Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

Gas Power Cycles

Our study of gas power cycles will involve the study of those heat engines in which the
working fluid remains in the gaseous state throughout the cycle. We often study the
ideal cycle in which internal irreversibilities and complexities (the actual intake of air and
fuel, the actual combustion process, and exhaust of products of combustion among
others) are removed.

We will be concerned with how the major parameters of the cycle affect the
performance of heat engines. The performance is often measured in terms of the cycle
efficiency.

Wnet
 th 
Qin
Carnot Cycle

The Carnot cycle was introduced in Chapter 5 as the most efficient heat engine that can
operate between two fixed temperatures TH and TL. The Carnot cycle is described by the
following four processes.

Carnot Cycle

Process Description
1-2 Isothermal Heat Addition
2-3 Isentropic Expansion

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

3-4 Isothermal Heat Rejection

4-1 Isentropic Compression

Note the processes on both the P-v and T-s diagrams. The areas under the process
curves on the P-v diagram represent the work done for closed systems. The net cycle
work done is the area enclosed by the cycle on the P-v diagram. The areas under the
process curves on the T-s diagram represent the heat transfer for the processes. The net
heat added to the cycle is the area that is enclosed by the cycle on the T-s diagram. For
a cycle we know Wnet = Qnet; therefore, the areas enclosed on the P-v and T-s diagrams
are equal.

TL
 th , Carnot  1 
TH

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

We often use the Carnot efficiency as a means to think about ways to improve the cycle
efficiency of other cycles. One of the observations about the efficiency of both ideal and
actual cycles comes from the Carnot efficiency: Thermal efficiency increases with an
increase in the average temperature at which heat is supplied to the system or with a
decrease in the average temperature at which heat is rejected from the system.

Air-Standard Assumptions

In our study of gas power cycles, we assume that the working fluid is air, and the air
undergoes a thermodynamic cycle even though the working fluid in the actual power
system does not undergo a cycle.

To simplify the analysis we approximate the cycles with the following assumptions:

 The air continuously circulates in a closed loop and always behaves as an ideal gas.

 All the processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible.

 The combustion process replaced by a heat-addition process from an external

source.

 A heat rejection process that restores the working fluid to its initial state replaces the
exhaust process.

 The cold-air-standard assumptions apply when the working fluid is air and has
constant specific heat evaluated at room temperature (25 oC, or 77oF).

Terminology for Reciprocating Devices

The following is some terminology we need to understand for reciprocating engines—

typically piston-cylinder devices. Let’s look at the following figures for the definitions of
top dead center (TDC), bottom dead center (BDC), stroke, bore, intake valve, exhaust
valve, clearance volume, displacement volume, compression ratio, and mean effective
pressure.

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

The compression ratio r of an engine is the ratio of the maximum volume to the
minimum volume in the formed in the cylinder.

V max VBDC
r 
V min VTDC
The mean effective pressure (MEP) is a fictitious pressure that, if it operated on the
piston during the entire power stroke, would produce the same amount of net work as
that produced during the actual cycle.

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

Wnet wnet
MEP  
Vmax  Vmin vmax  vmin

OTTO CYCLE: The Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition Engines

Consider the automotive spark-ignition power cycle

Processes
intake stroke
compression stroke
power (expansion) stroke
exhaust stroke

Often the ignition and combustion process begins before the completion of the
compression stroke. The number of crank angle degrees before the piston reaches TDC
on the number one piston at which the spark occurs is called the engine timing. What is
the compression ratio and timing of your engine in your car, truck, or motorcycle?

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

Willie Geraghty GMIT

Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

The Air-Standard Otto Cycle is the ideal cycle that approximates the spark-ignition
combustion engine

Process Description
1-2 Isentropic Compression
2-3 Constant Volume Heat Addition
3-4 Isentropic Expansion
4-1 Constant Volume Heat Rejection

The P-v and T-s diagrams are

Air Otto Cycle P-v Diagram

2 s = const

4 T3

1
T1

Air Otto Cycle T-s Diagram

P3
3
P1
T
4

2
v = const
1

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

Thermal Efficiency of the Otto Cycle:

Wnet Qnet Qin  Qout Qout

 th     1
Qin Qin Qin Qin
Now to find Qin and Qout.

Apply First Law Closed System to Process 2-3, V = Constant

Qnet , 23  Wnet , 23  U 23

z
Wnet , 23  Wother , 23  Wb , 23  0  PdV  0
2
3

Thus for constant specific heats

Qnet , 23  U 23
Qnet , 23  Qin  mCv (T3  T2 )
Apply First Law Closed System to Process 4-1, V = Constant

Qnet , 41  Wnet , 41  U 41

z
Wnet , 41  Wother , 41  Wb , 41  0  PdV  0
4
1

Thus for constant specific heats

Qnet , 41  U 41
Qnet , 41  Qout  mCv (T1  T4 )
Qout  mCv (T1  T4 )  mCv (T4  T1 )
The thermal efficiency becomes

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

Qout
 th , Otto  1
Qin
mCv (T4  T1 )
 1
mCv (T3  T2 )
(T4  T1 )
 th , Otto  1
(T3  T2 )
T1 (T4 / T1  1)
 1
T2 (T3 / T2  1)
Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so

T2 V
 1
FG IJ k 1
T3 FG IJ
V
 4
k 1

T1 V2 H K and
T4 H K
V3
Since V3 = V2 and V4 = V1 we see that

T2 T3

T1 T4
or
T4 T3

T1 T2

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

The Otto Cycle Efficiency becomes

T1
 th , Otto  1 
T2
Is this the same as the Carnot Cycle efficiency?

Since process 1-2 is isentropic,

T FV I
k 1

G J
T HV K
2 1

1 2

T FV I F 1I
k 1 k 1

G J G J
T HV K H rK
1 2

2 1

Where the compression ratio is r = V1/V2, and

1
 th , Otto  1 
r k 1
We see that increasing the compression ratio increases the thermal efficiency.
However, there is a limit on r depending upon the fuel. Fuels under high temperature
resulting from high compression ratios will prematurely ignite, causing knock.

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

Example:

An Otto cycle having a compression ratio of 9:1 uses air as the working fluid. Initially P 1 =
95 kPa, T1 = 17oC, and V1 = 3.8 liters. During the heat addition process, 7.5 kJ of heat are
added. Determine all T's, P's, th, the back work ratio, and the mean effective pressure.

Process Diagrams: Review the P-v and T-s diagrams given above for the Otto cycle.

Assume constant specific heats with C v = 0.718 kJ/(kg K), k = 1.4. (Use the 300 K data
from Table A.2)

Process 1-2 is isentropic; therefore, recalling that r = V1/V2 = 9,

T2  T1
FG V IJ bg
k 1

 T1 r
k 1

HV K
1

 (17  273) K b9g

1.4 1

 698.4 K

P2  P1
FG V IJ  P br g
k
k

HV K
1
1
2

 95kPab9g
1.4

 2059 kPa
The first law closed system for process 2-3 was shown to reduce to (Your home work
solutions must be complete; that is, develop your equations from the application of the
first law for each process as we did in obtaining the Otto cycle efficiency equation.)

Qin  mCv (T3  T2 )

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

Let qin = Qin / m and m = V1 /v1

RT1
v1 
P1
kJ
0.287 (290 K ) 3
kg  K m kPa

95 kPa kJ
m3
 0.875
kg

Qin v
qin   Qin 1
m V1
m3
0.875
kg
 7.5kJ
.  103 m3
38
kJ
 1727
kg
Then,

qin
T3  T2 
Cv
kJ
1727
kg
 698.4 K 
kJ
0.718
kg  K
 3103.7 K
Using the combined gas law

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

T3
P3  P2  9.15 MPa
T2

Process 3-4 is isentropic; therefore,

F V I
T TG J
k 1
FG IJ
1
k 1

HV K  T3
HK
3
4 3
4 r
F 1I
 (3103.7) K G J
1.4 1

H 9K
 1288.8 K

FV I
P  PG J  PG J
F 1Ik k

HV K H rK
3
4 3 3
4

F 1I
 9.15 MPa G J
1.4

H 9K
 380
. MPa
Process 4-1 is constant volume. So the first law for the closed system gives, on a mass
basis,

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

Qout  mCv (T4  T1 )

Q
qout  out  Cv (T4  T1 )
m
kJ
 0.718 (1288.8  290) K
kg  K
kJ
 717.1
kg
For the cycle, u = 0, and the first law gives

wnet  qnet  qin  qout

kJ
 (1727  717.4)
kg
kJ
 1009.6
kg
The thermal efficiency is

kJ
1009.6
w kg
 th , Otto  net 
qin kJ
1727
kg
 0.585 or 58.5%
The mean effective pressure is

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

Wnet wnet
MEP  
Vmax  Vmin vmax  vmin
w wnet
 net 
v1  v2 v1 (1  v2 \ v1 )
wnet

v1 (1  1 \ r )
kJ
1009.6
kg m3 kPa

m3 1 kJ
0.875 (1  )
kg 9
 1298 kPa

The back work ratio is (can you show that this is true?)

wcomp u12
BWR  
wexp u34
Cv (T2  T1 ) (T2  T1 )
 
Cv (T3  T4 ) (T3  T4 )
 0.225 or 22.5%

Air-Standard Diesel Cycle

The Air-Standard Diesel Cycle is the ideal cycle that approximates the Diesel combustion
engine

Process Description
1-2 Isentropic Compression
2-3 Constant Pressure Heat Addition
3-4 Isentropic Expansion
4-1 Constant Volume Heat Rejection

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

The P-v and T-s diagrams are

Thermal Efficiency of the Diesel Cycle:

Wnet Qout
 th , Diesel   1
Qin Qin
Now to find Qin and Qout.

Apply First Law Closed System to Process 2-3, P = Constant

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

Qnet , 23  Wnet , 23  U 23

z
Wnet , 23  Wother , 23  Wb , 23  0  PdV
 P2 (V3  V2 )
2
3

Thus for constant specific heats

Qnet , 23  U 23  P2 (V3  V2 )
Qnet , 23  Qin  mCv (T3  T2 )  mR(T3  T2 )
Qin  mC p (T3  T2 )

Apply First Law Closed System to Process 4-1, V = Constant (just like the Otto cycle)

Qnet , 41  Wnet , 41  U 41

z 1
Wnet , 41  Wother , 41  Wb , 41  0  PdV  0
4

Thus for constant specific heats

Qnet , 41  U 41
Qnet , 41  Qout  mCv (T1  T4 )
Qout  mCv (T1  T4 )  mCv (T4  T1 )
The thermal efficiency becomes

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

Qout
 th , Diesel  1
Qin
mCv (T4  T1 )
 1
mC p (T3  T2 )

Cv (T4  T1 )
 th , Diesel  1
C p (T3  T2 )
1 T1 (T4 / T1  1)
 1
k T2 (T3 / T2  1)
What is T3/T2 ?

PV PV
3 3
 2 2 where P3  P2
T3 T2
T3 V3
  rc
T2 V2
Where rc is called the cut off ratio defined as V3 /V2 and is a measure of the duration of
the heat addition at constant pressure. Since the fuel is injected directly into the
cylinder, the cut off ratio can be related to the number of degrees that the crank rotated
during the fuel injection into the cylinder.

What is T4/T1 ?

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

PV PV
4 4
 1 1 where V4  V1
T4 T1
T4 P4

T1 P1
Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so

1 1  PV 4 4  PV
k k k k
PV 2 2 and PV 3 3

Since V4 = V1 and P3 = P2, we divide the second equation by the first equation and obtain

P4

V3 FG IJ k

 rck
P1 V2 H K
Therefore

1 T1 (T4 / T1  1)
 th , Diesel  1
k T2 (T3 / T2  1)
1 T1 rck  1
 1
k T2 (rc  1)
1 rck  1
 1
r k 1 k (rc  1)

What happens as rc goes to 1? Sketch the P-v diagram for the Diesel cycle and show rc
approaching1 in the limit.

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

When rc > 1 for a fixed r, th, Diesel  th, Otto . But since rDiesel  rOtto ,
th, Diesel  th, Otto .

Brayton Cycle

The Brayton cycle is the air-standard ideal cycle approximation for the gas-turbine
engine. This cycle differs from the Otto and Diesel cycles in that the processes making
the cycle occur in open systems or control volumes. Therefore, an open system, steady-
flow analysis is used to determine the heat transfer and work for the cycle.

We assume the working fluid is air and the specific heats are constant and will consider
the cold air standard cycle.

Brayton Cycle

Qin

2
3

Comp Turb Wnet

Wc

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

The Closed Cycle gas-turbine engine

Closed Brayton Cycle

Qin

2
3

Comp Turb Wnet

Wc

1 4

Qout

Process Description
1-2 Isentropic Compression (in a compressor)
2-3 Constant Pressure Heat Addition
3-4 Isentropic Expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant Pressure Heat Rejection

The T-s and P-v diagrams are

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

Thermal Efficiency of the Brayton Cycle:

Wnet Qout
 th , Brayton   1
Qin Qin
Now to find Qin and Qout.

Apply the conservation of energy to Process 2-3 for P = Constant (no work), steady-flow,
and neglect changes in kinetic and potential energies.

E in  E out
m 2 h2  Q in  m
 3h3

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

The conservation of mass gives

m in  m out
m 2  m 3  m
For constant specific heats the heat added per unit mass flow is

Q in  m (h3  h2 )
Q in  mC
 p (T3  T2 )
Q in
qin   C p (T3  T2 )
m
The conservation of energy for the process 4-1 yields for constant specific heats (let’s
take a minute for you to get the following result)

Q out  m (h4  h1 )
Q out  mC
 p (T4  T1 )
Q out
qout   C p (T4  T1 )
m
The thermal efficiency becomes

Q out qout
 th , Brayton  1

 1
Qin qin
C p (T4  T1 )
 1
C p (T3  T2 )

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

(T4  T1 )
 th , Brayton  1
(T3  T2 )
T1 (T4 / T1  1)
 1
T2 (T3 / T2  1)
Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so

T2 P
 2
FG IJ ( k 1)/ k
T3 P
 3
FG IJ ( k 1)/ k

T1 P1 H K and
T4 P4 H K
Since P3 = P2 and P4 = P1 we see that

T2 T3

T1 T4
or
T4 T3

T1 T2
The Brayton Cycle Efficiency becomes

T1
 th , Brayton  1 
T2
Is this the same as the Carnot Cycle efficiency?

Since process 1-2 is isentropic,

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

T2

P2 FG IJ ( k 1)/ k

 rp( k 1)/ k
T1 P1 H K
T1 1
 ( k 1)/ k
T2 rp
Where the pressure ratio is rp = P2/P1, and

1
 th , Brayton  1  ( k 1)/ k
rp

Extra Assignment:

Evaluate the Brayton cycle efficiency by determining the net work directly from the
turbine work and the compressor work. Compare your result with the above expression.
Note that this approach does not require the closed cycle assumption.

Example:

The ideal air-standard Brayton cycle operates with air entering the compressor at 95 kPa,
22oC. The pressure ratio, r p, is 6:1 and the air leaves the heat addition process at 1100

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

K. Determine the compressor work and turbine work per unit mass flow, the cycle
efficiency, the back work ratio, and compare the compressor exit temperature to the
turbine exit temperature. Assume constant properties.

Apply the conservation of energy, steady-flow, neglect changes in kinetic and potential
energies to Process 1-2 for the compressor. Note that the compressor is isentropic.

E in  E out
m 1h1  Wcomp  m
 2 h2

The conservation of mass gives

m in  m out
m 1  m 2  m
For constant specific heats the compressor work per unit mass flow is

Wcomp  m (h2  h1 )
Wcomp  mC
 p (T2  T1 )
Wcomp
wcomp   C p (T2  T1 )
m
Since the compressor is isentropic

T2 P
 2
FG IJ ( k 1)/ k

 rp( k 1)/ k
T1 P1 H K
T2  T1rp( k 1)/ k
 (22  273) K (6) (1.4 1)/1.4
 492.5 K

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

wcomp  C p (T2  T1 )
kJ
 1005
. (492.5  295) K
kg  K
kJ
 19815
.
kg
The conservation of energy for the turbine, process 3-4, yields for constant specific heats
(let’s take a minute for you to get the following result)

Wturb  m (h3  h4 )
Wturb  mC
 p (T3  T4 )
Wturb
wturb   C p (T3  T4 )
m
Since process 3-4 is isentropic

T FPI
( k 1)/ k

G J
T HPK
4 4

3 3

Since P3 = P2 and P4 = P1 we see that

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

T F 1I
( k 1)/ k

G J
4
T Hr K
3 p

F 1I
T TG J
( k 1)/ k

4
Hr K 3
p

F 1I
 1100 K G J
(1.4 1)/1.4

H 6K
 659.1 K
wturb  C p (T3  T4 )
kJ
 1005
. (1100  659.1) K
kg  K
kJ
 442.5
kg
We have already shown the heat supplied to the cycle per unit mass flow in process 2-3
is

qin  C p (T3  T2 )
kJ
 1005
. (1100  492.5) K
kg  K
kJ
 609.6
kg
The net work done by the cycle is

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

wnet  wturb  wcomp

kJ
 (442.5  19815
. )
kg
kJ
 244.3
kg
The cycle efficiency becomes

wnet
 th , Brayton 
qin
kJ
244.3
kg
  0.40 or 40%
kJ
609.6
kg
The back work ratio is defined as

win wcomp
BWR  
wout wturb
kJ
19815.
kg
  0.448
kJ
442.5
kg

Note that T4 = 659.1K > T2 = 492.5K, or the turbine outlet temperature is greater than
the compressor exit temperature. Can this result be used to improve the cycle
efficiency?

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

What happens to th, win /wout, and wnet as the pressure ratio, r p is increased?

Let's take a closer look at the affect of pressure ratio on the net work done.

wnet  wturb  wcomp

 C p (T3  T4 )  C p (T2  T1 )
 C p T3 (1  T4 / T3 )  C p T1 (T2 / T1  1)
1 ( k 1)/ k
 C p T3 (1  ( k 1)/ k
)  C p T1 (rp  1)
rp
Note that the net work is ZERO when

rp  1 and rp 
FG T IJ ( k 1)/ k

HT K
3

For fixed T3 and T1, the pressure ratio that makes the work a maximum is obtained from:

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

This is easier to do if we let X = r p(k-1)/k

1
wnet  Cp T3 (1  )  Cp T1 ( X  1)
X

dwnet
 Cp T3[0  ( 1) X 2 ]  Cp T1[1  0]  0
drp
Solving for X

X2 
T3
T1
 rp di 2 ( k 1)/ k

Then, the r p that makes the work a maximum for the constant property case and fixed T3
and T1 is

rp , max work 
FG T IJ k /[ 2 ( k 1)]

HT K
3

For the ideal Brayton cycle, show that the following results are true.
 When rp = rp, max work, T4 = T2
 When rp < rp, max work, T4 > T2
 When rp > rp, max work, T4 < T2

The following is a plot of net work per unit mass and the efficiency for the above
example as a function of pressure ratio.

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

280 0.60

260 0.55

240 0.50
0.45
220
0.40

w net kJ/kg

th,Brayton
200 T1 = 22C
0.35
180 P1 = 95 kPa
T3 = 1100 K 0.30
160 t = c = 100% 0.25
140 0.20
rp,max
120 0.15
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Pratio

Regenerative Brayton Cycle

For the Brayton cycle, the turbine exhaust temperature is greater than the compressor
exit temperature. Therefore, a heat exchanger can be placed between the hot gases
leaving the turbine and the cooler gases leaving the compressor. This heat exchanger is
called a regenerator or recouperator. The sketch of the regenerative Brayton cycle is
shown below.

Regenerative Brayton Cycle

Regenerator

6
4
2
3
5
Qin
Comp Turb Wnet
Wc

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

We define the regenerator effectiveness, regen, as the ratio of the heat transferred to
the compressor gases in the regenerator to the maximum possible heat transfer to the
compressor gases.

qregen , act  h5  h2
qregen , max  h5'  h2  h4  h2
qregen , act h5  h2
 regen  
qregen , max h4  h2
For ideal gases using the cold-air-standard assumption with constant specific heats the
regenerator effectiveness becomes

T5  T2
 regen 
T4  T2

Using the closed cycle analysis and treating the heat addition and heat rejection as
steady-flow processes, the regenerative cycle thermal efficiency is

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

qout
 th , regen  1
qin
(h6  h1 )
 1
(h3  h5 )
Notice that the heat transfer occurring within the regenerator is not included in the
efficiency calculation because this energy is not a heat transfer across the cycle
boundary.

Assuming an ideal regenerator, regen = 1 and constant specific heats, the thermal
efficiency becomes (Take the time to show this on your own.)

 th , regen  1
T1 P2 FG IJ ( k 1)/ k

T3 P1 H K
T1
 1  (rp ) ( k 1)/ k
T3

When does the efficiency of the air-standard Brayton cycle equal the efficiency of the
air-standard regenerative Brayton cycle? If we set th, Brayton = th, regen then

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

 th , Brayton   th , regen
1 T1
1 ( k 1 )/ k  1  (rp ) ( k 1)/ k
(rp ) T3

F TI
G J
k /[ 2 ( k 1)]

HT K
3
rp
1

Recall that this is the pressure ratio that maximizes the net work for the simple Brayton
cycle and makes T4 = T2. What happens if the regenerative Brayton cycle operates at a
pressure ratio larger than this value?

For fixed T3 and T1, pressure ratios greater than this value causes T4 to be less than T2,
and the regenerator is not effective.

What happens to the net work when a regenerator is added?

What happens to the heat supplied when a regenerator is added?

The following shows a plot of the regenerative Brayton Cycle efficiency as a function of
pressure ratio and maximum to minimum temperature ratio.

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

Example: Regenerative Brayton Cycle

Air enters the compressor of a regenerative gas-turbine engine at 100 kPa and 300 K and
is compressed to 800 kPa. The regenerator has an effectiveness of 65 percent, and the
air enters the turbine at 1200 K. For a compressor efficiency of 75 percent and a turbine
efficiency of 86 percent, determine
(a) The heat transfer in the regenerator
(b) The back work ratio
(c) The cycle thermal efficiency

Compare the results for the above cycle with the ones listed below that have the same
common data as required.
(a) The actual cycle with no regeneration
(b) The actual cycle with ideal regeneration,  = 1.0
(b) The ideal cycle with regeneration
(d) The ideal cycle with no regeneration
(e) The ideal cycle with ideal regeneration,  = 1.0

The cycle schematic is the same as above and T-s diagram showing the effects of
compressor and turbine efficiencies is below.

T-s Diagram for Gas Turbine with Regeneration

800 kPa

100 kPa
T

5
2a 4a
2s 4s
6

We assume air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats, that is, we use the cold-air-
standard assumption.

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

Summary of Results

Cycle type Actual Actual Actual Ideal Ideal Ideal

regen 0.00 0.65 1.00 0.00 0.65 1.00

comp 0.75 0.75 0.75 1.00 1.00 1.00

turb 0.86 0.86 0.86 1.00 1.00 1.00

qin kJ/kg 504.4 578.3 464.6 582.2 659.9 540.2

wcomp kJ/kg 326.2 326.2 326.2 244.6 244.6 244.6

wturb kJ/kg 464.6 464.6 464.6 540.2 540.2 540.2

wcomp/wturb 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.453 0.453 0.453

th 24.0% 27.5% 29.8% 44.8% 50.8% 54.7%

Compressor Analysis

The isentropic temperature at compressor exit is

T2 s F PI
G J
( k 1)/ k

HPK
2
T1 1

F
TG J
PI
( k 1)/ k

HPK
2
T2 s 1
1

800kPa (1.4 1)/1.4

 300 K ( )  543.4 K
100kPa
To find the actual temperature at compressor exit, T2a, we apply the compressor
efficiency

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

wisen , comp h2 s  h1 T2 s  T1
 comp   
wact , comp h2 a  h1 T2 a  T1
1
T2 a  T1  (T2 s  T1 )
 comp
1
 300 K  (543.4  300) K
0.75
 624.6 K
Since the compressor is adiabatic and has steady-flow

wcomp  h2  h1  C p (T2  T1 )
kJ
 1005
. (624.6  300) K
kg  K
kJ
 326.2
kg
Turbine Analysis

The conservation of energy for the turbine, process 3-4, yields for constant specific
heats( let’s take a minute for you to get the following result)

Wturb  m (h3  h4 a )
Wturb  mC
 p (T3  T4 a )
Wturb
wturb   C p (T3  T4 a )
m

Since P3 = P2 and P4 = P1, we can find the isentropic temperature at the turbine exit.

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

T4 s F PI
G J
( k 1)/ k

HPK
4
T3 3

FPI
TG J
( k 1)/ k

HPK
4
T4 s 3
3

100kPa (1.4 1)/1.4

 1200 K ( )  662.5K
800kPa

To find the actual temperature at turbine exit, T4a, we apply the turbine efficiency

wact , turb h3  h4 a T3  T4 a
 turb   
wisen , turb h3  h4 s T3  T4 s
T4 a  T1   turb (T3  T4 s )
 1200 K  0.86(1200  662.5) K
 737.7 K
The turbine work becomes

wturb  h3  h4 a  C p (T3  T4 a )
kJ
 1005
. (1200  737.7) K
kg  K
kJ
 464.6
kg
The back work ratio is defined as

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

win wcomp
BWR  
wout wturb
kJ
326.2
kg
  0.70
kJ
464.6
kg

Regenerator Analysis

To find T5, we apply the regenerator effectiveness

T5  T2 a
 regen 
T4 a  T2 a
T5  T2 a   regen (T4 a  T2 a )
 624.6 K  0.65(737.7  624.6) K
 6981
.K
To find the heat transferred from the turbine exhaust gas to the compressor exit gas,
apply the steady-flow conservation of energy to the compressor gas side of the
regenerator.

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

m 2 a h2 a  Q regen  m 5h5
m 2 a  m 5  m
Q regen
qregen   h5  h2 a
m
 C p (T5  T2 a )
kJ
 1005
. .  624.6) K
(6981
kg  K
kJ
 73.9
kg
Using qregen , we can determine the turbine exhaust gas temperature at the regenerator
exit.
m 4 a h4 a  Q regen  m 6h6
m 4 a  m 6  m
Q regen
qregen   h4 a  h6
m
 C p (T4 a  T6 )
qregen
T6  T4 a 
Cp
kJ
73.9
kg
 737.7 K 
kJ
1005
.
kg  K
 664.2 K
Heat Supplied to Cycle

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

Apply the steady-flow conservation of energy to the heat exchanger for process 5-3.
We obtain a result similar to that for the simple Brayton cycle.

qin  h3  h5  C p (T3  T5 )
kJ
 1005
. (1200  6981
. )K
kg  K
kJ
 504.4
kg
Cycle Thermal Efficiency

The net work done by the cycle is

wnet  wturb  wcomp

kJ
 (464.6  326.2)
kg
kJ
 138.4
kg
The cycle efficiency becomes

wnet
 th , Brayton 
qin
kJ
138.4
kg
  0.274 or 27.4%
kJ
504.4
kg

You are encouraged to complete the calculations for the other values found in the
summary table.

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

Other Ways to Improve Brayton Cycle Performance

Intercooling and reheating are two important ways to improve the performance of the
Brayton cycle with regeneration.

Intercooling

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

When using multi-stage compression, cooling the working fluid between the stages will
reduce the amount of compressor work required. The compressor work is reduced
because cooling the working fluid reduces the average specific volume of the fluid and
thus reduces the amount on work on the fluid to achieve the given pressure rise.

To determine the intermediate pressure at which intercooling should take place to

minimize the compressor work; we follow the approach shown in Chapter 6.

For the adiabatic, steady-flow compression process, the work input to the compressor
per unit mass is

z z z z
0
4 3
2 4
wcomp = v dP = vdP  v dP  vdP
1 3
1 2

For the isentropic compression process

k k
wcomp = ( P2 v2  Pv
1 1 )  ( P4 v4  P3v3 )
k -1 k -1
k k
 R(T2  T1 )  (T4  T3 )
k -1 k -1
k
 R T1 (T2 / T1  1)  T3 (T4 / T3  1)
k -1
LM F F P I ( k 1)/ k
I F FPI ( k 1)/ k
I OP
R T GG J  1J  T G G J  1J
k

k -1 M HH P K K HH P K K PQ
2 4

N
1 3
1 3

Notice that the fraction kR/(k-1) = C p.

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

F PI
 C [ T (G J
( k 1)/ k
F PI
 1)  T (G J
( k 1)/ k

 1)]
HPK HPK
2 4
wcomp p 1 3
1 3

Can you obtain this relation another way?

For two stage compression, let’s assume that intercooling takes place at constant
pressure and the gases can be cooled to the inlet temperature for the compressor, such
that P3 = P2 and T3 = T1.

The total work supplied to the compressor becomes

LMF F P I ( k 1)/ k
I F FPI ( k 1)/ k
I OP
 C T GG J  1J  G G J  1J
MNH H P K K HH P K K PQ
2 4
wcomp p 1
1 2

L
 C T MG J
F PI
( k 1)/ k
F
G J
PI O
( k 1)/ k

 2P
MNH P K HPK
2 4
p 1
1 2 PQ
To find the unknown pressure P2 that gives the minimum work input for a fixed
compressor inlet conditions T1, P1, and exit pressure P4, we set

dwcomp ( P2 )
0
dP2
This yields

P2  P1 P4
Or, the pressure ratios across the two compressors are equal

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

P2 P4 P4
 
P1 P2 P3
Intercooling is almost always used with regeneration. During intercooling the
compressor exit temperature is reduced; therefore, more heat must be supplied in the
heat addition process. Regeneration can make up part of the required heat transfer.

To supply only compressed air, using intercooling requires less work input. The next
time you go to a home supply store where air compressors are sold, check the larger air
compressors to see if intercooling is used. For the larger air compressors, the
compressors are made of two piston-cylinder chambers. The intercooling heat
exchanger may be only a pipe with a few attached fins that connects the large piston-
cylinder chamber with the smaller piston-cylinder chamber

Extra Assignment:

Obtain the expression for the compressor total work by applying conservation of energy
directly to the low and high-pressure compressors.

Reheating

When using multi-stage expansion through two or more turbines, reheating

between stages will increase the net work done (it also increases the
required heat input). The regenerative Brayton cycle with reheating is shown above.

The optimum intermediate pressure for reheating is the one that maximizes the turbine
work. Following the development given above for intercooling and assuming reheating
to the high-pressure turbine inlet temperature in a constant pressure steady-flow
process, we can show the optimum reheat pressure to be

P7  P6 P9

Or the pressure ratios across the two turbines are equal

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Thermodynamic Systems – Energy Engineering 3

P6 P7 P8
 
P7 P9 P9

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