EECS 142

Lecture 20: Passive Mixers

Prof. Ali M. Niknejad

University of California, Berkeley

Copyright
c 2005 by Ali M. Niknejad

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 1/32 p.

 Voltage Switching Mixers
LO

+RF
IF

RF RIF

LO

Instead of switching currents, we can also switch the

voltage.
In the above circuit, during the +LO cycle, switch S1
activates and feeds the RF to the output directly. In the
LO cycle, switch S2 activates and feeds an inverted
RF signal to the output.
This circuit requires good switches that turn on hard
(low on-resistance) and turn off well (good isolation).
A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 2/32 p.
 MOS Switching Mixer
A practical implementation
uses MOS devices as
LO
switches. The devices are
large to minimize their
on-resistance with a limit
+RF
IF
determined by isolation
(feed-through
RF RIF
capacitance).
We see that the RF signal
LO
is effectively multiplied by
1 with a rate determined
by the LO signal.
A differential RF signal is created using a balun or fed
directly from a balanced LNA.

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 3/32 p.

 MOS Device Feedthrough
G G

Cgs Cgd Cgso Cgdo

S D S Cgb D
Rch
Cjs Cjd Cjs Cjd

Rbs Rbd Rbs Rbg Rbd

B B

When the device is on, its in the triode region. Due to

the low on-resistance, the coupling through the
substrate and LO path is minimal.
When the device is off, the RF and LO leak into the IF
through the overlap and substrate capacitances.
A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 4/32 p.
 Summary of MOS Switching Mixer
MOS passive mixer is very linear. The device is either
on or off and does not impact the linearity too much.
Since there is no transconductance stage, the linearity
is very good.
The downside is that the MOS mixer is passive, or
lossy. There is no power gain in the device.
Need large LO drive to turn devices on/off
Need to create a differential RF and LO signal. This can
be done using baluns or by using a differential LNA and
LO buffer.

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 5/32 p.

 MOS Ring Mixer
+RF
LO LO

IF

LO LO
RF

The RF/LO/IF are all differential signals. During the

positive LO cycle, the RF is coupled to the IF port with
positive phase, whereas during the negative phase the
RF is inverted at the IF.
The MOS resistance forms a voltage divider with the
source and load and attenuates the signal as before.
A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 6/32 p.
 Passive Mixer LO Power

RF IF RF IF

LO LO

Since gates of the MOS switches present a large

capacitive load, a buffer is needed to drive them.
The LO buffer can be realized using larger inverters
(approach square wave) or as a tuned buffer. A tuned
lowers the power by roughly Q but has a sinusoidal
waveform .

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 7/32 p.

 LO Power (cont)
For an inverter chain driving the LO port, the power
dissipation of the last stage is given by
2
Pinv = CVLO fLO

C is the total load presented to the LO (two MOS

devices for the double balanced mixer, one MOS device
for single balanced).
VLO is the LO amplitude to fully turn the devices on and
off. The devices should be biased near threshold. fLO
is the LO frequency.

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 8/32 p.

 Tuned LO Power
For the tuned load case, the power is given by
2
VLO
Ptuned =
2Rt

Rt is the effective shunt resistance of the tank. Since

the tank Q = LO Rt C , we have
2
VLO 2 f O
CVLO L
Ptuned = LO C =
2Q Q

A high Q tank helps to reduce the power consumption

of the LO buffer.

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 9/32 p.

 H-Bridge Ring Mixer
+RF

LO IF LO

RF

If PMOS devices are available, two CMOS inverters

form an H-Bridge, applying the RF input signal to the IF
directly during the LO cycle and inverting the RF input
at the IF output in the LO cycle.
PMOS and NMOS devices are sized appropriately to
maximize on-conductance and to minimize off
capacitance.
A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 10/32 p
 RF Driver Stage
L1
+RF
Rs /2 LO LO

C3 L3 IF

Rs /2 LO LO
RF
L2

If the LNA is differential, then the RF port can be driven

through a LC matching network to maximize the RF
voltage amplitude presented to the mixer.
Note that C3 = C3 + C3 . The capacitance C3 and L3 are
used to form a resonant circuit at the RF port. The
inductor L1 and C3 form an L-matching network to
boost the source RF voltage.
A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 11/32 p
 RF Driver Stage (cont)
L1
+RF
Rs /2
C3
C3 L3

The above figure is the single-ended half circuit. The

role of the tank and L-match are now clearly dilineated.
The voltage gain of the L-match is given by
Rt p
2+1
vRF = vin Q
Rt + (1 + Q2 )Rs

where
RF (L1 + L2 )
Q=
Rs
A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 12/32 p
 Time-Varying Conductance
The RF voltage is applied
+RF
to a time varying conduc-
g(t) g(t TLO /2)
tance. Note that if the
conductance of a the LO
+ IF
switches is given by g(t),
g(t TLO /2) g(t) then the conductance of
RF the LO switches is given by
g(t TLO /2).
The Thevinin equivalent source voltage is given by the
open circuit voltage
 
g(t) g(t TLO /2)
vT = vRF
g(t) + g(t TLO /2) g(t) + g(t TLO /2)
 
g(t) g(t TLO /2)
vT = vRF = m(t)vRF
g(t) + g(t TLO /2)
A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 13/32 p
 Time-Varying Gain m(t)
For the MOS device and a given LO waveform, the
function m(t) can be calculated and the Fourier
expansion can be used to derive the gain.
In parctice there is a load capacitance CIF at the IF port
to filter the downconverted signal. This CL complicates
the analysis but interested students are encouraged to
read the paper by Shahani, Shaeffer and Lee (JSSC
vol. 32, Dec 1997, p. 2061-1071)

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 14/32 p

 Passive Current Mixer
+LO

+IF
LO
IF
+RF RF

+LO

The input stage is a Gm stage similar to a Gilbert cell

mixer. The Gilbert Quad, though, has no DC current
and switches on/off similar to a passive mixer.
The output signal drives the virtual ground of a
differential op-amp. The current signal is converted into
a voltage output by gthe op-amp.
A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 15/32 p
Advantages of Passive Current Mixer
No DC current in quad implies that there is no flicker
noise generated by the switching quad. This is the key
advantage.
The linearity is very good since the output signal is a
current. The voltage swing does not limit the linearity of
the mixer. This is to be contrasted to a Gilbert cell mixer
where the voltage swing is limited due to the headroom
of the switching mixer and the transconductance stage.
The op-amp output stage can be converted into an IF
filter (discussed later)

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 16/32 p

 Disadvantages of Mixer
Need large LO drive compared to the active Gilbert cell
mixer.
Need an op-amp. This requires extra power
consumption and introduces additional noise.
Need a common mode feedback circuit at the input of
the op-amp.

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 17/32 p

 Ring or Quad?
+LO
+IF

LO
LO
M1

+
M2

M
M
+RF

3
+IF +RF RF
LO
IF

4
M

M
2
RF
M3

LO

LO

+
M4
IF

+LO

Note that the Gilbert quad is really a folded ring. Thus

the passive and active mixers are very similar. The
main difference is how the quad devices are biased. In
the Gilbert cell they are biased nominally in saturation
and have DC current. In the passive mixers, they are
biased near the threshold.
A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 18/32 p
 Op-Amp Noise
+LO
Rp

Cp

+IF
LO
IF

Cp

+LO

The op-amp input referred noise is amplified to IF. The

resistance seen at the op-amp input terminals is
actually a switched capacitor resistor!
The parasitic capacitance at the output of the
transconductance stage is charged and discharged at
the rate of the LO.
A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 19/32 p
 Switched Capacitor Resistor
+LO
Ix
+
Vx

+
Cp Vx

LO

Note that the parasitic capacitances are charged at the

rate of the LO to the input voltage Vx , and then to the
Vx , every cycle.
The total charge transferred during a period is given by

Qtot = Cp Vx ( Cp Vx ) = 2Cp Vx
Qtot
The net current is given by Ix = TLO = 2Cp Vx fLO

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 20/32 p

 Switched Capacitor Resistor (cont)
Since there are two differential pairs connected to the
op-amp terminals in parallel, the total charge is twice.
So the effective resistance seen at this node is given by
Vx
Rp =
2Ix

The effective resistance is therefore given by

1
Rp =
4fLO Cp

This is a switched capacitor resistors.

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 21/32 p

 Op-Amp Noise Transfer
Rf

Rp
+IF

IF
Rp

Rf

The noise is thus transferred to the output with transfer

function given by
2
2Rf

vo2 = 1+ 2
vamp
Rp

To minimize this noise, we have to minimize the

parasitic capacitance Cp and the op-amp noise.
A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 22/32 p
 Output Filter Stage

+IF
RF
IF Filter
IF
LO

Since a down-conversion mixer will naturally drive a

filter, we see that the output current can be used
directly to drive a current mode filter.
For instance, the op-amp can be absorbed into the first
stage of a multi-stage op-amp RC IF filter. The
feedback resistor Rf is shunted with a capacitor Cf to
produce a pole.
A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 23/32 p
 Diode Mixers
Bias

IF
LO C0 RIF

RF

If MOS devices are not available, or if the frequency

exceeds the capability of the MOS devices, diodes can
be used as switch elements.
Here the diode is biased into on state by the chokes
and bypass capacitors. A strong LO signal, though, can
turn the diode off.
A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 24/32 p
 Weak LO Diode Mixer
LO +RF

IF
LO RF IF

RF

The RF signal riding on top of the LO signal is thus

mixed by the switching action.
Note that if the LO signal is weak, then mixing action
occurs by the non-linearity of the diode. But this mode
has a smaller conversion gain and produces more
distortion.

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 25/32 p

 Diode Ring Mixer
D1
RF LO

D2

D3

D4
RIF IF

The ring mixer is a passive mixer. Typical loss numbers

are about 6 dB. The mixer has good isolation. The
LO RF isolation comes from the transformers. The
balanced operation results in RF and LO rejection.
The LO signal drive is large since it must turn on/off
diodes.
A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 26/32 p
 Mixer Description
The ring mixer is a fully balanced mixer but we have the
option of driving the LO and RF single ended. As we
shall see, the LO signal alternatively turns on diodes
D1/D2 or D3/D4 thereby connecting the RF voltage to
the IF with alternatively polarity.
During a positive LO voltage, the secondary of the LO
transformer applies a positive voltage across D1 in
series with the load R thereby forward biasing the diode.
Likewise, the secondary terminal of the LO transformer
applies a negative voltage to the cathode of D2, thereby
forward biasing it in series with the load.
Diodes D3/D4 are reverse biased and therefore open
circuits (ideally).

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 27/32 p

 Positive LO Cycle
Zi = 0
RF + LO
+ vs
N
vs

RIF IF

The equivalent circuit above shows small resistor

representing the diode on resistance.
The RF signal is applied to the load through the center
tap of the transformer. We shall show that the
impedance looking into the transformer is low (ideally
zero), and thus the entire RF signal at the secondary
terminal is applied to the load vo = vs /N
A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 28/32 p
 LO Transformer
vx
Zi =
ix

+
vx i1
ZLO

i2

Note the input impedance looking into the LO

transformer is ideally short circuit. To see this, apply a
test voltage vx to this node.
If we ignore the effect of the LO signal for now, we see
that two equal currents i1 = i2 = ix /2 flow into the
secondary of the LO transformer. The return current
comes from the center tap ground.
A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 29/32 p
 LO Transformer (cont)
The induced voltage at the primary is given by

v1 = j(M12 M13 )ix /2 0

This is because M13 = M12 and the currents on the

secondary are out of phase.
The voltages induced on the secondary side are
likewise zero (assuming perfect coupling)

v2 = jL2 ix /2 + jM23 ( ix /2) 0

v3 = jL3 ( ix /2) + jM32 ix /2 0

A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 30/32 p

 Negative LO Cycle
RF LO
+

vs
+ Zi = 0
vs
N

RIF IF

By symmetry, during the negative LO cycle, the mixer

simplifies to the above equivalent circuit.
During this cycle, the RF signal is applied to the load
through the center tap and the bottom of the
transformer, thus producing an output signal in phase
with the RF
vo = +vs /N
A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 31/32 p
 Diode Ring Mixer Operation
The operation is thus similar to the double balanced
Gilbert cell mixer in voltage mode. The RF voltage is
multiplied by 1 with a rate of the LO signal.
The lack of DC means that the RF is rejected at the IF
port. Likewise, the LO/RF signals are isolated by the
switches. The only feed-through occurs due to reverse
isolation of the diodes.
The biggest drawback, though, is the bulky
transformers and the large LO drive. The mixer is very
linear and quite attractive in applications where linearity
reigns supreme over power consumption.
At microwave frequencies, the transformers can be
replaced by couplers. Since diodes can operate up to
extremely high frequencies (THz), the entire circuit can
work up to THz region.
A. M. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley EECS 142 Lecture 20 p. 32/32 p