the adhesion between the subfloor and the concrete is much better than the
adhesion obtained with “normal” concrete. A further benefit is that nails can be driven through the
cement into the subfloor without it chipping. The cost of gypsum concrete is comparable to regular
concrete, ranging from $1.75 per square foot to $6.00 per square foot. Regular concrete ranges from
$2.50 to $4.50 per square foot.

 Cement-
Cement: Usually taken to mean Portland Cement, but could mean any other type of cement, depending
on the context.
Aggregate: Cobbles, pebbles, gravel, sand and silt - the 'rock' component of all particle sizes in
concrete.
 Slump test-
Concrete slump test is to determine the workability or consistency of concrete mix prepared at the
laboratory or the construction site during the progress of the work. Concrete slump test is carried out
from batch to batch to check the uniform quality of concrete during construction.

Generally concrete slump value is used to find the workability, which indicates water-cement ratio, but
there are various factors including properties of materials, mixing methods, dosage, admixtures etc.
also affect the concrete slump value.

Factors which influence the concrete slump test:

1. Material properties like chemistry, fineness, particle size distribution, moisture

content and temperature of cementitious materials. Size, texture, combined grading, cleanliness and
moisture content of the aggregates,
2. Chemical admixtures dosage, type, combination, interaction, sequence of addition and its
effectiveness,
3. Air content of concrete,
4. Concrete batching, mixing and transporting methods and equipment,
5. Temperature of the concrete,
6. Sampling of concrete, slump-testing technique and the condition of test equipment,
7. The amount of free water in the concrete, and
8. Time since mixing of concrete at the time of testing.

Equipments Required for Concrete Slump Test:

Mould for slump test, non porous base plate, measuring scale, temping rod. The mould for the test is in
the form of the frustum of a cone having height 30 cm, bottom diameter 20 cm and top diameter 10 cm.
The tamping rod is of steel 16 mm diameter and 60cm long and rounded at one end.
 Proportioning-
With suitable materials selected for any concrete work, the next step is to correctly proportion them.
Different classes of concrete work require that for best results the mixtures used shall vary somewhat in
the proportions of portland cement, sand or stone screenings, and pebbles or broken stone used. Certain
proportions may be thoroughly satisfactory for one kind of concrete work or for one portion of a
building, yet not be at all suited for other work or for some other portion of the same building. In
proportioning concrete mixtures the aim is to use enough cement to fill all the voids or air spaces in the
sand and enough sand-cement mortar to fill all the air spaces in the bulk of pebbles or broken stone.

In most buildings the foundations must contain a certain mass of concrete. If there is to be no cellar
enclosed by the foundation wall, watertightness of the concrete is not absolutely necessary, so a
mixture containing less cement may sometimes answer. But if watertightness is one of the essentials,
the concrete should be very carefully proportioned and have sufficient cement in it to fill all the air
 spaces or voids in the mixed sand and pebbles so as to prevent water from leaking through the
foundation. Watertight concrete comes from well graded materials properly proportioned with enough
cement, all well mixed to the right consistency, properly placed, and not allowed to dry out after
placing. Some classes of concrete work need not be as strong as others. In such cases also a mixture
containing less cement may be used.

 Mixing-
Step 1
Empty the mix into a mortar tub or wheelbarrow and form a depression in the middle of the mix.

Step 2
Measure the recommended water amount (each 80-pound bag of concrete mix will require about 3
quarts of water).

Step 3
Pour approximately 2/3 of the water into the depression. If using liquid cement color, add to the mixing
water.

Step 4
Work the mix with a hoe, gradually adding water, until the mix reaches a uniform, workable
consistency. Properly mixed concrete should look like thick oatmeal and should hold its shape when it
is squeezed in a gloved hand.

NOTE: the more water that is added to the mix the weaker it becomes; adding one extra quart of water
per 80 lb bag can reduce the strength of the concrete by up to 40%.

 Transporting-
1. MORTAR PAN
It is a labour intensive method and generally used for small works. There are no chances of segregation
of concrete. In hot weather, there is a substantial loss of water due to more exposure of concrete to
environment.

2. WHEEL BARROW OR HAND CART

It is normally used on ground level i.e. road construction and other similar structures. Segregation can
occur if transportation is done on rough roads, however this problem can be minimizes if pneumatic
tyres are used.

3. BUCKET AND ROPEWAY

It is suitable for works in valley, over high piers and long dam sites. Excessive free fall of concrete
should be avoided to minimize segregation.

4. TRUCK MIXER AND DUMPER

 It is an improved and better method for long lead concreting. The concrete is covered with tarpaulin if
it is transported in open trucks. If long distance is involved, agitators should be used.

5. BELT CONVEYOR
It has limited application due to chances of segregation on steep slopes, roller points and changes in
direction of belt. It also involves over-exposure of concrete to environment.

6. CHUTE
It is generally used for concreting in deep locations. Care should be taken that slope should not be
flatter than 1V:2.5H, otherwise concrete will not slide down. But workability should not be changed to
suit the delivery by chute. Technically it is not a very good method but it is extensively used in the
field.

7. SKIP AND HOIST

It is a widely used method for high rise structures. Concrete is fed into the skip which travels vertically
on rails like a lift. After discharging, it is better to turn over the concrete before use to avoid
segregation.

8. PUMP AND PIPE-LINE METHOD

It is the most sophisticated method particularly suitable for limited space or when a large quantity of
concrete is to be poured without cold joints. Pumping of concrete can be done @ 8 to 70 cubic meters
per hour up to a horizontal distance of 300 meter and vertical distance of 90 meter. Pipe dia is generally
8 to 20 cm and it is made of steel., plastic or aluminum. The workability for pumped concrete should
have a minimum of 40 to 100 mm of slump or 0.90 to 0.95 compacting factor. At delivery point the
workability may be reduced by 25% due to compaction and this factor should be kept in mind while
designing the mix.

9. TRANSIT MIXER
Transit mixer is one of the most popular equipment for transporting concrete over a long distance
particularly in ready mix concrete plant. They are truck mounted having a capacity of 4 to 7 cubic
meter. There are two variations. In one, mixed concrete is transported to the site by keeping it agitated
all along at a speed varying between 2 to 6 revolutions per minute. In other category, the concrete is
batched at the central batching plant and mixing is done in the truck mixer either in transit or
immediately prior to discharging concrete at site.

 Placing-
Before any concrete is placed the entire placing programme consisting of equipment, layout, proposed
procedures and methods is planned and no concrete is placed until formwork is inspected and found
suitable for placement. Equipment for conveying concrete should be of such size and design as to
ensure a practically continuous flow of concrete during depositing without segregation of materials
considering the size of the job and placement location.
 Concrete is placed in its final position before the cement reaches its initial set and concrete is
compacted in its final position within 30 minutes of leaving the mixer and once compacted it should
not be disturbed.

In all cases the concrete is deposited as nearly as practicable directly in its final position and should not
be re-handled or caused to flow in a manner which may cause segregation, loss of materials,
displacement of reinforcement, shuttering or embedded inserts or impair its strength. For locations
where direct placement is not possible and in narrow forms suitable drop and Elephant Trunks to
confine the movement of concrete is provided. Special care is taken where concrete is dropped from a
height especially if reinforcement is in the way particularly in columns and thin walls.

Concrete should be placed in the shuttering by shovels or other methods and should not be dropped
from a height more than one metre or handle in a manner which will cause segregation.

Concrete placed in restricted forms by borrows, buggies, cars, sort chutes or hand shoveling should be
subjected to the requirement for vertical delivery of limited height to avoid segregation and should be
deposited as nearly as practicable in it’s final position.

Concreting once started should be continuous until the pour is completed. Concrete should be placed in
successive horizontal layers of uniform thickness ranging from 150 mm to 900 mm. These should be
placed as rapidly as practicable to prevent the formation of cold joints or planes of weakness between
each succeeding layers within the pour.

The thickness of each layer should be such that it can be deposited before the previous layer has
stiffened. The bucket loads or other units of deposit should be spotted progressively along the face of
the layer with such overlap as will facilitate spreading the layer to uniform depth and texture with a
minimum of shoveling. Any tendency to segregation should be corrected by shoveling stones into
mortar rather than mortar onto stones. Such a condition should be corrected by redesign of mix or other
suitable means.

The top surface of each pour and bedding planes should be approximately horizontal unless otherwise
specified in drawings.

 Shrinkage-
Concrete is subjected to changes in volume either autogenous or induced. Volume change is one of the
most detrimental properties of concrete, which affects the long-term strength and durability. To the
practical engineer, the aspect of volume change in concrete is important from the point of view that it
causes unsightly cracks in concrete.

We have discussed elsewhere the effect of volume change due to thermal properties of aggregate and
concrete, due to alkali/aggregate reaction, due to sulphate action etc. Presently we shall discuss the
volume change on account of inherenet properties of concrete “shrinkage”.
One of the most objectionable defects in concrete is the presence of cracks, particularly in floors and
pavements. One of the important factors that contribute to the cracks in floors and pavements is that
due to shrinkage. It is difficult to make concrete which does not shrink and crack. It is only a question
of magnitude.

Now the question is how to reduce the shrinkage and shrinkage cracks in concrete structures. The term
shrinkage is loosely used to describe the various aspects of volume changes in concrete due to loss of
moisture at different stages due to different reasons.

Types of Shrinkage in Concrete

To understand this aspect more closely, shrinkage can be classified in the following way:
(a) Plastic Shrinkage
(b) Drying Shrinkage
(c) Autogeneous Shrinkage
(d) Carbonation Shrinkage
The Types of shrinkage are explained as below

a. Plastic Shrinkage
Shrinkage of this type manifests itself soon after the concrete is placed in the forms while the concrete
is still in the plastic state. Loss of water by evaporation from the surface of concrete or by the
absorption by aggregate or subgrade, is believed to be the reasons of plastic shrinkage. The loss of
water results in the reduction of volume. The aggregate particles or the reinforcement
comes in the way of subsidence due to which cracks may appear at the surface or internally around the
aggregate or reinforcement.
In case of floors and pavements where the surface area exposed to drying is large as compared to depth,
when this large surface is exposed to hot sun and drying wind, the surface of concrete dries very fast
which results in plastic shrinkage. Sometimes even if the concrete is not subjected to severe drying, but
poorly made with a high water/cement ratio, large quantity of water bleeds and accumulates at the
surface. When this water at the surface dries out, the surface concrete collapses causing cracks.
Plastic concrete is sometimes subjected to unintended vibration or yielding of formwork support which
again causes plastic shrinkage cracks as the concrete at this stage has not developed enough strength.
From the above it can be inferred that high water/cement ratio, badly proportioned concrete, rapid
drying, greater bleeding, unintended vibration etc., are some of the reasons for plastic shrinkage. It can
also be further added that richer concrete undergoes greater plastic shrinkage.

Plastic shrinkage can be reduced mainly by preventing the rapid loss of water from surface. This can be
done by covering the surface with polyethylene sheeting immediately on finishing operation; by fog
spray that keeps the surface moist; or by working at night. Use of small quantity of aluminium powder
is also suggested to offset the effect of plastic shrinkage.
Similarly, expansive cement or shrinkage compensating cement also can be used for controlling the
shrinkage during the setting of concrete.
 b. Drying Shrinkage
Just as the hydration of cement is an ever lasting process, the drying shrinkage is also an ever lasting
process when concrete is subjected to drying conditions. The drying shrinkage of concrete is analogous
to the mechanism of drying of timber specimen. The loss of free water contained in hardened concrete,
does not result in any appreciable dimension change. It is the loss of water held in gel pores that causes
the change in the volume. Under drying conditions, the gel water is lost progressively over a long time,
as long as the concrete is kept in drying conditions. Cement paste shrinks more than mortar and mortar
shrinks more than concrete. Concrete made with smaller size aggregate shrinks more than concrete
made with bigger size aggregate. The magnitude of drying shrinkage is also a function of the fineness
of gel. The finer the gel the more is the shrinkage.

c. Autogeneous Shrinkage
In a conservative system i.e. where no moisture movement to or from the paste is permitted, when
temperature is constant some shrinkage may occur. The shrinkage of such a conservative system is
known as autogeneous [Link] shrinkage is of minor importance and is not applicable
in practice to many situations except that of mass of concrete in the interior of a concrete dam.

d. Carbonation Shrinkage
Carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere reacts in the presence of water with hydrated cement.
Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] gets converted to calcium carbonate and also some other cement
compounds are decomposed. Such a complete decomposition of calcium compound in hydrated cement
is chemically possible even at the low pressure of carbon dioxide in normal atmosphere. Carbonation
penetrates beyond the exposed surface of concrete very slowly.
The rate of penetration of carbon dioxide depends also on the moisture content of the concrete and the
relative humidity of the ambient medium. Carbonation is accompanied by an increase in weight of the
concrete and by shrinkage.
Carbonation shrinkage is probably caused by the dissolution of crystals of calcium hydroxide and
deposition of calcium carbonate in its place. As the new product is less in volume than the product
replaced, shrinkage takes place.
Carbonation of concrete also results in increased strength and reduced permeability, possibly because
water released by carbonation promotes the process of hydration and also calcium carbonate reduces
the voids within the cement paste. As the magnitude of carbonation shrinkage is very small when
compared to long term drying shrinkage, this aspect is not of much significance

The rate of shrinkage decreases rapidly with time. It is observed that 14 to 34 per cent of the 20 year
shrinkage occurs in 2 weeks, 40 to 80 per cent of the 20 year shrinkage occurs in 3 months and 66 to 85
per cent of the 20 year shrinkage occurs in one year. Another important factor which influences the
magnitude of shrinkage is water/cement ratio of the concrete. The richness of the concrete also has a
significant influence on shrinkage. Aggregate plays an important role in the shrinkage properties of
concrete. The quantum of an aggregate, its size, and its modulus of elasticity influence the magnitude
of drying shrinkage.

 Curing-
 Curing is the process in which the concrete is protected from loss of moisture and kept within a
reasonable temperature range. This process results in concrete with increased strength and decreased
permeability. Curing is also a key player in mitigating cracks, which can severely affect durability.

 Add mixture
A material other than water, aggregates, or cement that is used as an ingredient of concrete or mortar to
control setting and early hardening, workability, or to provide additional cementing properties.
Why is admixture used?
Over decades, attempts have been made to obtain concrete with certain desired characteristics such as
high compressive strength, high workability, and high performance and durability parameters to meet
the requirement of complexity of modern structures.
The properties commonly modified are the heat of hydration, accelerate or retard setting time,
workability, water reduction, dispersion and air-entrainment, impermeability and durability factors.
Types of Admixtures
Chemical admixtures - Accelerators, Retarders, Water-reducing agents, Super plasticizers, Air
entraining agents etc.

Mineral admixtures - Fly-ash Blast-furnace slag, Silica fume and Rice husk Ash etc

 Forms
Most forms are made from rigid wood or metal to held back all the weigth of the cement. Concrete
forms are often categorized by where and how they are used. The best form for a particular project is
often a function of the pour size, the amount of concrete the form needs to retain, and the pressure or
weight that will be pushing against the form. For example, the typical concrete forms used for flatwork
(such as a patio, driveway, sidewalk or road) range in height from 3 to 12 inches. Because the majority
of the weight of the concrete in flatwork applications is spread across a prepared subbase -- which
relieves much of the weight pushing against the form -- these forms are most often wood, with metal
being used for larger commercial or highway work. In contrast, a concrete form used to construct a
bridge pier or high-rise building foundation will hold back hundreds to thousands of square feet of
concrete, with the height of the form ranging from 12 inches to 20 feet. Because of the massive amount
of weight being exerted against these forms, they are made of high-grade steel and can weigh
thousands of pounds.