Mid-Indian Ridge, submarine ridge of the Indian Ocean that is a direct

continuance of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge; both are segments of the worldwide

midoceanic ridge system. Entering the Indian Ocean from the South Atlantic,
the Mid-Indian Ridge extends north to a point near Rodrigues Island, where it
divides into two parts: one segment continues northward toward the Gulf of
Aden, where it connects with the East African Rift System; the second branch
extends southeast toward the Macquarie Islands. Between the Gulf of Aden
and Rodrigues Island, the Mid-Indian Ridge bears the name Carlsberg Ridge.
The ridge is associated with a belt of earthquake epicentres and, hence, is
seismically active. This fact is further observed in its rough relief and thin
sediment cover.

origin of salts in sea

Most of the ocean's salts are derived from gradual
processes, such as weathering and erosion of the earth's
crust and mountains by the dissolving action of rains and
streams.

Some of the ocean's salts have been dissolved from rocks

and sediments below the sea floor, while others have
escaped from the Earth's crust through volcanic vents as
solid and gaseous materials.

Salts become concentrated in the sea because the Sun's

heat evaporates almost pure water from the surface of
the ocean, leaving the salts behind. This process is part of
the continual exchange of water between the Earth and
the atmosphere, called the hydrologic cycle.
What are the Factors Causing
Variations in Salinity?
As noted earlier, the average salinity of the ocean water is about 35 %o.
However, there are regional variations in the salinity of the surface waters.
Besides horizontal variations there are vertical variations as well in the salinity
distribution in the oceans.
It is to be noted that the variations in salinity are the result of certain physical
processes like evaporation, precipitation and freezing. Salinity decreases in
case fresh water is added to the ocean water.
It may be through any of the processes such as precipitation, influx of fresh
water by rivers, surface runoff or the melting of snow and ice etc. On the other
hand, if fresh water is withdrawn from the sea-water leaving behind solid
substances, salinity registers an increase. In fact, the amount and distribution
of salinity is controlled by a number of factors which are as follows:
(i) Rate of evaporation
(ii) Supply of clean and fresh water through precipitation
(iii) Supply of fresh water by rivers
(iv) Prevailing winds
(v) Mixing through movement of the ocean water
(i) Rate of evaporation:
The process of evaporation is certainly the most important factor that controls
the distribution of the surface salinity. As we are aware, through the process of
evaporation pure water is taken out as water vapour and salt is left behind.
Thus it is clear that the conditions which favour the higher rate of evaporation
will naturally produce areas of high surface salinity. Evaporation is controlled
by temperature, relative humidity and the instability or stability in the lower
layers of the atmosphere.
In the equatorial region, the cloudiness and high relative humidity retard
evaporation. But the subtropical regions near 30N and S record the highest
salinity.
The reason is simple. In these regions the clear skies and descending air
currents favour a very high rate of evaporation. However, from these regions of
maximum salinity, there is a gradual decrease in sea-water salinity towards the
equator and the poles.
Salinity is higher in the middle-latitude regions than in the polar regions
mainly because of warmer ocean temperatures and greater evaporation there
(mid - latitudes). Due to the extremely low evaporation rates, on the contrary,
the lowest salinity is found in polar areas. Besides, during the summer season,
the polar area ice melts and fresh water is added to the sea - water. Thus, the
salinity decreases in the polar region.
(ii) Supply of clean and fresh water through precipitation:
In humid regions where rainfall is heavier, fresh water tends to dilute the sea-
water and reduce its salinity. On the other hand, in arid and semi-arid areas
where evaporation exceeds precipitation, there is greater concentration of salts
so that the salinity is high.
Despite uniformly high temperature throughout the year, heavy precipitation
dilutes the surface water so that the salinity is relatively lower. In the polar and
sub polar regions thick layers of snow and ice are deposited on the surface of
the earth due to heavy snowfall.
Melting of sea-ice and ice-bergs in the middle-latitude regions adds fresh water
to the sea, and thus by diluting it reduces its salinity.
Keeping in mind the significance of evaporation and precipitation Wust has
worked out an equation which clearly shows the interrelationship between
salinity and evaporation plus precipitation: S = 34.60 + 0.0175(E - P) when S
stands for salinity, E for the rate of evaporation, and P stands for the total
amount of precipitation.
(iii) Supply of fresh water by rivers:
The influx of fresh water by river is another important factor which brings
down the degree of salinity in ocean water. Rivers such as, the Congo, Niger,
St. Lawrence, Ob and Amazon etc. carry a large supply of fresh water to the
oceans in which they fall. Due to the addition of fresh water, salinity near the
mouths of rivers decreases.
It is estimated that the rivers pour down about 27000 km3 of the rain water
every year from over the continental surface into the oceans. Thus, keeping in
view the total area of the surface of ocean waters, rivers supply about 7.6cm of
fresh water per year to the oceans.
However, the effect of fresh water carried by the rivers to the oceans is limited
to the coastal areas only. Salinity in the coastal areas of the North Sea from
Holland to East Anglia is 34.2%o, while offshore in the open sea it is 35%o.
In the Black Sea over the greater part the surface salinity vanes from 18 to
18.5%o due to the influx of fresh water carried by the rivers. Similarly, in the
Baltic Sea lying in the colder region evaporation am comparatively low and a
large amount of fresh water is poured down by numerous rivers of Sweden and
northern Russia.
Thus, in the Gulf of Bothnia, the northern part of the Baltic Sea the salinity is
often less than 2%o, and in spring the water is almost fresh.
(iv) Prevailing winds:
Winds blowing over the sea surface play an important role in the distribution
of surface salinity. For example, the trade winds in both the hemispheres
transport warm and saline water from the eastern part of the oceans towards
the western part raising the degree of salinity there.
To compensate for the loss of the top layers of the ocean water there, the cooler
and less saline water from the deeper parts of the ocean comes up. This
phenomenon is called upwelling.
Now, it is clear that these prevailing winds called "the trade winds" go a long
way in producing salinity differences along the eastern and western shores of
the oceans. Similarly, the intrusion of warm and saline water of the Gulf
Stream is the most important causative factor in raising the salinity in the
northeast Atlantic Ocean.
Besides, blowing of winds on the sea surface exerts stress, and each moving
layer of water exerts a stress on the next underlying layer. Since it causes
mixing of the different layers of water, it is enough to appreciate the dominant
role of prevailing winds as a controlling factor in the distribution and amount
of salinity.
(v) Mixing through the movement of the ocean water:
The oceans are always in a state of restlessness. They actually show three
distinct types of movement i.e. tides, currents and waves. Because of these
major movements there is a continuous mixing of the surface waters with those
of the subsurface layers of the oceans.
This fact alone is an important factor in bringing about the uniformity of
salinity in the surface layer of the oceans. Currents, warm as well as cold, play a
major role in the distribution of salinity.
Warm ocean currents carry warm and more saline waters towards the Polar
Regions, whereas the cold currents drive the cold and less saline waters from
the higher to lower latitudes.
Trade winds as well as the westerlies bring about salinity differences on the
eastern and western parts of the oceans. However, in the Indian Ocean, the
monsoon system of winds causes the seasonal variation in the distribution of
salinity.
Layers of the Ocean
Scientists have divided the ocean into five main layers. These layers, known as
"zones", extend from the surface to the most extreme depths where light can no
longer penetrate. These deep zones are where some of the most bizarre and
fascinating creatures in the sea can be found. As we dive deeper into these largely
unexplored places, the temperature drops and the pressure increases at an
astounding rate. The following diagram lists each of these zones in order of depth.

Epipelagic Zone - The surface layer of the ocean is known as the epipelagic zone
and extends from the surface to 200 meters (656 feet). It is also known as the
sunlight zone because this is where most of the visible light exists. With the light
come heat. This heat is responsible for the wide range of temperatures that occur in
this zone.
Mesopelagic Zone - Below the epipelagic zone is the mesopelagic zone,
extending from 200 meters (656 feet) to 1,000 meters (3,281 feet). The
mesopelagic zone is sometimes referred to as the twilight zone or the midwater
zone. The light that penetrates to this depth is extremely faint. It is in this zone that
we begin to see the twinkling lights of bioluminescent creatures. A great diversity of
strange and bizarre fishes can be found here.
Bathypelagic Zone - The next layer is called the bathypelagic zone. It is
sometimes referred to as the midnight zone or the dark zone. This zone extends
from 1,000 meters (3,281 feet) down to 4,000 meters (13,124 feet). Here the only
visible light is that produced by the creatures themselves. The water pressure at
this depth is immense, reaching 5,850 pounds per square inch. In spite of the
pressure, a surprisingly large number of creatures can be found here. Sperm
whales can dive down to this level in search of food. Most of the animals that live at
these depths are black or red in color due to the lack of light.
Abyssopelagic Zone - The next layer is called the abyssopelagic zone, also
known as the abyssal zone or simply as the abyss. It extends from 4,000 meters
(13,124 feet) to 6,000 meters (19,686 feet). The name comes from a Greek word
meaning "no bottom". The water temperature is near freezing, and there is no light
at all. Very few creatures can be found at these crushing depths. Most of these are
invertebrates such as basket stars and tiny squids. Three-quarters of the ocean
floor lies within this zone. The deepest fish ever discovered was found in the Puerto
Rico Trench at a depth of 27,460 feet (8,372 meters).
Hadalpelagic Zone - Beyond the abyssopelagic zone lies the forbidding
hadalpelagic zone. This layer extends from 6,000 meters (19,686 feet) to the
bottom of the deepest parts of the ocean. These areas are mostly found in deep
water trenches and canyons. The deepest point in the ocean is located in the
Mariana Trench off the coast of Japan at 35,797 feet (10,911 meters). The
temperature of the water is just above freezing, and the pressure is an incredible
eight tons per square inch. That is approximately the weight of 48 Boeing 747 jets.
In spite of the pressure and temperature, life can still be found here. Invertebrates
such as starfish and tube worms can thrive at these depths.
Why do scientists measure sea surface temperature?

Sea surface temperature provides fundamental information on the global

climate system.

SST data are especially useful for identifying the onset of El Nio and La Nia
cycles. During El Nio, temperatures in the Pacific near the equator are
warmer than normal. During La Nia, the same area experiences colder than
normal ocean temperatures. These cycles are caused by multiyear shifts in
pressure and wind speeds, and affect ocean circulation, global weather
patterns, and marine ecosystems.

SST measurements benefit a wide spectrum of operational applications,

including climate and seasonal monitoring/forecasting, military defense
operations, validation of atmospheric models, sea turtle tracking, evaluation
of coral bleaching, tourism, and commercial fisheries management.