Intelligence

A Discussion

Edward Laughton
 Intelligence
A Discussion

Intelligence, derived from the Latin word intelligentia, is a commonly talked about subject within
psychology however there is no standard definition for what intelligence actually is.

What is intelligence?
Theories
In 1923 Charles Spearman (1863-1945) developed a concept of general intelligence referred to as
the G factor. Spearman’s theory is that G is a particular quantity which is derived from certain
statistical problems or tests. The tests or problems actually gives two factors, G or the General Factor
which is always the same i.e. cannot change and the specific factor which is variable i.e. a value that
changes depending on the test. G is essentially a score, which affects certain activities. G is dominant
in activities such as learning Latin or reasoning while it is less so in distinguishing one tone from
another. G is also impossible to train; Spearman compares it to training someone to be taller. G can
be factored as a mental age.
*
In contrast Louis Thurstone (1887-1955) developed a model where intelligence was not viewed as a
single general ability. His intelligence is defined by the seven Primary Mental Abilities (PMAs).
Turnstone opposed the idea of a mental age as he believed it didn’t accurately represent
intelligence. Someone could have a higher than average score in 6 PMAs but a very low score in one
PMA. Using the mental age theory this person would be below average intelligence. Thurstone
instead believed that some PMAs contributed to intelligence more than others and should affect
intelligence in different ways. The seven PMAs used by Thurstone were verbal comprehension,
reasoning, word fluency, perceptual speed, number facility, spatial visualization and associative
memory.
*
A theory that has recently been suggested by Howard Gardner (1943- ) is the theory of multiple
intelligences. Howard Gardner viewed intelligence as “the capacity to solve problems or to fashion
products that are valued in one or more cultural setting[s]”. The different intelligences are:

 Linguistic– The ability to use language both in thinking and in communication.

 Logical-Mathematical– The ability to think logically and to solve mathematical problems.
 Spatial intelligence– The ability to use images that represent spatial relations (for example imagining
whether a new sofa would fit in your living room).
 Bodily-Kinesthetic– The ability to learn and execute physical movements.
 Musical– Sensitivity to and understanding of pitch, rhythm and other aspects of music.
 Interpersonal– The ability to communicate and engage in effective social relationships with others.
 Intrapersonal– The ability to understand oneself.
 Howard Gardner has since added four other possible intelligences:

 Naturalist intelligence is the ability to identify patterns in nature and to determine how individual
beings or objects fit into them.
 Existential intelligence is the intelligence of a concern with “ultimate issues”.
 Spiritual intelligence is the intelligence that explores the nature of existence.
 Moral intelligence is intelligence of concern for rules, behaviours and attitudes.

An example of the theory is someone having a large score in mathematic/logical but not
rhythmical/musical. This means that the person generally performs better in mathematics than music.
This correlates directly to the most effective ways for someone to learn. For our model the person would
find it easy to learn via equations or patterns but would find it difficult or impossible to learn via singing
or rhythmic beating. Gardner says that intelligence is defined at birth but can also be changed with
enough practice. He emphasises that raw talent takes an education to be transformed into practical
capability.
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Robert J. Sternberg (1949- ) formulated the theory of Triarchic Intelligence. In the Triarchic theory there
are three parts; componential, experiential and contextual.

 The analytical part is the ability to analyse problems and see uncommon solutions.
 The creative part is how well a task is performed according to how often it is performed. This is split
into two separate parts: novel and automation. A novel situation is one that is new to you and has
never been experienced before. People that are good in a novel situation can take the task and solve
it in new and ingenious ways. An automated situation or task has been performed many times and
can be done now with no or little thought. Once a problem is automated it can be run
simultaneously with other processes. An example is in mathematics, where basic addition is learnt
early on. By the time you get into secondary school and onto problems requiring multiple additions
you can run many together simultaneously.
 The third part, practical, is made up of three processes; adaption, shaping and selection. These are
all required to fit into a context, i.e. adapting, shaping and selecting parts of yourself to emphasise or
perfect in response to location or situation stimulation. Adaption occurs when you change yourself
to better adjust to surroundings e.g. when it is cold people put on more layers. Shaping occurs when
you change your environment to better suit your needs e.g. a teacher invoking a new rule, so that
the lesson proceeds with minimum disruption. Selection occurs when a new environment is found to
replace a less than satisfactory environment e.g. a person moving to a new country because in the
old one they were met with social or/and economic hardships.

Measuring Intelligence
The first attempt to measure intelligence was by Galton in the 1880s using a series of tests, these
tests included both physical measures like the strength of a hand squeeze and behavioural measures
like reaction times. He believed that intelligence was an underlying trait that on all tasks, would
influence a person’s performance i.e. whatever the task, a person with a higher intelligence would
perform better. He also believed that a person’s status and their intelligence were connected.
Binet and Simon, two French psychologists, published tests in 1905 which they claimed could
identify children who were failing to make progress in school. Many of the tasks, which made up the
tests, were based on school tasks such as vocabulary, comprehension of facts and mathematical and
verbal reasoning. Binet’s and Simon’s original tasks were later revised by Terman at Stanford
University. He described a child’s performance in terms of a score called an Intelligence Quotient
later shortened to IQ. This is calculated by taking the ratio of mental level to chronological age then
multiplying it by 100.

Mental Age
x 100=IQ
Chronological Age

IQ score calculations are now based upon a direct comparison of a child’s performance with the
average performance of a large group of other children of the same age with a score of 100 being
average. IQ test scores have been rising steadily over the past 50 years. The test makers for modern
IQ tests periodically restandardise the tests so that the average remains at 100. There are many
types of modern IQ tests for different ages with the Wechsler Intelligence Scale being the most
commonly used.

What makes someone intelligent- nature or nurture?

Are children born intelligent or not? Nature versus nurture (hereditary versus environment) is a
continuing debate which is also of political issue.

Twin studies and studies of adopted children show strong hereditary influences on IQ scores.
Identical twins are more like one another in IQ scores than fraternal twins are, and the IQs of
adopted children are better predicted from the IQs of their natural parents than those of their
adoptive parents. Gender does not play a part in overall IQ test score but they do differ in some sub
skills, the largest differences are on the measure of spatial reasoning on which males are consistently
better.

Parents of children who have higher IQ scores or have scores that increase with age tend to do
several things. They provide an interesting and complex physical environment, which includes
appropriate play materials. They are emotionally responsive to and involved with their children.
They talk to their children often using language, which is diverse, descriptive and accurate. When
they play with or interact with their children they aim their conversation, questions, and assistance
at a level that is just above the level the children could manage on their own. They avoid excessive
restrictiveness, punishment, or control, instead giving their children room to explore and even
opportunities to make mistakes. They expect their children to do well and develop rapidly; they
empathise and encourage school achievement. Studies on adoptive children show that adoptive
parents who behave in the ways listed above have adopted children who score higher on IQ tests.
Middle class families often have children with a higher IQ than poor families because they can afford
more appropriate play materials than poorer families.

Another example of environmental influence can be seen in the differences between Asian and
American children in mathematical tests. These differences result not from genetic differences in
capacity but from differences of cultural emphasis on the importance of academic achievement with
the Asian culture getting consistently higher results.

One-way to explain the interaction of hereditary and environment is with the concept of reaction
range. Hereditary factors determine some range of potential but environment determines the level
of performance within that range.

Artificial Intelligence
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) developed a theory that states a child has to pass through different stages
of a learning process. His work was used while developing the logo programming language, which
we currently use in school. His work also helped the development of the Dynabook programming
system concept which was discussed within the Xeorox PARC. These led to the development of an
Alto prototype which had the first Graphical User Interface (GUI) which influenced all modern GUIs.
He also developed a theory that intelligence was like plastic in that it can stretch, grow and increase.

In the 1950s AI researchers forecast that a computer would be the world chess champion by 1968, it
took a couple more decades than that. Even so AI experts are still optimistic and are predicting that
by the middle of the 21st Century AI intelligent robots and household appliances will be part of
everyday life.

The use of AI in everyday items has already begun! Fuel injection systems learn using special
algorithms and jet turbines are designed using genetic algorithms. Every mobile phone call and email
sent is routed by the use of artificial intelligence. Even reading X-rays is done using AI.

Jobs that were used to be done by intelligent humans are now done by computer, this is called
narrow AI, and it is narrow because the AI only operates within a specific area.

By 2050 our lives will be populated by many different kinds of intelligent robots, robots that Hoover,
cook and iron for us. Many scientists say though that despite the rapid increase of advanced
technology the process of AI will be gradual.