Geography Unit 3 : Rivers
Parts of river: River source, Tributaries, Confluence (Place where the tributaries meet), Meanders,
Distributaries, Delta, Deposited sediments, River mouth.
Drainage patterns: Radial, Dendrite, Parallel, Trellis.
Strength of river depend on:
1. Speed
Depend on:
Shape of channel: Small wetted perimeter less friction less erosion more speed
Large wetted perimeter more friction more erosion less speed
Roughness of channel: Smooth channel less friction more speed
Rough channel more friction less speed
Gradient of channel: Steep channel more speed
Gentle channel less speed
2. Volume
Depend on:
Size of drainage area: Large drainage area more surface area for collection of rainwater
larger volume of water in river
Small drainage area less surface area for collection of rainwater
smaller volume of water in river
Permeability of rocks: Less permeable rocks less infiltration more surface runoff larger
volume of water in river
Permeable rocks more infiltration less surface runoff smaller
volume of water in river
Presence of vegetation: Less vegetation less interception more surface runoff larger
volume of water in river
More vegetation more interception less surface runoff smaller
volume of water in river
Climate: Longer and more rainfall larger volume of water in river
Shorter and less rainfall smaller volume of water in river
River courses:
1. Upper course: Very steep, high river energy, V- shape valley
2. Middle course: Less steep compared to middle course, moderate river energy, U-shape valley
3. Lower course: Gentle, low river energy, wide U-shape valley
Erosional processes:
1. Abrasion: Force of water drags sand, silt, gravel and small boulders and erodes the river bed and
banks. Occurs during flooding greater water velocity
2. Attrition: Affects load itself (does not affect river channel). Load collides into each other,
breaking down into smaller, rounder and smoother pieces.
3. Hydraulic action: Running water loosen rocks from joints/cracks and sweep it away.
4. Solution: Soluble substances dissolve into the water. Can occur even when the water speed and
volume is low.
Transportational processes:
1. Traction:
a. Load: Bed load, pebbles, boulder, heavy load that settles on the river bed.
b. Movement: Rolling, sliding along river bed
c. Description: force of moving water exerts great pressure on the rocks, causing them to
roll/ slide along river bed
2. Saltation:
a. Load: Smaller particles, gravels, coarse sand, not so heavy load that settles on river bed.
b. Movement: Bounces, lifting and dropping from time to time
c. Description: Flowing water carries these not so heavy rocks, in a bouncing motion, lifting
and dropping materials from time to time.
3. Suspension:
a. Load: Fine particles, clay, silt, very light load that does not settle on river bed.
b. Movement: Floats along river channel
c. Description: Flowing water carry the finer particles, and they float down the river.
4. Solution:
a. Load: Microscopic particles, cannot be seen, in form of dissolved substances.
b. Movement: In the form of dissolved substances carried by the water
c. Description: soluble rock materials are dissolved in water and transported down the
river channel. Occurs even when the water speed and volume is low.
River features:
1. Waterfalls:
a. Formed by presence of resistant and less resistant rocks:
River flows over a band of more resistant and less resistant rocks, eroding the L.R. rocks
faster, changing the gradient of the river. Over time, after repeated pounding, the river
becomes steeper, causing water to flow down vertically and rapidly.
b. Formed by faulting:
Faulting causes the land to be displaced, with one block being lifted up relative to the
adjacent block, the height difference will cause the river to flow down vertically, forming
a plunge pool.
2. Gorges:
Repeated erosion causes the river to retreat upstream, the continued vertical erosion produces
steep sided valley called gorges.
3. Floodplains and levees:
During flooding, large-sized materials are deposited at the river bank, while small-sized
materials are deposited outside the river (at the floodplain). Repeated flooding causes levees to
be formed.
4. Meanders:
There will be erosion of the banks of the river, this would cause the river to curve or meander
after repeated erosion, this would form a river cliff on the concave bank, and a slip-off slope on
the convex bank.
5. Ox-bow lake:
After repeated erosion of the concave side of the bank, the narrow neck of land separating two
concave banks gets smaller. Soon, the narrow neck of land will get totally eroded and the river
will flow straight, forming a cut-off, and there will be deposition on the sides of the river.
Eventually the deposits will completely seal off the ox-box lake from the river
6. Deltas and distributaries:
There will be deposition at the river’s mouth. After time, the deposits would build up, eventually
rising above the water, forming deltas. The conditions are: Low river energy, weak ocean
currents, river must carry a lot of sediments; rate of deposition must be more than rate of
erosion.
Ways to manage a river:
1. Re-alignment
Re-alignment is the straightening of the river channel. This removes the river’s meanders and
reduced the length of the river, increasing the speed of the river. The faster flow of the river
allows water to flow away from the area more quickly and wash away sediments on the river
bed, deepening the channel, reducing the occurrence of floods. The Mississippi River in the USA
has been shortened by 240km to reduce the threat of flooding. However, this is a short-term
solution, as the river would eventually meander again. A lot of resources and manpower are also
needed.
2. Re-sectioning
Re-sectioning is the widening and deepening of the river channel. This increases the river’s
ability to hold water, decreasing the chance of folds. This is done by the dredging of the river
bed. This has been used in the Singapore at the Kallang River to reduce the chance of flooding.
However, this would cause flooding downstream, as the volume of water flowing downstream is
increased.
3. Bank protection
Artificial dykes and levees are built to prevent flood from occurring and to reduce soil erosion
along the river banks. These structures increase the capacity of the river to hold water, hence
reducing the chance of flooding. This has been used in the lower course of the Yellow River in
China. However, there will be a continual build up of sediments on the river bed, making the
river channel shallower. This would cause the water levels to rise above the dye walls over the
years. Thus higher dyke walls will have to be built regularly or the sediment would have to be
dug up and removed
4. Planting vegetation
Planting vegetation can protect river banks against erosion as the roots of the trees and other
plants help to hold the soil together firmly. This reduces the amount of sediments eroded into
the river, causing the river to not become shallower, reducing the chance of floods Vegetation
also reduces surface runoff. Thus the reducing the chance of floods. However, the excessive
shade from the vegetation would prevent sunlight from reaching the river bed, killing aquatic
plants and affecting the aquatic food chain.