MEANING OF HUMAN RIGHTS

Human beings are born equal in dignity and rights. These are moral claims
which are inalienable and inherent in all individuals by virtue of their humanity
alone, irrespective of caste, colour, creed, and place of birth, sex, cultural
difference or any other consideration. These claims are articulated and
formulated in what is today known as human rights. Human rights are
sometimes referred to as fundamental rights, basic rights, inherent rights,
natural rights and birth rights.

DEFINITION OF HUMAN RIGHTS

Dr. Justice Durga Das Basu defines Human rights are those minimal rights,
which every individual must have against the State, or other public authority,
by virtue of his being a member of human family irrespective of any
consideration. Durga Das Basus definition brings out the essence of human
rights.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), 1948, defines human rights
as rights derived from the inherent dignity of the human person. Human
rights when they are guaranteed by a written constitution are known as
Fundamental Rights because a written constitution is the fundamental law of
the state.

CHARACTERISTICS AND NATURE OF HUMAN RIGHTS

Following are the characteristics of human rights:

1. Human Rights are Inalienable - Human rights are conferred on an individual
due to the very nature of his existence. They are inherent in all individuals
irrespective of their caste, creed, religion, sex and nationality. Human rights are
conferred to an individual even after his death. The different rituals in different
religions bear testimony to this fact.

2. Human Rights are Essential and Necessary - In the absence of human rights,
the moral, physical, social and spiritual welfare of an individual is impossible.
Human rights are also essential as they provide suitable conditions for material
and moral upliftment of the people.

3. Human Rights are in connection with human dignity - To treat another

individual with dignity irrespective of the fact that the person is a male or
female, rich or poor etc. is concerned with human dignity. For eg. In 1993, India
has enacted a law that forbids the practice of carrying human excreta. This law
is called Employment of Manual Scavengers and Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act.

4. Human Rights are Irrevocable: Human rights are irrevocable. They cannot be
taken away by any power or authority because these rights originate with the
social nature of man in the society of human beings and they belong to a
person simply because he is a human being. As such human rights have
similarities to moral rights.

5. Human Rights are Necessary for the fulfillment of purpose of life: Human
life has a purpose. The term human right is applied to those conditions which
are essential for the fulfillment of this purpose. No government has the power
to curtail or take away the rights which are sacrosanct, inviolable and
immutable.
6. Human Rights are Universal Human rights are not a monopoly of any
privileged class of people. Human rights are universal in nature, without
consideration and without exception. The values such as divinity, dignity and
equality which form the basis of these rights are inherent in human nature.

7. Human Rights are never absolute Man is a social animal and he lives in a
civic society, which always put certain restrictions on the enjoyment of his
rights and freedoms. Human rights as such are those limited powers or claims,
which are contributory to the common good and which are recognized and
guaranteed by the State, through its laws to the individuals. As such each right
has certain limitations.

8. Human Rights are Dynamic - Human rights are not static, they are dynamic.
Human rights go on expanding with socio-eco-cultural and political
developments within the State. Judges have to interpret laws in such ways as
are in tune with the changed social values. For eg. The right to be cared for in
sickness has now been extended to include free medical treatment in public
hospitals under the Public Health Scheme, free medical examinations in
schools, and the provisions for especially equipped schools for the physically
handicapped.

9. Rights as limits to state power - Human rights imply that every individual
has legitimate claims upon his or her society for certain freedom and benefits.
So human rights limit the states power. These may be in the form of negative
restrictions, on the powers of the State, from violating the inalienable
freedoms of the individuals or in the nature of demands on the State, i.e.
positive obligations of the State. For eg. Six freedoms that are enumerated
under the right to liberty forbid the State from interfering with the individual.
THE EVOLUTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS

The evolutions of human rights have taken place over centuries. Man had to
struggle hard in order to achieve the ultimate goal living with dignity which
still has to be realized in various societies. India itself is an example where
women, children, dalits, bonded labourers, etc, is trying hard to be a part of
mainstream. Inspite of all these, the world recognized the [Link] of 1945
which states that human rights are inalienable aspect of mankind. The origin of
human rights may be traced to the theory of Natural Rights derived from the
concept of Natural Law, as propounded by ancient Greek Stoic Philosophers
and further developed by Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. The American and
French Revolution gave further impetus to the struggle of human rights. The
evolution and development of human rights in the international context can be
traced to the Magna Carta and the English Bill of Rights followed by the French
Declaration and the American Bill of Rights.

The twentieth century witnessed the crystallization of the philosophy of

Human Rights when the United Nations adopted the UN Charter, 1945, The
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 and the International Covenants
on Human Rights with further emphasis to protection of rights of Women,
Abolition of Slavery, Racial Discrimination, Civil and Political Rights, Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights and most importantly the Rights of children.

In India the drafters of Constitution took care to incorporate Human Rights for
its own citizens as well as for the aliens. India got its independence in the year
1947, just a year before the UDHR was adopted. The founding fathers of
Indian constitution were all aware that Indias freedom struggle had taken
place in the context of the demand for basic human rights. Yet economic
backwardness of the country would make it impossible to immediately satisfy
all the aspirations of people. So, they adopted a pragmatic approach. They
described certain rights as fundamental rights and laid down certain other
rights as fundamental duties of a citizen were also enumerated.

The Supreme Court of India is the guarantor of the rights according to the
Constitution. The court takes into account fundamental duties while
interpreting the constitutional right.

The important landmarks in the progress of human rights are as follows:

1 The Magna Carta, 1215.

The Magna Carta, also known as the Great Charter, of 1215 is the most
significant constitutional document of all human history. The main theme of it
was protection against the arbitrary acts by the king. The 63 clauses of the
Charter guaranteed basic civic and legal rights to citizens, and protected the
barons from unjust taxes. The English Church too gained freedom from royal
interferences. King John of England granted the Magna Carta to the English
barons on 15th June 1215. The king was compelled to grant the Charter,
because the barons refused to pay heavy taxes unless the king signed the
Charter.

2. The English Bill of Rights, 1689.

The next source and avenue of the development of the philosophy of human
rights is the English Bill of Rights, enacted on December 16, 1689, by the British
Parliament. The British Parliament declared its supremacy over the Crown in
clear terms. The English Bill of Rights declared that the king has no overriding
authority. The Bill of Rights codified the customary laws, and clarified the rights
and liberties of the citizens.

It lays down the twin foundations, viz., the supremacy of the law, and the
sovereignty of the nation, upon which, the English constitution rests.

3. American Declaration of Independence, 1776.

The first colonies to revolt against England were the thirteen States of
America. These states declared their independence from their mother country
on 4th July 1776. The declaration charges the king with tyranny and affirms the
independence of the American colonies. The declaration of independence has
great significance in the history of mankind as it justified the right to revolt
against a government that no longer guaranteed the mans natural and
inalienable rights.

4. The U.S. Bill of Rights, 1791.

The U.S. Constitution was enacted on 17th September 1787. The most
conspicuous defect of the original constitution was the omission of a Bill of
Rights concerning private rights and personal liberties. Madison, therefore
proposed as many as twelve amendments in the form of Bill of Rights. Ten of
these were ratified by the State legislatures. These ten constitutional
amendments came to be known as the Bill of Rights. The overall theme of the
Bill of Rights is that the citizen be protected against the abuse of power by the
officials of the States.

5. The French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, 1789

The fall of Bastille and the abolition of feudalism, serfdom and class privileges
by the National Assembly ushered France into a new era. On 4th August 1789,
the National Assembly proclaimed the Rights of Man and of the Citizens. The
Rights were formulated in 17 Articles.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen has far reaching
importance not only in the history of France but also in the history of Europe
and mankind. The declaration served as the death warrant for the old regime
and introduced a new social and political order, founded on the noble and
glittering principles. Further the declaration served as the basis for many
Constitutions, framed in different countries, where the framers gave top
priority to human rights.

6. Declaration of International Rights of Man, 1929.

After World War I, questions about human rights and fundamental freedoms
began to be raised. In 1929, the Institute of International Law adopted the
Declaration of International rights of Man. The Declaration declared that
fundamental rights of citizen, recognized and guaranteed by several domestic
constitutions, especially those of the French and the U.S.A constitutions, were
in reality meant not only for citizens of the states but for all men all over the
world, without any consideration.

7. The UN Charter, 1945.

The United Nations Charter was drafted, approved and unanimously adopted
by all the delegates of the 51 states, who attended the United Nations
Conference at San Francisco. The UN Charter contains provisions for the
promotion and protection of human rights. The importance of the Charter lies
in the fact that it is the first official document in which the use of human
rights is, for the first time traceable and which also recognized the respect for
fundamental freedom.

8. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted by the General

Assembly of the United Nations on 10th December, 1948. The Declaration
consists of thirty Articles and covers civil, political, economic, social and cultural
rights for all men, women and children. The declaration however is not a legally
binding document. It is an ideal for all mankind.

9. International Covenants on Human Rights

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 was not a legally binding
document. It lacked enforcements. This deficiency was sought to be removed
by the U.N. General Assembly by adopting in December, 1966, the two
Covenants, viz,International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.

The two International Covenants, together with the Universal Declaration and
the Optional Protocols, comprise the International Bill of Human Rights. The
International Bill of Human Rights represents a milestone in the history of
human rights. It is a modern Magna Carta of human rights.

THE NATURAL RIGHTS THEORY

Though the expression human rights had its origin in international law, which
is not older than the World War II, the concept of an individual having certain
basic, inalienable rights as against a sovereign State had its origin in the
doctrines of natural law and natural rights. Thomas Hobbes (1588 1679),
John Locke (1632 1704) and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 1778) are the
three main thinkers who developed the Natural Rights theory. Thomas
Hobbes was the first champion of the theory of natural rights. In his
celebrated book, Leviathan, he advocated that no individual could ever be
deprived of the right to life, which he enjoyed in the state of nature. He
asserted that all human beings are equal, without any consideration.

John Locke developed the idea further in his book, Two Treatises Government.
He argued that every human being has a natural right to life, personal liberty,
and property, and that no governmental authority has power to deprive
individuals of these rights because they had enjoyed them even before the
creation of the civil or political society.

Rousseau is regarded as the greatest master of natural law school. In his

celebrated book, The Social Contract, Rousseau states that All men are born
free but everywhere they are in chains. Rousseau proclaimed that men are
bestowed with inalienable rights of liberty, equality and fraternity. These
concepts became the basis for the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and
of the Citizen.

Paine an American revolutionary thinker developed the doctrine of natural

rights without linking it to the social contract theory. He held that rights are
natural, because they were bestowed upon man by God himself. These rights
exist independently of the legal code of any country.

CLASSIFICATON OF HUMAN RIGHTS

Human rights can be broadly classified on five bases. They are:

 Civil Human Rights
Political Human Rights
Economic Human Rights
Social and Cultural Human Rights
Development Oriented Human Rights

a. The seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries contributed and

strengthened the civil and political rights, which assured civil and political
liberties. The Civil and Political Human Rights are collectively known as
Liberty Oriented Human Rights because they provide, protect and guarantee
individual liberty to an individual against the State and its agencies. Liberty
rights also referred to as Blue Rights are the First Generation of Human Rights.

b. The twentieth century contributed to the development and strengthening of

economic, social and cultural rights and the rights of minorities as well. These
rights aim at promotion of the economic and social security through economic
and social upliftment of the weaker sections of the society. These rights are
essential for dignity of personhood as well as for the full and free development
of human personality in all possible directions. These rights ensure a minimum
of economic welfare of the masses and their basic material needs, recognized
by the society as essential to civilized living.

The economic, social and cultural rights, including the rights of the minorities
are collectively known as the Security Oriented Human Rights because these
rights collectively provide and guarantee the essential security in the life of an
individual. In the absence of these rights, the very existence of human beings
would be in danger. These are also known as the Second Generation of
Human Rights. They are also referred to as Red Rights or also as positive rights.
These rights along with the Civil and Political Rights were declared by the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights and later were recognized by (1) the
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and (2) the Covenant on Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights in December 1966.

c. The Development Oriented Human Rights are of a very recent origin in the
late twentieth century. These rights enable an individual to participate in the
process of all round development and include environmental rights that enable
an individual to enjoy the absolutely free gifts of nature, namely, air, water,
food and natural resources, free from pollution and contamination. These are
known as the Third Generation of Human Rights or Green Rights. They are also
called as Solidarity Rights, because their implementation depends upon
international cooperation.

Solidarity rights are of special importance to developing countries, because

these countries want the creation of an international order that will guarantee
to them the right to development, the right to disaster relief assistance, the
right to peace and the right to good government.

Rights for Citizens and for all persons.

All human rights can be further classified into two distinct classes on the basis
of the eligibility of individual, who can exercise them as under: 1. The rights for
citizens and 2. The rights for all persons.

Certain rights are conferred only on citizens. For eg. In the Indian constitution
provisions in Articles 15, 16, 19 and 29 are limited to citizens. The remaining
provisions in Part III of the Indian Constitution are applicable to citizens and
aliens alike.