MAIN COMPETENCE

(LINGUISTICS, SYNTAX, MORPHOLOGY, PHONOLOGY)

Submitted to fulfill the requirement of individual task in

Comprehensive Examination.

Lecturer : Moh. NurArifin, [Link].,[Link]

Compiled by :
NAWA AULUDDIN
132301470

PBI-B/ VIII (Eight)

English Education Department

Education and Teacher Training Faculty
The State Institute for Islamic Studies of
Sultan MaulanaHasanuddinBanten
2017 M/ 1438H
1. Morphology is the branch of linguistic that studies pattern of word formation within and
across languages and attempts to formulate rules that model the knowledge of the
speakers of those languages.
2. Morphology is the part of linguistic that deals with the study of word, their internal
structure and practically their meanings.
3. The scope of morphology
1) Word
A word needs not have any special phonetic properties: some of words bear stress
but other do not; some words are set off by intentional cues but others are not.
Bloomfields classic definition of word as the minimum free form of languages is
really a special application of the criterion of the stability.
2) Morphemes (free and bound forms)
The smallest units that carry meanings or fulfill some grammatical function.
Free morpheme; it can stand by itself
Ex. House
Bound morpheme; it cannot stand by itself
Ex. Houses
Free morpheme can be subdivided into two categories:
Lexical morpheme; are words that have some meaning
Functional morpheme; are closed class of words
Bound morpheme can be subdivided into two categories:
Derivational morphemes; are those morphemes which produce new words
or change the function of a word.
Inflectional morpheme; do not create a new words but only show
grammatical function of a word.
3) Sign and morphemes
A more common term in linguistic is morpheme. Most linguistic sign are
arbitrary, which means that the connection between the sound of the given sign
and its meaning is purely conventional not rooted some property of the object for
which the sign stands.
4) Word structure
The structure of the entire word may be represented by means of either a set
labeled brackets or a tree diagram.
5) Approach to morphology
a) Morpheme-based morphology
Word forms are analyzed as arrangement of morpheme. A morpheme is
defined as the minimal meaningful unit of language. The morpheme
based approach is the first one that beginners to morphology usually think
of and which laymen tend to find the most obvious.
b) Word- based morphology
A (usually) word and paradigm approach. This theory takes paradigm as a
central notion. Instead of stating rules to combine morphemes into word
forms or to generate words forms from stems word based morphology
states generalizations that hold between the form of inflection paradigms.
4. The fundamental concepts on morphological discourses they are:
1) Lexemes and word form
The first sense of word, the one in which dog and dogs are same words is called
lexeme the second sense is called word form. That dog and dogs are different
form of the same lexeme. Dog and dogs catcher, on the other hand, are different
lexemes; for example they refer to two different kinds of entities.
2) Inflection VS word formation
The distinction between inflection and word formation is not at all clear cut.
There are many examples where linguistic fail to agree whether a given rule is
inflection or word formation.
3) Word and paradigm
A paradigm is the complete set or related word forms associated with a given
lexemes. The word forms of a lexeme may be arranged conveniently into tables,
by classifying them according to shared inflectional categories such as tense,
aspect, mood number, gender or case.
1. Phonology is a branch of linguistic, closely related to phonetics. Which studies the
manners of organization and usage of the speech sounds in natural languages.
2. phonetic deals with the smallest chunks of language, yet it is in connection with other
linguistic disciplines like morphology because adding morphemes may change the
meaning of word and their pronunciation, frequently following patterns.
3. Phonology is investigates the organization of speech sound in a particular.
4. Phonology is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.
5. The relationship between phonetics and phonology is a complex one, but we might
initially approach phonology as narrowed-down phonetics.
6. phonologists also attempt to distinguish those patterns which are characteristic of a single
language and simply reflect its history, from others where a more universal motivation is
at issue.
7. Phonological differences also exist below the level of the language: frequently, two
people think of themselves as speakers of the same language, but vary in their usage
(sometimes you do say tomayto, while I say tomahto). This is not just an automatic,
phonetic matter: in some cases a single speaker will always use one variant, but in others,
individuals will use different variants on different occasions.
8. The phoneme therefore contains the sounds [], [ > l l], [l ] and [l].
9. If one sound can always be exchanged by , of the same phoneme, then and are
said to be in free variation. If however
10. and are not in free variation, we say that the realization of the phoneme as either or
is conditioned by the context.
11. Without a universal transcription system for phonetics and phonology, writing down the
unfamiliar sounds of other languages presents an almost insuperable challenge.
12. The phonological system of a language includes
1) an inventory of sounds and their features, and
2) rules which specify how sounds interact with each other.
13. Phonology is just one of several aspects of language. It is related to other aspects such as
phonetics, morphology, syntax, and pragmatics.
14. Illustration that shows the place of phonology in an interacting hierarchy of levels in
linguistics:

15. Comparison: Phonology and phonetics

Phonetics Phonology
Is the basis for phonological Is the basis for further work
analysis. in morphology, syntax,
discourse, and orthography
design.
 Analyzes the production of Analyzes the sound patterns
all human speech sounds, of a particular language by
regardless of language.
determining which
phonetic sounds are
significant, and
explaining how these
sounds are
interpreted by the
native speaker.

16. Models of phonology

Different models of phonology contribute to our knowledge of phonological
representations and processes:
1) In classical phonemics, phonemes and their possible combinations are
central.
2) In standard generative phonology, distinctive features are central. A
stream of speech is portrayed as linear sequence of discrete sound-
segments. Each segment is composed of simultaneously occurring
features.
3) In non-linear models of phonology, a stream of speech is represented as
multidimensional, not simply as a linear sequence of sound segments.
These non-linear models grew out of generative phonology:
autosegmental phonology
metrical phonology
lexical phonology

o
1. In linguistics, syntax refers to the rules that govern the ways in which words combine to form
phrases, clauses, and sentences. Adjective: syntactic. More simply, syntax can be defined as the
arrangement of words in a sentence. The term syntax is also used to mean the study of the
syntactic properties of a language.
2. Syntax is a branch of linguistic that is concerned with study of the structure of a sentence
and ordering of its elements.
3. Chomsky on Syntax
"Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in
particular languages. Syntactic investigation of a given language has as its goal the
construction of a grammar that can be viewed as a device of some sort for producing the
sentences of the language under analysis."
4. The word syntax itself derives from Greek words meaning together or arrangement.
5. The syntax of a language is the set of properties which determine the construction of
sentences in that language. If a sentence is constructed according to those properties it is
well formed or grammatical.
6. Burgess on Syntax
"And the words slide into the slots ordained by syntax, and glitter as with atmospheric
dust with those impurities which we call meaning. . . ."It is syntax that gives the words
the power to relate to each other in a sequence . . . to carry meaningof whatever kind
as well as glow individually in just the right place."
7. The study of syntax involves uncovering those properties of language which are involved
in the construction of grammatical sentence in particular languages.
8. Syntax is the system of rules and categories that allows words to be combined to the form
of sentence.
9. The order of words in a sentences or phrases is connected to its literal meaning. The basic
underlying word order in an English sentence is subject-verb-object (S-V-O).
See the two examples:
1) The mat is on the cat
2) The cat is on the main

10. Rules of Syntax

it is a mistake to believe that some English speakers follow rules in their speech and
others do not. Instead, it now appears that all English speakers are successful language
learners: they all follow unconscious rules derived from their early language
development, and the small differences in the sentences that they prefer are best
understood as coming from small differences in these rules.
11. Speech and Writing
Many kinds of spoken language . . . have a syntax that is very different from the syntax of
formal writing. It is essential to understand that the differences exist not because spoken
language is a degradation of written language but because any written language, whether
English or Chinese, results from centuries of development and elaboration by a small
number of users . . .. In spite of the huge prestige enjoyed by written language in any
literate society, spoken language is primary in several major respects.
12. Taxonomic and Cognitive Approaches to Syntax
 Within traditional grammar, the syntax of a language is described in terms of a taxonomy
(i.e. the classificatory list) of the range of different types of syntactic structures found in
the language. The central assumption underpinning syntactic analysis in traditional
grammar is that phrases and sentences are built up of a series of constituents (i.e.
syntactic units), each of which belongs to a specific grammatical category and serves a
specific grammatical function. In contrast to the taxonomic approach adopted in
traditional grammar, [Noam] Chomsky takes a cognitive approach to the study of
grammar. For Chomsky, the goal of the linguist is to determine what it is that native
speakers know about their native language which enables them to speak and understand
the language fluently: hence, the study of language is part of the wider study of cognition
(i.e. what human beings know). In a fairly obvious sense, any native speaker of a
language can be said to know the grammar of his or her native language.
13. Syntactic Changes in English
Syntactic changechange in the form and order of wordsis . . . sometimes described
as 'an elusive process as compared to sound change.' Its apparently puzzling nature is
partly due to its variety. Word endings can be modified. Chaucer's line And smale foweles
maken melodye shows that English has changed several of them in the last 600 years. The
behaviour of verbs can alter. Middle English I kan a noble tale 'I know a fine story'
reveals that can could once be used as a main verb with a direct object. And word order
may switch. The proverb Whoever loved that loved not at first sight? indicates that
English negatives could once be placed after main verbs. These are just a random sample
of syntactic changes which have occurred in English in the last half-millennium or so.
1. The term 'linguistically' from English linguistics, it means that science study the Bible. A
counterpart of the word among others is linguistique (in French) linguistiek (in Dutch),
which is inherited from the Latin which means is 'language'.
2. The phonology (Home) Phonology the phonology of words, literally simple, consists of
compound fon (which means the sound) and finds (which means knowledge).
3. The phonology is derived from English phonology which means 'knowledge about
sound'. In America, used with the name of phonemics.
4. On majors Phonology consists of 2 (two) parts are phonetically and Fonemik.
1) The Phonetics
Phonetics is a branch of Phonology that learn how the sound of the sound of a
language in realisasikan fonem or pronounced. The phonology also learn how to
produce the sound of the Bible or how a sound production language by the
appliance clarified man.
2) Fonemik
Fonemik is a branch of phonology that learn/investigate sound ujaran according
to its function as a distinguishing the meaning. Is practical fonektik
Fonemik/implicated. Progress is directed especially at fonem specific language.
5. Morphology (Morphology)
Morphology is used by the various branches of science. Literally, morphology means
'knowledge about the form of' (morphos). In the linguistic branch, morfologii is a science
studying the linguistic about the formation of a word or the morfem morfem in a
language.
6. Morfem (morpheme) is considered as the smallest elements of the formation of words
and adjusted with the rules of a language. Morfem in general is divided into two main
parts, namely morfem morfem free and bound.
1) Free Morfem (free) namely morfem morpheme that is not bound by other units or
can be said as the home screen/basis. Example: rise, live, bath, fall, and so on.
2) Morfem bound (bound morpheme) narrowly defined as the units are not able to
stand on its own. Its presence always stick on the construction of larger, for
example base word. Example morfem tied including: a prefix to the, pe, etc.),
adjectives (s, wan, etc.), infiks (er, el, etc.), and konfiks (per s to s, etc.).
7. syntax offer important exegetical clues (Syntaxes)
Etymologically, the term "syntax offer important exegetical clues" is derived from the
Greek sun 'y' and 'enempatkan tattein'.
8. The study syntax offer important exegetical clues especially on those relationships that
happen antarfrasa in sentence structure. In more detail, the scope of the study syntax offer
important exegetical clues among other is:
1) Forms of merger/said the group
2) Construction could be grammatically (S-P)
3) study of the information in the sentence structure (syntax offer important
exegetical clues information)
4) Analysis (discourse discourse [analysis)
9. Semantics (Semantics)
Semantics is a linguistic branch learn the meaning of/the meaning in a language, code, or
the type of representation of the other. In other words, semantics is learning about the
meaning of which is used to understand the human expression through the language.
Semantics is usually associated with two other aspects: syntax offer important exegetical
clues, formation of romantic symbol from the symbol of the complex more simple and
pragmatic law, the use of the symbol of the community in certain contexts.