Passive Solar Building Design Model

Introduction

Passive solar heating is one of several design approaches collectively called passive
solar design. When combined properly, these strategies can contribute to the heating,
cooling, and daylighting of nearly any building. The types of buildings that benefit from
the application of passive solar heating range from barracks to large maintenance
facilities.

Typically, passive solar heating involves:

The collection of solar energy through properly-oriented, south-facing windows

The storage of this energy in "thermal mass," comprised of building materials
with high heat capacity such as concrete slabs, brick walls, or tile floors
The natural distribution of the stored solar energy back to the living space, when
required, through the mechanisms of natural convection and radiation
Window specifications to allow higher solar heat gain coefficient in south glazing.

Passive solar heating systems do not have a high initial cost or long-term payback
period, both of which are common with many active solar heating systems. Increased
user comfort is another benefit to passive solar heating. If properly designed, passive
solar buildings are bright and sunny and in tune with the nuances of climate and nature.
As a result, there are fewer fluctuations in temperature, resulting in a higher degree of
temperature stability and thermal comfort. By providing a delightful place to live and
work, passive solar buildings can contribute to increased satisfaction and user
productivity. In addition, passive solar design does not generate greenhouse gases and
slows fossil fuel depletion.

There are a few considerations with passive solar design. First, to achieve the highest
efficiency, the system needs to have maximum exposure to the sunlight. Second, the
intensity of sunlight is intermittent, and the system can overload, which may adversely
affect particular electrical appliances like air conditioners and computers. However, with
the help of experienced passive solar designer architects and builders, passive solar
design costs little more than conventional building design and saves money over the
long term.

It is best to incorporate passive solar heating into a building during the initial design.
The whole building approach evaluates it in the context of building envelope design
(particularly for windows), daylighting, and heating and cooling systems. Passive solar
heating strategies provide opportunities for daylighting and views to the outside through
well-positioned windows. Window designand especially glazing choicesis a critical
factor for determining the effectiveness of passive solar heating. Passive solar features,
such as additional south-facing windows, additional thermal mass, and roof overhangs,
can easily pay for themselves. Overall, passive solar buildings are often less expensive
when the lower annual energy and maintenance costs are factored in over the life of the
building.

This overview is intended to provide specific details for Federal agencies considering
passive solar heating technologies as part of a new construction project or major
renovation.

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Description

Passive solar heating systems make use of the building components to collect, store,
and distribute solar heat gains to reduce the demand for space heating. A passive solar
system does not require the use of mechanical equipment because the heat flow is by
natural means, such as radiation, convection, and conductance, and the thermal
storage is in the structure itself.

A passive solar heating system is made up of the following key components, all of which
must work together for the design to be successful:

Aperture (Collector)
Absorber
Thermal mass
Distribution
Control.

SOLAR PASSIVE BUILDING

DEFINITION

Passive solar design refers to the use of the suns energy for the heating and cooling of
living spaces. In this approach, the building itself or some element of it takes advantage
of natural energy characteristics in materials and air created by exposure to the sun.
Passive systems are simple, have few moving parts, and require minimal maintenance
and require no mechanical systems.

Operable windows, thermal mass, and thermal chimneys are common elements found
in passive design. Operable windows are simply windows that can be opened. Thermal
mass refers to materials such as masonry and water that can store heat energy for
extended time. Thermal mass will prevent rapid temperature fluctuations. Thermal
chimneys create or reinforce the effect hot air rising to induce air movement for cooling
purposes.

Wing walls are vertical exterior wall partitions placed perpendicular to adjoining windows
to enhance ventilation through windows.
 CONSIDERATIONS:

Passive design is practiced throughout the world and has been shown to produce
buildings with low energy costs, reduced maintenance, and superior comfort. Most of
the literature pertaining to passive solar technology addresses heating concerns. This
information is useful and relevant in our area; however, cooling issues, which are
equally important in Austin, are less well documented. Key aspects of passive design
include appropriate solar orientation, the use of thermal mass, and appropriate
ventilation and window placement.

Consideration of high humidity is a key issue in Austin. For example, a basic passive
cooling strategy is to permit cooler night air to ventilate a house and cool down the
thermal mass (this can be brick, stone, or concrete walls or floors, or large water
containers) inside the house. The thermal mass will absorb heat during the day;
however, excessive humidity will reduce the cooling effect from the cooler thermal
mass. Interior design elements of a home in our region also play a strong role in the
effectiveness of passive cooling. For example, carpets, drapes, and fabric-covered
furniture will absorb moisture from humid air, forcing the air conditioner to work harder
to remove humidity.

As a design approach, passive solar design can take many forms. It can be integrated
to greater or lesser degrees in a building. Key considerations regarding passive design
are determined by the characteristics of the building site. The most effective designs are
based on specific understanding of a building sites wind patterns, terrain, vegetation,
solar exposure and other factors often requiring professional architectural services.
However, a basic understanding of these issues can have a significant effect on the
energy performance of a building.

COMMERCIAL STATUS

TECHNOLOGY:

Well developed in passive heating but less developed in passive cooling.

Wing walls are being researched as a ventilation strategy at the Florida Solar Energy
Center, and effectiveness is being documented.

A thermal chimney is a common design element in passive solar designs. Thermal

chimneys are based on basic thermodynamics commonly used in passive design.

SUPPLIERS:

This is a design-based approach to energy and is practiced by some designers and

architects in Austin.
 COST:

The cost of passive design elements can run the same or slightly more than
conventional building costs. This assumes that design services are used in both
approaches passive solar design and conventional design. Interior thermal mass
materials such as stone and brick generally add to the cost of a home but can also be
considered aesthetic enhancements.

IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES

FINANCING:

There is not a financing issue unless the house does not include mechanical cooling.
Lenders feel that the resale value of a home is reduced if mechanical cooling is not
present.

PUBLIC ACCEPTANCE:

There is a basic understanding and acceptance in regards to passive heating among a

large number of persons who have relocated here from colder regions. Passive cooling
approaches are not well known.

REGULATORY:

According to the Energy Code, there are limitations on the amount of glass a building
can have (25% if double-pane). It is normally not necessary to exceed that amount in
order to achieve significant passive solar energy in Austin. However, this amount can be
exceeded if an approved computer analysis shows that more glass will improve the
energy use pattern in the building.

GUIDELINES

1.0 Passive Solar Design Introduction

Solar energy is a radiant heat source that causes natural processes upon which all life
depends. Some of the natural processes can be managed through building design in a
manner that helps heat and cool the building. The basic natural processes that are used
in passive solar energy are the thermal energy flows associated with radiation,
conduction, and natural convection. When sunlight strikes a building, the building
materials can reflect, transmit, or absorb the solar radiation. Additionally, the heat
produced by the sun causes air movement that can be predictable in designed spaces.
These basic responses to solar heat lead to design elements, material choices and
placements that can provide heating and cooling effects in a home.
 Passive solar energy means that mechanical means are not employed to utilize solar
energy.

1.1 Passive solar systems rules of thumb:

The building should be elongated on an east-west axis.

The buildings south face should receive sunlight between the hours of 9:00 A.M.
and 3:00 P.M. (sun time) during the heating season.
Interior spaces requiring the most light and heating and cooling should be along
the south face of the building. Less used spaces should be located on the north.
An open floor plan optimizes passive system operation.
Use shading to prevent summer sun entering the interior. Sustainable By Design
has an online calculator for Sun Angles and from that you can figure the
overhang calculations.

2.0 Passive Solar Heating

2.1 Two primary elements of passive solar heating are required:

South facing glass

Thermal mass to absorb, store, and distribute heat

There are three approaches to passive systems direct gain, indirect gain, and isolated
gain. The goal of all passive solar heating systems is to capture the suns heat within
the buildings elements and release that heat during periods when the sun is not
shining. At the same time that the buildings elements (or materials) is absorbing heat
for later use, solar heat is available for keeping the space comfortable (not overheated).

2.2 Direct Gain

In this system, the actual living space is a solar collector, heat absorber and distribution
system. South facing glass admits solar energy into the house where it strikes directly
and indirectly thermal mass materials in the house such as masonry floors and walls.
The direct gain system will utilize 60 75% of the suns energy striking the windows.
 Figure 1
Thermal mass in the interior absorbs the sunlight and radiates the heat at night.

In a direct gain system, the thermal mass floors and walls are functional parts of the
house. It is also possible to use water containers inside the house to store heat.
However, it is more difficult to integrate water storage containers in the design of the
house.

The thermal mass will temper the intensity of the heat during the day by absorbing the
heat. At night, the thermal mass radiates heat into the living space.

2.2.1 Direct gain system rules of thumb (Austin):

A heat load analysis of the house should be conducted.

Do not exceed 6 inches of thickness in thermal mass materials.
Do not cover thermal mass floors with wall to wall carpeting; keep as bare as
functionally and aesthetically possible.
Use a medium dark color for masonry floors; use light colors for other lightweight
walls; thermal mass walls can be any color.
For every square foot of south glass, use 150 pounds of masonry or 4 gallons of
water for thermal mass.
Fill the cavities of any concrete block used as thermal storage with concrete or
other high mass substance.
Use thermal mass at less thickness throughout the living space rather than a
concentrated area of thicker mass.
The surface area of mass exposed to direct sunlight should be 9 times the area
of the glazing.
Sun tempering is the use of direct gain without added thermal mass. For most
homes, multiply the house square footage by 0.08 to determine the amount of
south facing glass for sun tempering.

2.3 Indirect Gain

In an indirect gain system, thermal mass is located between the sun and the living
space. The thermal mass absorbs the sunlight that strikes it and transfers it to the living
space by conduction. The indirect gain system will utilize 30 45% of the suns energy
striking the glass adjoining the thermal mass.

There are two types of indirect gain systems:

Thermal storage wall systems (Trombe Walls)

Roof pond systems

2.3.1 Thermal storage wall systems:

The thermal mass is located immediately behind south facing glass in this system.

Figure 2
Thermal Mass Wall or Trombe Wall Day and Night Operation

Operable vents at the top and bottom of a thermal storage wall permit heat to convect
from between the wall and the glass into the living space. When the vents are closed at
night radiant heat from the wall heats the living space.

2.3.2 Roof pond systems

Six to twelve inches of water are contained on a flat roof.

This system is best for cooling in low humidity climates but can be modified to work in
high humidity climates. (Effectively provides heat in southern U.S. latitudes during the
heating season for one story or upper stories of buildings.)
Water is usually stored in large plastic or fiberglass containers covered by glazing and
the space below is warmed by radiant heat from the warm water above.

These require somewhat elaborate drainage systems, movable insulation to cover and
uncover the water at appropriate times, and a structural system to support up to 65
lbs/sq ft dead load.

2.3.3 Indirect gain system rules of thumb for thermal storage walls

The exterior of the mass wall (toward the sun) should be a dark color.

Use a minimum space of 4 inches between the thermal mass wall and the glass.

Vents used in a thermal mass wall must be closed at night.

A well insulated home (7-9 BTU/day-sq. ft.-degree F) will require approximately 0.20
square feet of thermal mass wall per square foot of floor area or 0.15 square foot of
water wall.

If movable night insulation will be used in the thermal wall system, reduce the thermal
mass wall area by 15%.

Thermal wall thickness should be approximately 10-14 inches for brick, 12-18 inches for
concrete, 8-12 inches for adobe or other earth material and at least 6 inches for water.

2.4 Isolated Gain

An isolated gain system has its integral parts separate from the main living area of a
house. Examples are a sunroom and a convective loop through an air collector to a
storage system in the house. The ability to isolate the system from the primary living
areas is the point of distinction for this type of system. (See Figure 3)

The isolated gain system will utilize 15 30% of the sunlight striking the glazing toward
heating the adjoining living areas. Solar energy is also retained in the sunroom itself.

Sunrooms (or solar greenhouses) employ a combination of direct gain and indirect gain
system features. Sunlight entering the sunroom is retained in the thermal mass and air
of the room. Sunlight is brought into the house by means of conduction through a
shared mass wall in the rear of the sunroom, or by vents that permit the air between the
sunroom and living space to be exchanged by convection.

The use of a south facing air collector to naturally convect air into a storage area is a
variation on the active solar system air collector. These are passive collectors.
Convective air collectors are located lower than the storage area so that the heated air
generated in the collector naturally rises into the storage area and is replaced by return
air from the lower cooler section of the storage area. Heat can be released from the
 storage area either by opening vents that access the storage by mechanical means
(fans), or by conduction if the storage is built into the house.

Figure 3
Day and Night Operation of a Sunroom Isolated Gain System

The sunroom has some advantages as an isolated gain approach in that it can provide
additional usable space to the house and plants can be grown in it quite effectively.

The convective air collector by comparison becomes more complex in trying to achieve
additional functions from the system. This is a drawback in this area where space
heating is less of a concern than in colder regions where the system would be used
longer. It is best to use a system that provides more than one function if the system is
not an integral part of the building. The sunroom approach will be emphasized in this
information since it can provide multiple functions.

2.4.1 Sunrooms
Sunrooms can feature sloped and/or overhead glass, but is not recommended for the
Austin area. A sunroom will function adequately without overhead or sloped glazing.
Due to long hot summers in this area, it is important to use adequate ventilation to let
the heat out. Sloped or overhead glazing is also a maintenance concern. Due to the
intensity of weather conditions for glazing facing the full .[Link]: passive design
and brunt of the sun and rain, seals between the gazing panels need to be of extremely
high material and installation quality.
A thermal wall on the back of the sunroom against the living space will function like the
indirect gain thermal mass wall. With a thermal wall in the sunroom, the extra heat
during the day can be brought into the living space via high and low vents like in the
indirect gain thermal wall.

More elaborate uses of the heated air generated in the sunspace can be designed into
this system, such as transferring the hot air into thermal mass located in another part of
the house.

2.4.2 Isolated Gain rules of thumb for sunrooms:

Use a dark color for the thermal wall in a sunspace.

The thickness of the thermal wall should be 8-12 inches for adobe or earth materials,
10-14 inches for brick, 12-18 inches for (dense) concrete.

Withdraw excess heat in the sunroom (if not used for warm weather plants) until the
room reaches 45 degrees and put the excess heat into thermal mass materials in other
parts of the house.

For a sunroom with a masonry thermal wall, use 0.30 square feet of south glazing for
each square foot of living space floor area. If a water wall is used between the sunroom
and living space instead of masonry, use 0.20 square feet of south facing glass for each
square foot of living area.

Have a ventilation system for summer months.

If overhead glass is used in a sunroom, use heat reflecting glass and or shading
systems in the overhead areas.

3.0 Passive Solar Cooling

3.1 Ventilation & Operable Windows

A primary strategy for cooling buildings without mechanical assistance (passive cooling)
in hot humid climates is to employ natural ventilation. (The Fan and Landscape sections
also address ventilation strategies.) In the Austin area, prevailing summer breezes are
from the south and southeast. This matches nicely with the increased glazing on the
south side needed for passive heating, making it possible to achieve helpful solar gain
and ventilation with the following strategies:

Place operable windows on the south exposure.

Casement windows offer the best airflow. Awning (or hopper) windows should be
fully opened or air will be directed to ceiling. Awning windows offer the best rain
protection and perform better than double hung windows.
 If a room can have windows on only one side, use two widely spaced windows
instead of one window.

3.1.1 Wing Walls

Wing walls are vertical solid panels placed alongside of windows perpendicular to the
wall on the windward side of the house.

Figure 4
Top View of Wing Walls Airflow Pattern

Wing walls will accelerate the natural wind speed due to pressure differences created
by the wing wall.

3.1.2 Thermal Chimney

A thermal chimney employs convective currents to draw air out of a building. By

creating a warm or hot zone with an exterior exhaust outlet, air can be drawn into the
house ventilating the structure.

Sunrooms can be designed to perform this function. The excessive heat generated in a
south facing sunroom during the summer can be vented at the top. With the connecting
lower vents to the living space open along with windows on the north side, air is drawn
through the living space to be exhausted through the sunroom upper vents. (The upper
vents from the sunroom to the living space and any side operable windows must be
closed and the thermal mass wall in the sunroom must be shaded.)
 Summer Venting Sunroom

Figure 5
Summer Venting Thermal Mass Wall

Thermal mass indirect gain walls can be made to function similarly except that the mass
wall should be insulated on the inside when performing this function.
 Figure 6
Thermal Chimney

Thermal chimneys can be constructed in a narrow configuration (like a chimney) with an

easily heated black metal absorber on the inside behind a glazed front that can reach
high temperatures and be insulated from the house. The chimney must terminate above
the roof level. A rotating metal scoop at the top which opens opposite the wind will allow
heated air to exhaust without being overcome by the prevailing wind.

Thermal chimney effects can be integrated into the house with open stairwells and atria.
(This approach can be an aesthetic plus to the home as well.)

3.1.3 Other Ventilation Strategies

Make the outlet openings slightly larger than the inlet openings.
Place the inlets at low to medium heights to provide airflow at occupant levels in
the room.
 Figure 7
Thermal Chimney Effect Built into Home

Inlets close to a wall result in air washing along the wall. Be certain to have centrally
located inlets for air movement in the center areas of the room.

Window insect screens decrease the velocity of slow breezes more than stronger
breezes (60% decrease at 1.5 mph, 28% decrease at 6 mph). Screening a porch will
not reduce air speeds as much as screening the windows.

Night ventilation of a home should be done at a ventilation rate of 30 air changes per
hour or greater. Mechanical ventilation will usually be required to achieve this (See Fan
Section).

High mass houses can be cooled with night ventilation providing that fabric furnishings
are minimized in the house.

Keep a high mass house closed during the day and opened at night.

Green building using Solar, Wind energy harvesting

Green building (also known as green construction or sustainable building) refers to

a structure and using process that is environmentally responsible and resource-efficient
throughout a building's life-cycle: from siting to design, construction, operation,
maintenance, renovation, and demolition. This requires close cooperation of the design
team, the architects, the engineers, and the client at all project stages. The Green
Building practice expands and complements the classical building design concerns of
economy, utility, durability, and comfort.

Although new technologies are constantly being developed to complement current

practices in creating greener structures, the common objective is that green buildings
are designed to reduce the overall impact of the built environment on human health and
the natural environment by:

Efficiently using energy, water, and other resources

Protecting occupant health and improving employee productivity
Reducing waste, pollution and environmental degradation

A similar concept is natural building, which is usually on a smaller scale and tends to
focus on the use of natural materials that are available locally. Other related topics
include sustainable design and green architecture. Sustainability may be defined as
meeting the needs of present generations without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their needs. Although some green building programs don't address
the issue of the retrofitting existing homes, others do. Green construction principles can
easily be applied to retrofit work as well as new construction.

A 2009 report by the U.S. General Services Administration found 12 sustainably

designed buildings cost less to operate and have excellent energy performance. In
addition, occupants were more satisfied with the overall building than those in typical
commercial buildings.[

Reducing environmental impact

Green building practices aim to reduce the environmental impact of buildings, so the
very first rule is: the greenest building is the building that doesn't get built. New
construction almost always degrades a building site, so not building is preferable to
green building. The second rule is: every building should be as small as possible. The
third rule is: do not contribute to sprawl (the tendency for cities to spread out in a
disordered fashion). No matter how much grass you put on your roof, no matter how
many energy-efficient windows you use, if you contribute to sprawl, you've just defeated
your purpose. Urban infill sites are preferable to suburban "greenfield" sites.

Buildings account for a large amount of land. According to the National Resources
Inventory, approximately 107 million acres (430,000 km2) of land in the United States
are developed. The International Energy Agency released a publication that estimated
that existing buildings are responsible for more than 40% of the worlds total primary
energy consumption and for 24% of global carbon dioxide emissions.

Goals of green building

Blu Homes mkSolaire, a green building designed by Michelle Kaufmann.

Taipei 101, the tallest and largest green building of LEED Platinum certification in the
world since 2011.

The concept of sustainable development can be traced to the energy (especially fossil
oil) crisis and the environment pollution concern in the 1970s. [7] The green building
movement in the U.S. originated from the need and desire for more energy efficient and
environmentally friendly construction practices. There are a number of motives for
building green, including environmental, economic, and social benefits. However,
modern sustainability initiatives call for an integrated and synergistic design to both new
construction and in the retrofitting of existing structures. Also known as sustainable
design, this approach integrates the building life-cycle with each green practice
employed with a design-purpose to create a synergy among the practices used.

Green building brings together a vast array of practices, techniques, and skills to reduce
and ultimately eliminate the impacts of buildings on the environment and human health.
It often emphasizes taking advantage of renewable resources, e.g., using sunlight
through passive solar, active solar, and photovoltaic equipment, and using plants and
trees through green roofs, rain gardens, and reduction of rainwater run-off. Many other
techniques are used, such as using low-impact building materials or using packed
gravel or permeable concrete instead of conventional concrete or asphalt to enhance
replenishment of ground water.

While the practices or technologies employed in green building are constantly evolving
and may differ from region to region, fundamental principles persist from which the
method is derived: Siting and Structure Design Efficiency, Energy Efficiency, Water
Efficiency, Materials Efficiency, Indoor Environmental Quality Enhancement, Operations
and Maintenance Optimization, and Waste and Toxics Reduction. The essence of green
building is an optimization of one or more of these principles. Also, with the proper
synergistic design, individual green building technologies may work together to produce
a greater cumulative effect.

On the aesthetic side of green architecture or sustainable design is the philosophy of

designing a building that is in harmony with the natural features and resources
surrounding the site. There are several key steps in designing sustainable buildings:
specify 'green' building materials from local sources, reduce loads, optimize systems,
and generate on-site renewable energy.

Energy efficiency
An eco-house at Findhorn Ecovillage with a turf roof and solar panelsGreen buildings
often include measures to reduce energy consumption both the embodied energy
required to extract, process, transport and install building materials and operating
energy to provide services such as heating and power for [Link] high-
performance buildings use less operating energy, embodied energy has assumed much
greater importance and may make up as much as 30% of the overall life cycle energy
consumption. Studies such as the U.S. LCI Database Project[13] show buildings built
primarily with wood will have a lower embodied energy than those built primarily with
brick, concrete, or steel

To reduce operating energy use, designers use details that reduce air leakage through
the building envelope (the barrier between conditioned and unconditioned space). They
also specify high-performance windows and extra insulation in walls, ceilings, and
floors. Another strategy, passive solar building design, is often implemented in low-
energy homes. Designers orient windows and walls and place awnings, porches, and
trees[15] to shade windows and roofs during the summer while maximizing solar gain in
the winter. In addition, effective window placement (daylighting) can provide more
natural light and lessen the need for electric lighting during the day. Solar water heating
further reduces energy costs.
Onsite generation of renewable energy through solar power, wind power, hydro power,
or biomass can significantly reduce the environmental impact of the building. Power
generation is generally the most expensive feature to add to a building.

Solar energy:
radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans sinceancient
times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar radiation, along with secondary
solar-powered resources such as wind and wave power, hydroelectricity and biomass,
account for most of the available renewable energy on earth. Only a minuscule fraction
of the available solar energy is [Link] powered electrical generation relies on heat
engines and photovoltaics. Solar energy's uses are limited only by human ingenuity. A
partial list of solar applications includes space heating and cooling through solar
architecture, portable water via distillation and disinfection, daylighting,solar hot
water, solar cooking, and high temperature process heat for industrial [Link]
harvest the solar energy, the most common way is to use solar panels.
Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active
solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active
solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to
harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun,
selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and
designing spaces that naturally circulate air.
solar energy power is very eco friendly and good for the environment. Its produces no
pollution absolutely zero emissions, as its input comes completely from the sun rays.
However, in order to economically harness the suns rays, the experts or scientists
much more work still needs to be done. Nowadays maybe the resource is a little to
conditional we must backups used storage batteries as backups in the evenings and
on inclement days.
For this time, some big-name company have made it interesting clear. They are also
active in this action and using solar energy power as their economicall viable alternative
energy source. WalMart wants to put in a huge number of solar power energy about
100 megawatt. Google also participate in this action with putting in a 1.6 megawatt
solar power generation plant on the roof of its corporate headquarters
Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly
using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). CSP
systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight
into a small beam. PV converts light into electric current using the photoelectric effect.
Commercial CSP plants were first developed in the 1980s, and the 354 MW SEGS CSP
installation is the largest solar power plant in the world and is located in the Mojave
Desert of California. Other large CSP plants include the Solnova Solar Power
Station (150 MW) and theAndasol solar power station (100 MW), both in Spain. The 80
MW Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant in Canada, is the worlds largest photovoltaic
plant.

WIND ENERGY FOR POWER GENERATION:

If the windmill is used to generate electricity to power an electrically-powered pump, it

will probably be necessary to store the electricity in batteries due to the variability in
generation. Therefore, a pump powered by an electrical motor for use in conjunction
with a windmill that generates electricity should have a Direct Current (DC) motor. For
such systems, it is important to use good-quality deep-cycle batteries and to incorporate
electrical controls such as blocking diodes and charge regulators to protect the
batteries.

Rainwater harvesting
Rainwater harvesting is the accumulation and deposition of rainwater for reuse before
it reaches the aquifer. Uses include water for garden, water for livestock, water for
irrigation, etc. In many places the water collected is just redirected to a deep pit with
percolation. The harvested water can be used as drinking water as well as for storage
and other purpose like irrigation.
Advantages

Rainwater harvesting provides an independent water supply during regional water

restrictions and in developed countries is often used to supplement the main supply. It
provides water when there is a drought, prevents flooding of low-lying areas,
replenishes the ground water table, and enables dug wells and bore wells to yield in a
sustained manner. It also helps in the availability of clean water by reducing the salinity
and the presence of iron salts.

Makes use of a natural resource and reduces flooding, storm water runoff, erosion,
and contamination of surface water with pesticides, sediment, metals, and fertilizers.

Excellent source of water for landscape irrigation, with no chemicals such as fluoride
and chlorine, and no dissolved salts and minerals from the soil.

Home systems can be relatively simple to install and operate May reduce your water
bill.

Promotes both water and energy conservation.

No filtration system required for landscape irrigation.

Quality

The concentration of contaminants is reduced significantly by diverting the initial flow of

runoff water to waste.[1] Improved water quality can also be obtained by using a floating
draw-off mechanism (rather than from the base of the tank) and by using a series of
tanks, with draw from the last in series. The stored rainwater may need to be analyzed
properly before use in a way appropriate to its safety.

The quality of collected rainwater is generally better than that of surface water.
Contamination is always possible by airborne dust and mists, bird feces, and other
debris, so some treatment is necessary, depending on how the water will be used.

System setup

Rainwater harvesting systems can be installed with minimal skills. The system should
be sized to meet the water demand throughout the dry season since it must be big
enough to support daily water consumption. Specifically, the rainfall capturing area such
as a building roof must be large enough to maintain adequate flow. Likewise, the water
storage tank should be large enough to contain the captured water
Component used:
Solar panel 6v,battery 4.5v Rechargeble, Switch on/off, LED white,Wind Fan blade
plastic, Rain water collection tray-2 pcs, dc motor for fan, connecting wires, wind
electricity Dc generator, black paint,adhesive solution.

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

In the present scenario management and distribution of water has become centralized.
People depend on government system, which has resulted in disruption of community
participation in water management and collapse of traditional water harvesting system.

As the water crisis continues to become severe, there is a dire need of reform in water
management system and revival of traditional systems. Scientific and technological
studies needs to be carried out to assess present status so as to suggest suitable
mitigative measures for the revival to traditional system/wisdom. Revival process should
necessarily be backed by people's initiative and active public participation.

Living creatures of the universe are made of five basic elements, viz., Earth, Water,
Fire, Air and Sky, Obviously, water is one of the most important elements and no
creature can survive without it. Despite having a great regard for water, we seem to
have failed to address this sector seriously. Human being could not save and conserve
water and it sources, probably because of its availability in abundance. But this
irresponsible attitude resulted in deterioration of water bodies with respect to quantity
and quality both. Now, situation has arrived when even a single drop of water matters.
However. " better late than never", we have not realized the seriousness of this issue
and initiated efforts to overcome those problems.

System of collection rainwater and conserving for future needs has traditionally been
practiced in India. The traditional systems were time-tested wisdom of not only
appropriate technology of Rainwater Harvesting, but also water management systems,
where conservation of water was the prime concern. Traditional water harvesting
systems were Bawaries, step wells, jhiries, lakes, tanks etc. These were the water
storage bodies to domestic and irrigation demands. People were themselves
responsible for maintenance to water sources and optimal use of water that could fulfill
their needs.

What is Rainwater harvesting?

The term rainwater harvesting is being frequently used these days, however, the
concept of water harvesting is not new for India. Water harvesting techniques had been
evolved and developed centuries ago.

Ground water resource gets naturally recharged through percolation. But due to
indiscriminate development and rapid urbainzation, exposed surface for soil has been
reduced drastically with resultant reduction in percolation of rainwater, thereby depleting
ground water resource. Rainwater harvesting is the process of augmenting the natural
filtration of rainwater in to the underground formation by some artificial methods.
"Conscious collection and storage of rainwater to cater to demands of water, for
drinking, domestic purpose & irrigation is termed as Rainwater Harvesting."

Why harvest rainwater ?

This is perhaps one of the most frequently asked question, as to why one should
harvest rainwater. There are many reasons but following are some of the important
ones.

To arrest ground water decline and augment ground water table

To beneficiate water quality in aquifers
To conserve surface water runoff during monsoon
To reduce soil erosion
To inculcate a culture of water conservation

How to harvest rainwater:

Broadly there are two ways of harvesting rainwater:

(i) Surface runoff harvesting

(ii) Roof top rainwater harvesting

Surface runoff harvesting:

In urban area rainwater flows away as surface runoff. This runoff could be caught and
used for recharging aquifers by adopting appropriate methods.

Roof top rainwater harvesting (RTRWH):

It is a system of catching rainwater where it falls. In rooftop harvesting, the roof

becomes the catchments, and the rainwater is collected from the roof of the
house/building. It can either be stored in a tank or diverted to artificial recharge system.
This method is less expensive and very effective and if implemented properly helps in
augmenting the ground water level of the area.

The system mainly constitutes of following sub components:

Catchment

Transportation

First flush

Filter
The surface that receives rainfall directly is the catchment of rainwater harvesting
system. It may be terrace, courtyard, or paved or unpaved open ground. The terrace
may be flat RCC/stone roof or sloping roof. Therefore the catchment is the area, which
actually contributes rainwater to the harvesting system.

RAINFALL DATA FOR MAJOR CITIES OF INDIA

The page provides rainfall data for most of the major cities (28) of India. The data
source is National Data Centre, India Met. Department, Pune. The values are 25-year
average for a period of approximately between early eighties and early two thousands.
The user can click on the cities to get the average annual rainfall and number of rainy
days.
CHAPTER2

LITERATURE SURVEY

Rainwater harvesting

Rainwater capture and storage system at theMonterrey Institute of Technology and

Higher Education, Mexico City.

A cistern for rainwater storage

Rainwater harvesting is the accumulation and deposition of rainwater for reuse before
it reaches the aquifer. Uses include water for garden, water for livestock, water
for irrigation, and indoor heating for houses etc.. In many places the water collected is
just redirected to a deep pit with percolation. The harvested water can be used
as drinking water as well as for storage and other purpose like irrigation.
Advantages

Rainwater harvesting provides an independent water supply during regional water

restrictions and in developed countries is often used to supplement the main supply. It
provides water when there is a drought, prevents flooding of low-lying areas,
replenishes the ground water level, and enables dug wells and bore wells to yield in a
sustained manner. It also helps in the availability of clean water by reducing the salinity
and the presence of iron salts.

Makes use of a natural resource and reduces flooding, storm water, erosion, and
contamination of surface water with pesticides, sediment, metals and fertilizers.

Excellent source of water for landscape irrigation, with no chemicals such as fluoride
and chlorine, and any dissolved salts and minerals from the soil.

Home systems can be relatively simple to install and operate and it may reduce your
water bill.

Promotes both water and energy conservation.

Quality

The concentration of contaminants is reduced significantly by diverting the initial flow of

runoff water to [Link] Scientist, 3 April 1999. Improved water quality can also be
obtained by using a floating draw-off mechanism (rather than from the base of the tank)
and by using a series of tanks, with draw from the last in series. The stored rainwater
may need to be analyzed properly before use in a way appropriate to its safety.

The quality of collected rainwater is generally better than that of surface water.
Contamination is always possible by airborne dust and mists, bird feces, and other
debris, so some treatment is necessary, depending on how the water will be used.
System setup

Rainwater harvesting systems can be installed with minimal skills. The system should
be sized to meet the water demand throughout the dry season since it must be big
enough to support daily water consumption. Specifically, the rainfall capturing area such
as a building roof must be large enough to maintain adequate flow. Likewise, the water
storage tank should be large enough to contain the captured water.[citation needed]

Vendors

There are three main types of companies operating in the rainwater harvesting industry:
makers of water storage, makers of accessories, and integrators. Water storage
companies make tanks, barrels, and underground cisterns. Accessories are added to
facilitate or improve the water capturing process. Integrators are regional practitioners
which install systems.[citation needed]

Rain water harvesting by freshwater flooded forests

Ratagul Freshwater Flooded Forest, Bangladesh

Rain water harvesting is possible by growing fresh water flooded forests without losing
the income from the used /submerged land.[1] The main purpose of the rain water
harvesting is to utilize the locally available rain water to meet water requirements
throughout the year without the need of huge capital expenditure. This would facilitate
availability of uncontaminated water for domestic, industrial and irrigation needs.
New approaches

Instead of using the roof for catchment, the RainSaucer, which looks like an upside
down umbrella, collects rain straight from the sky. This decreases the potential for
contamination and makes potable water for developing countries a potential
application.[2] Other applications of this free standing rainwater collection approach are
sustainable gardening and small plot farming.[3]

A Dutch invention called the Groasis Waterboxx is also useful for growing trees with
harvested and stored dew and rainwater.

Presentation of RainSaucer system to students at Orphanage in Guatemala.

Advantages

Rainwater harvesting provides an independent water supply during regional water

restrictions and in developed countries is often used to supplement the main supply. It
provides water when there is a drought, prevents flooding of low-lying areas,
replenishes the ground water level, and enables dug wells and bore wells to yield in a
sustained manner. It also helps in the availability of clean water by reducing the salinity
and the presence of iron salts.

Makes use of a natural resource and reduces flooding, storm water, erosion, and
contamination of surface water with pesticides, sediment, metals and fertilizers.

Excellent source of water for landscape irrigation, with no chemicals such as fluoride
and chlorine, and any dissolved salts and minerals from the soil.
 Home systems can be relatively simple to install and operate and it may reduce your
water bill.

Promotes both water and energy conservation.

Quality

The concentration of contaminants is reduced significantly by diverting the initial flow of

runoff water to [Link] Scientist, 3 April 1999. Improved water quality can also be
obtained by using a floating draw-off mechanism (rather than from the base of the tank)
and by using a series of tanks, with draw from the last in series. The stored rainwater
may need to be analyzed properly before use in a way appropriate to its safety.

The quality of collected rainwater is generally better than that of surface water.
Contamination is always possible by airborne dust and mists, bird feces, and other
debris, so some treatment is necessary, depending on how the water will be used.

System setup

Rainwater harvesting systems can be installed with minimal skills. The system should
be sized to meet the water demand throughout the dry season since it must be big
enough to support daily water consumption. Specifically, the rainfall capturing area such
as a building roof must be large enough to maintain adequate flow. Likewise, the water
storage tank should be large enough to contain the captured water.[citation needed]

Vendors

There are three main types of companies operating in the rainwater harvesting industry:
makers of water storage, makers of accessories, and integrators. Water storage
companies make tanks, barrels, and underground cisterns. Accessories are added to
facilitate or improve the water capturing process. Integrators are regional practitioners
which install systems.[citation needed]
RAIN WATER HARVESTING

In the present scenario management and distribution of water has become centralized. People
depend on government system, which has resulted in disruption of community participation in
water management and collapse of traditional water harvesting system.

As the water crisis continues to become severe, there is a dire need of reform in water
management system and revival of traditional systems. Scientific and technological studies
needs to be carried out to assess present status so as to suggest suitable mitigative measures
for the revival to traditional system/wisdom. Revival process should necessarily be backed by
people's initiative and active public participation.

Living creatures of the universe are made of five basic elements, viz., Earth, Water, Fire, Air and
Sky, Obviously, water is one of the most important elements and no creature can survive
without it. Despite having a great regard for water, we seem to have failed to address this
sector seriously. Human being could not save and conserve water and it sources, probably
because of its availability in abundance. But this irresponsible attitude resulted in deterioration
of water bodies with respect to quantity and quality both. Now, situation has arrived when
even a single drop of water matters. However. " better late than never", we have not realized
the seriousness of this issue and initiated efforts to overcome those problems.

System of collection rainwater and conserving for future needs has traditionally been practiced
in India. The traditional systems were time-tested wisdom of not only appropriate technology
of Rainwater Harvesting, but also water management systems, where conservation of water
was the prime concern. Traditional water harvesting systems were Bawaries, step wells, jhiries,
lakes, tanks etc. These were the water storage bodies to domestic and irrigation demands.
People were themselves responsible for maintenance to water sources and optimal use of
water that could fulfill their needs.

What is Rainwater harvesting?

The term rainwater harvesting is being frequently used these days, however, the concept of
water harvesting is not new for India. Water harvesting techniques had been evolved and
developed centuries ago.
Ground water resource gets naturally recharged through percolation. But due to indiscriminate
development and rapid urbainzation, exposed surface for soil has been reduced drastically with
resultant reduction in percolation of rainwater, thereby depleting ground water resource.
Rainwater harvesting is the process of augmenting the natural filtration of rainwater in to the
underground formation by some artificial methods. "Conscious collection and storage of
rainwater to cater to demands of water, for drinking, domestic purpose & irrigation is termed
as Rainwater Harvesting."

Why harvest rainwater ?

This is perhaps one of the most frequently asked question, as to why one should harvest
rainwater. There are many reasons but following are some of the important ones.

To arrest ground water decline and augment ground water table

To beneficiate water quality in aquifers
To conserve surface water runoff during monsoon
To reduce soil erosion
To inculcate a culture of water conservation
How to harvest rainwater:

Broadly there are two ways of harvesting rainwater:

(i) Surface runoff harvesting

(ii) Roof top rainwater harvesting

Surface runoff harvesting:

In urban area rainwater flows away as surface runoff. This runoff could be caught and used for
recharging aquifers by adopting appropriate methods.

Roof top rainwater harvesting (RTRWH):

It is a system of catching rainwater where it falls. In rooftop harvesting, the roof becomes the
catchments, and the rainwater is collected from the roof of the house/building. It can either be
stored in a tank or diverted to artificial recharge system. This method is less expensive and very
effective and if implemented properly helps in augmenting the ground water level of the area.

The system mainly constitutes of following sub components:

 Catchment

Transportation

First flush

Filter

The surface that receives rainfall directly is the catchment of rainwater harvesting system. It
may be terrace, courtyard, or paved or unpaved open ground. The terrace may be flat
RCC/stone roof or sloping roof. Therefore the catchment is the area, which actually contributes
rainwater to the harvesting system.

RAINFALL DATA FOR MAJOR CITIES OF INDIA

The page provides rainfall data for most of the major cities (28) of India. The data source is
National Data Centre, India Met. Department, Pune. The values are 25-year average for a
period of approximately between early eighties and early two thousands.
The user can click on the cities to get the average annual rainfall and number of rainy days.
CHAPTER2

LITERATURE SURVEY

Rainwater harvesting

Rainwater capture and storage system at theMonterrey Institute of Technology and Higher
Education, Mexico City.

A cistern for rainwater storage

Rainwater harvesting is the accumulation and deposition of rainwater for reuse before it
reaches the aquifer. Uses include water for garden, water for livestock, water for irrigation, and
indoor heating for houses etc.. In many places the water collected is just redirected to a deep
pit with percolation. The harvested water can be used as drinking water as well as for storage
and other purpose like irrigation.
Advantages

Rainwater harvesting provides an independent water supply during regional water restrictions
and in developed countries is often used to supplement the main supply. It provides water
when there is a drought, prevents flooding of low-lying areas, replenishes the ground water
level, and enables dug wells and bore wells to yield in a sustained manner. It also helps in the
availability of clean water by reducing the salinity and the presence of iron salts.

Makes use of a natural resource and reduces flooding, storm water, erosion, and
contamination of surface water with pesticides, sediment, metals and fertilizers.

Excellent source of water for landscape irrigation, with no chemicals such as fluoride and
chlorine, and any dissolved salts and minerals from the soil.

Home systems can be relatively simple to install and operate and it may reduce your water
bill.

Promotes both water and energy conservation.

Quality

The concentration of contaminants is reduced significantly by diverting the initial flow of runoff
water to [Link] Scientist, 3 April 1999. Improved water quality can also be obtained by
using a floating draw-off mechanism (rather than from the base of the tank) and by using a
series of tanks, with draw from the last in series. The stored rainwater may need to be analyzed
properly before use in a way appropriate to its safety.

The quality of collected rainwater is generally better than that of surface water. Contamination
is always possible by airborne dust and mists, bird feces, and other debris, so some treatment is
necessary, depending on how the water will be used.
System setup

Rainwater harvesting systems can be installed with minimal skills. The system should be sized
to meet the water demand throughout the dry season since it must be big enough to support
daily water consumption. Specifically, the rainfall capturing area such as a building roof must be
large enough to maintain adequate flow. Likewise, the water storage tank should be large
enough to contain the captured water.[citation needed]

Vendors

There are three main types of companies operating in the rainwater harvesting industry:
makers of water storage, makers of accessories, and integrators. Water storage companies
make tanks, barrels, and underground cisterns. Accessories are added to facilitate or improve
the water capturing process. Integrators are regional practitioners which install systems. [citation
needed]

Rain water harvesting by freshwater flooded forests

Ratagul Freshwater Flooded Forest, Bangladesh

Rain water harvesting is possible by growing fresh water flooded forests without losing the
income from the used /submerged land.[1] The main purpose of the rain water harvesting is to
utilize the locally available rain water to meet water requirements throughout the year without
the need of huge capital expenditure. This would facilitate availability of uncontaminated water
for domestic, industrial and irrigation needs.

New approaches

Instead of using the roof for catchment, the RainSaucer, which looks like an upside down
umbrella, collects rain straight from the sky. This decreases the potential for contamination and
makes potable water for developing countries a potential application.[2] Other applications of
this free standing rainwater collection approach are sustainable gardening and small plot
farming.[3]

A Dutch invention called the Groasis Waterboxx is also useful for growing trees with harvested
and stored dew and rainwater.

Presentation of RainSaucer system to students at Orphanage in Guatemala.

History

Earlier

Around the third century BC, the farming communities in Baluchistan (in present-
day Pakistan, Afghanistan and Iran), and Kutch (in present-day India) used rainwater harvesting
for irrigation.[4]

In ancient Tamil Nadu (India), rainwater harvesting was done by Chola kings.[5] Rainwater from
the Brihadeeswarar temple was collected in Sivaganga tank.[6] During the later Chola period, the
Vrnam tank was built (1011 to 1037 CE) in Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu to store water for
drinking and irrigation purposes. Vrnam is a 16-kilometre (9.9 mi) long tank with a storage
capacity of 1,465,000,000 cubic feet (41,500,000 m3).

Rainwater harvesting was done in the Indian states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
and Chhattisgarh in the olden days. Ratanpur, in the state of Chhattisgarh, had around 150
ponds. Most of the tanks or ponds were utilised in agriculture works.[citation needed]

Present day

Currently in China and Brazil rooftop rainwater harvesting is being practiced for
providing drinking water, domestic water, water for livestock, water for small irrigation
and a way to replenish ground water levels. Gansu province in China and semi-
arid north east Brazil have the largest rooftop rainwater harvesting projects ongoing.
In Bermuda, the law requires all new construction to include rainwater harvesting
adequate for the residents.
The U.S. Virgin Islands have a similar law.
In Senegal and Guinea-Bissau, the houses of the Diola-people are frequently equipped
with homebrew rainwater harvesters made from local, organic materials.
In the Irrawaddy Delta of Myanmar, the groundwater is saline and communities rely on
mud-lined rainwater ponds to meet their drinking water needs throughout the dry
season. Some of these ponds are centuries old and are treated with great reverence and
respect.
In the United States: until 2009 in Colorado, water rights laws almost completely
restricted rainwater harvesting; a property owner who captured rainwater was deemed
to be stealing it from those who have rights to take waterfrom the watershed. Now,
residential well owners that meet certain criteria may obtain a permit to install
a rooftop precipitation collection system (SB 09-080).[7] Up to 10 large scale pilot studies
may also be permitted (HB 09-1129).[8] The main factor in persuading the Colorado
Legislature to change the law was a 2007 study that found that in an average year, 97%
of the precipitation that fell in Douglas County, in the southern suburbs of Denver,
never reached a streamit was used by plants or evaporated on the ground. In
 Colorado you cannot even drill a water well unless you have at least 35 acres. In New
Mexico, rainwater catchment is mandatory for new dwellings in Santa Fe.[9] Texas offers
a sales tax exemption on the purchase of rainwater harvesting equipment. Both
Texas[10] and Ohio allow the practice even for potable purposes. Oklahoma passed the
Water for 2060 Act in 2012, to promote pilot projects for rainwater and graywater use
among other water saving techniques.[11]
In Beijing, some housing societies are now adding rain water in their main water sources
after proper treatment.
In Ireland, Professor Micheal Mcginley established a project to design a rain water
harvesting prototype in the Biosystems design Challenge Module at University College
Dublin

India

In the state of Tamil Nadu, rainwater harvesting was made compulsory for every
building to avoid ground water depletion. It proved excellent results within five years,
and every states took it as role model. Since its implementation, Chennai saw a 50
percent rise in water level in five years and the water quality significantly improved.[12]
In Rajasthan, rainwater harvesting has traditionally been practiced by the people of
the Thar Desert. There are many ancient water harvesting systems in Rajasthan, which
have now been revived [13] Water harvesting systems are widely used in other areas of
Rajasthan as well, for example the chauka system from the Jaipur district.[14]
Kerala:
At present, in Pune (in Maharashtra), rainwater harvesting is compulsory for any new
society to be registered.
An attempt has been made at Dept. of Chemical Engineering, IISc, Bangalore [1] to
harvest rainwater using upper surface of a solar still, which was used for water
distillation[15]
Sri Lanka

Rainwater harvesting has been a popular method of obtaining water for agriculture and
for drinking purposes in rural homes.
The legislation to promote rainwater harvesting was enacted through the Urban
Development Authority (Amendment) Act, No. 36 of 2007.[16]
Lanka rainwater harvesting forum[17] is leading the Sri Lanka's initiative.

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, water butts are often found in domestic gardens to collect rainwater,
which is then used to water the garden. However, the British government's Code For
Sustainable Homes encourages fitting large underground tanks to new-build homes to collect
rainwater for flushing toilets, washing clothes, watering the garden, and washing cars. This
reduces by 50% the amount of mains water used by the home.

Israel

The Southwest Center for the Study of Hospital and Healthcare Systems in cooperation
with Rotary International is sponsoring a rainwater harvesting model program across
the country. The first rainwater catchment system was installed at an elementary school
in Lod, Israel. The project is looking to expand to Haifa in its third phase. The Southwest
Center has also partnered with the Water Resources Action Project (WRAP) of
Washington D.C. WRAP currently has rainwater harvesting projects in the West Bank.
Rainwater harvesting systems are being installed in local schools for the purpose of
educating schoolchildren about water conservation principles and bridging divides
between people of different religious and ethnic backgrounds all while addressing the
water scarcity issue that the Middle East faces.[18]
Non Traditional

In 2012, American artist Michael Jones McKean created an artwork in Omaha, Nebraska
at the Bemis Center for Contemporary Art that created a fully sustainable rainbow in the
Omaha skyline. The project collected thousands of gallons of rainwater storing the
water in six, daisy-chained 12,000 gallons tanks.[19] The massive logistical undertaking,
during its 5 month span, was one of the largest urban rainwater harvesting sites in the
American Mid-West.

CHAPTER

Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting System

What is rainwater harvesting?

Rainwater harvesting is the collection of raindrops. In most cases, a roof is used for this
purpose. The

rainwater then flows through the gutters, into a collection tank. The collected water can be
used for smallscale

irrigation (of vegetable gardens etc.), clothes washing, bathing and after treatment also for
drinking and

food preparation.

Why Rainwater?
Rainwater offers advantages in water quality for both irrigation and domestic use. Rainwater is
naturally soft

(unlike well water), contains almost no dissolved minerals or salts, is free of chemical
treatment, and is a

relatively reliable source of water for households.

Why harvest rainwater?

Bangalore gets most of its drinking water from a distance of 95 kms. and a depth of 500 Mts.

A total of 858 million liters of water is being pumped every day to the city through the four
Cauvery

Stages.

The T G Halli Reservoir, the second source, responsible for 20 percent of citys requirement
(western

parts of the city) has been dried up

Every drop of water supplied to city is through pumping done in three stages, which
consumes 60

percent of BWSSBs total revenue towards power charges every month.

It makes ecological and financial sense not to waste a pure natural resource available in large
quantity

on ones roof.

In the case of a homebuilder, at an initial stage of construction, investments in time, design

and money

are minimal for adopting roof rainwater harvesting.

 Ground water sources are increasingly getting depleted or are getting polluted. Borewells are
either

silting up, getting short of water or are drawing polluted water.

Private purchase of water from tankers is unreliable in quality and is also expensive.

It encourages water conservation and self-dependence.

Rainwater collected and used on site can supplement or replace other sources of household
water and

prevent ground water depletion.

The advantages of rainwater harvesting

One of the beauties of rainwater harvesting systems is their flexibility. A system can be as
simple as a

barrel placed under a rain gutter downspout for watering a garden or as complex as an
engineered,

multi-tank, pumped and pressurized construction to supply residential and irrigation needs.

Rainwater harvesting systems are integrated with the house, which makes the water easily
accessible.

Rainwater harvesting systems are personal, which prevents arguments about who should take
care of

maintenance.

One time Installation cost, roughly some 2500 to 5000 Rs per system including a slow sand
filter while

sustainability of the construction is larger than that of a pump or well.

 The used materials can be kept simple, are obtainable nearly everywhere at local (low) cost
price.

The construction is easy and cheap in maintenance.

Borewell drill leaves water table dry

The unchecked sinking of Borewells has resulted in a sharp decline in a sharp decline in
Bangalores water

table, according to a survey conducted by the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB).

The CGWB, which conducted the survey in April-May this year (2003), collected samples from
over 104 test

wells both Borewells and open wells in and around the city.

The surveyors found more than 50 percent of the wells had gone dry and the water level in
other wells had

dropped by an average of over five meters.

The increasing demand for water the unrestricted growth of the city erratic supply of water and
the current

dry spell has resulted in panic drilling of Borewells, which has caused depletion of the water
table the only

way to improve ground water levels ls by harvesting rainwater.

CASE STUDY:

Facts about Bangalore

Population 6 Million
High altitude city 300 feet above sea level
No perennial river source nearby
Rapidly growing population
Increasing industrial demand
Traditional sources neglected
No pronounced aquifer
Pollution of ground and underground sources
Main natural source of water for Bangalore is its lakes and tanks, which is reducing in numbers
year by year.
Lakes and tanks
It is possible to collect rainwater in Bangalore throughout the year and use the same for:
Gardening, car washing and domestic non-potable purpose like washing clothes, dishes,
bathing, toilet, swabbing the
floor, etc
For all purposes including potable purpose i.e. drinking

Technical Description
A rooftop rainwater harvesting system consists the following elements:
Collection area,
Conveyance system,
Filtration /treatment
Storage
Usage/ Recharge
The collection area in most cases is the roof of a house or a building. The effective roof area and
the
material used in constructing the roof influence the efficiency of collection and the water
quality.
A conveyance system usually consists of gutters or pipes that deliver rainwater falling on the
rooftop to
cisterns or other storage vessels. Both drainpipes and roof surfaces should be constructed of
chemically
inert materials such as wood, plastic, aluminum, or fiberglass, in order to avoid adverse effects
on water
quality.
The water ultimately is stored in a storage tank or cistern, which should also be constructed of
an inert
material. Reinforced concrete, fiberglass, or stainless steel are suitable materials. Storage tanks
may be
constructed as part of the building, or may be built as a separate unit located some distance
away from the
building.
Requirements
Most effective process has been proven to be to start with an example and then spread the
technology
around the area. It is therefore nessecary to spread information and knowledge.
When incomes are very low among members of the target group one can make use a finance
system
like a bank, a savings deposit of a farmers or womens group. Of course an outside finance
programme is
suitable but personal inputs enhance the 'bond' with the construction and thus strengthens the
sustainability.
 Someone is to teach the members of the target group how to construct a rainwater
harvesting
installation. This person or these people shall have to be very enthusiastic rather than skillful
and able to
reflect this upon the target group.

Design Tips
Design your roof well for rainwater collection
A flat roof can be gently sloped to drain water towards the storage system. A 'nahani trap' or
'floor trap' can
be placed at the time of casting the roof just near the inlets of the down water pipes
Sloping roofs should have a gutter of PVC or zinc sheet to collect water & channel it to the
down water pipe
system.
Roofs should be uncluttered & should be easy to clean by sweeping & swabbing if necessary.
Down water pipes should be designed well
90mm dia. PVC pipes resistant to UV rays appear to be the best bet as downwater pipes. Of
course, this
depends upon the roof area to be drained.
3 to 4 downwater pipes seem sufficient for 1000 to 1200 sft area
Filter the rainwater before storage
Filtering can be as basic as a floor trap placed before the water enters the downwater pipe or a
piece of
sponge placed at the inlet of the downwater pipe
a PVC bucket with gravel, sand & charcoal is a good filter before rainwater is stored
a PVC drum with sponge at the inlet & outlet is also a filter
a small two chamber inspection/ filter tank can also be devised
Try to determine your storage system at the planning stage itself.
Would it be a:
Roof level storage tank
Ground level drum or masonry tank
Below the ground sump
Partially below ground and partially above ground tank
Locate the storage system properly
Roof level storage tanks may need to be at the rear of the house or on the sides so that it is
neither
obtrusive nor visually offensive.
Ground level drums or tanks occupy space and should not hinder movement or appear
unsightly.
Below the ground sump is a good option since most new constructions in Bangalore go in for
sumps
anyway. Sumps are hidden from view, less costly to build and do not obstruct movement.
Note: always provide for an outlet for excess collection of water from the storage system
Further treatment of excess rainwater
It is a common perception that water stored for long goes bad. If water does not contain any
organic material
and if it is stored in a clean container it can stay for a long time.
Some small treatment like alum dosing or chlorination can also be done to stored water to
improve its
quality.
Addition of a small quantity of alum dissolved in half a bucket of water will bring down the
suspended solids
and clear the stored rainwater.

Similarly adding a small quantity of bleached powder to half a bucket of water and then mixing
it with the
stored rainwater will kill bacterial contamination.
Great care should be exercised while chlorinating and it is not particularly recommended.
It is always recommended that water used for drinking should be boiled and filtered invariably.
and cooking but only after boiling and filtering the water.

Tanks
The size of the tank is dependent of the amount and purpose of the water but also of the
annual rainfall and
the size of the roof. A normal sized tank for a roof of 20 to 40 square metres is 10 cubic metres.
All rainwater tank designs should include as a minimum requirement:
A solid secure cover
A coarse inlet filter
An overflow pipe
A manhole, sump, and drain to facilitate cleaning
An extraction system that does not contaminate the water; e.g., a tap or pump
A soak away to prevent spilled water from forming puddles near the tank
Additional features might include:
A device to indicate the amount of water in the tank
A sediment trap, tipping bucket, or other "foul flush" mechanism
A lock on the tap
A second sub-surface tank to provide water for livestock, etc
Plastic tanks:
Available as finished products in various capacities. The cost of these tanks ranges from Rs
2/litre to about
Rs 3.5/litre.
Conduits
Conduits are pipelines or drains that carry rainwater from the catchment or rooftop area to the
harvesting
system. Conduits can be of any material like polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or galvanized iron (GI),
materials that
are commonly available.
The following table gives an idea about the diameter of pipe required for draining out rainwater
based on
rainfall intensity and roof area:

Filters and separators

Despite the roof being higher than the ground, dust and other debris can be blown onto it,
especially if the

roof is near to a roadway. Leaves can also fall onto the roof from nearby trees and flying and
climbing
animals can defecate upon it. The quality of water can be much improved if this debris is kept
out of the

system. To accomplish this filters and separators can be added to a rainwater harvesting system
at the inlet,

outlet or both. Filters simply remove the debris and allow all water to flow; separators remove
the debris and

wash it away in a portion of the water.

The first line of defence is a course leaf filter. The filter can be installed anywhere from the
gutter to the

entrance to the tank. The most popular positions are in the gutter, at the beginning of the
downpipe, in the

downpipe, in the ground before the tank and at the entrance to the tank itself. Of these, the
tank entrance is

by far the most common in very low cost systems.

Whatever location is chosen for the filter, there are several criteria that should be met for good
design:

The filter should be easy to clean or largely self-cleaning

It should not block easily (if at all) and blockages should be obvious and easy to rectify

It should not provide an entrance for additional contamination

The cost should not be out of proportion with the rest of the system - user surveys have shown
that people in

southern Uganda will only spend about 5% of the cost of the system on filtering, users in Sri
Lanka will spend
closer to 10%.

Contaminants from a roof are usually concentrated in the first run off from the roof. After this
runoff has

passed and washed the roof the water is considerably safer. The amount to be removed varies
and a

number of studies have had differing results. Despite this uncertainty, first flush systems are a
popular

method of improving the quality of roof runoff prior to storage, particularly in Asian countries.
There are

basically four methods of separating the first flush;

[Link], 2. Fixed volume, 3. Fixed mass and, 4. Flow rate.

The manual method is the simplest and widely recommended it does, however rely on the user
both being

home and prepared to go out into the rain to operate the device much reducing its usefulness.

The fixed volume method, which relies on the water simply filling a chamber of a set size
(usually a length

of downpipe) until it overflows, is the "automatic" method usually applied in low cost systems.
The method

can be used either with or without a floating ball seal which helps in reducing mixing between
early dirty

water and later clean water, however Michaeledes (1987) has found that this mixing is
transient. They are
also found with either automatic draining over a period of time or require manual draining.
Manual draining

systems have little to recommend them as if left to drain will not only fail to work for the next
storm, but can

cause additional pollutants to be washed in to the tank from the first flush device itself.

The fixed mass system has also been promoted. The devices, usually relying on a mass of water
to tip a

bucket or seesaw tend to be unreliable and users inevitably disable the system. A newer first
flush concept is

to use the changes in flow rate over the course of a storm. Stormwater management designers
have been

using a flow rate model of first flush for some time to reduce the large land areas required for
"volumetric"

facilities. Australian Company has developed a system whereby flow rate is used for roof runoff.
The

SafeRain system balances the rate of water intake into a suspended hollow ball against its
leakage, raising

its weight and stretching its suspension until it descends into a recess, blocking the opening and
allowing

water into the tank. The system has the advantage of being self-cleaning and removes the need
for any

storage of the first flush water (and its subsequent drainage).

Finer filtering can remove small sediment which would otherwise either be suspended in the
water or settle
to the bottom of the tank leaving a sludge. The techniques are well known, employing gravel,
sand or fine

screens but the needs of rainwater harvesting systems are unique, as in a tropical downpour
flow rates can

be very high - with short-term peaks of more than 1.5 l s-1. This calls for either very large
surface areas or

courser screens. A filter consisting of a 300mm tube filled with 150mm sand on a bed of
200mm of pebbles

has been used in Sri Lanka which copes with all but the very highest peak flows, however the
filters were

often bypassed or filled with courser material when user saw water overflowing the filter
during heavy

downpours.

Another problem of fine filters is cleaning. As all water passes through most designs of fine
filter, particles

become trapped in the filter requiring periodic cleaning. If this is not carried out, the filter will
eventually block

and simply overflow which has resulted in filters being emptied of media and abandoned. In
developed
countries self-cleaning filters are available with a fine mesh screen (typically 0.4mm). These
screens use the
first flow of water from a storm to flush the filter of debris or have a continual washing action
using about 10%
of the water. In VLC systems there is usually a significant overflow of water and these types
may be viable if
suitable filter mesh or cloth is available locally.

Filters
The filter is used to remove suspended pollutants from rainwater collected over roof. A filter
unit is a chamber
filled with filtering media such as fibre, coarse sand and gravel layers to remove debris and dirt
from water
before it enters the storage tank or recharge structure. Charcoal can be added for additional
filtration.
Source: A water harvesting manual for urban areas
Charcoal water filter
A simple charcoal filter can be made in a drum or an earthen pot. The
filter is made of gravel, sand and charcoal, all of which are easily
available.
SandSand filters
Sand filters have commonly available sand as filter media. Sand
filters are easy and inexpensive to construct. These filters can be
employed for treatment of water to effectively remove turbidity
(suspended particles like silt and clay), colour and microorganisms.
Source: A water harvesting manual for urban areas
In a simple sand filter that can be constructed domestically, the top
layer comprises coarse sand followed by a 5-10 mm layer of gravel
followed by another 5-25 cm layer of gravel and boulders.

Dewas filters
Most residents in Dewas, Madhya Pradesh, have
wells in their houses. Formerly, all that those wells
would do was extract groundwater. But then, the
district administration of Dewas initiated a
groundwater recharge scheme. The rooftop water
was collected and allowed to pass through a filter
system called the Dewas fillter, designed by Mohan
Rao, district collector of Dewas, and engineers of the
rural engineering services. The water thus filtered is
put into the service tubewell.
The filter consists of a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe
140-mm in diameter and 1.2m long. There are three
chambers. The first purification chamber has
pebbles varying between 2-6 mm, the second
chamber has slightly larger pebbles, between 6 and 12 mm and the third chamber has the
largest - 12-20
mm pebbles. There is a mesh at the outflow side through which clean water flows out after
passing through
the three chambers. The cost of this filter unit is Rs 600.
Varun: S Vishwanath, a Bangalore water-harvesting expert, has developed a rainwater filter
"VARUN".
According to him, from a decently clean roof 'VARUN' can handle a 50-mm per hour intensity
rainfall from a
50 square meter roof area. This means the product is relatively standardised. For new house
builders we
therefore can recommend the number of downpipes they have to optimise on and the number
of filters they
will need.

'VARUN' is made from a 90-litre High-Density polyethylene (HDPE) drum. The lid is turned over
and holes
are punched in it. This is the first sieve, which keeps out large leaves, twigs etc. Rainwater
coming out of the
lid sieve then passes through three layers of sponge and a 150-mm thick layer of coarse sand.
Presence of
sponge makes the cleaning process very easy. Remove the first layer of sponge and soak /clean
it in a
bucket of water (which you then don't waste but use it for plants). The sand needs no cleaning
at all. The
basic cost of the filter is about Rs 2250/-

Recharge structures
Rainwater may be charged into the groundwater aquifers through any suitable structures like
dugwells,
Borewells, recharge trenches and recharge pits.
Various recharge structures are possible - some which promote the percolation of water
through soil strata at
shallower depth (e.g., recharge trenches, permeable pavements) whereas others conduct water
to greater
depths from where it joins the groundwater (e.g. recharge wells). At many locations, existing
structures like
wells, pits and tanks can be modified as recharge structures, eliminating the need to construct
any structures
afresh. Here are a few commonly used recharging methods:
1. RechargingRecharging of dugwells and abandoned tubewells.
Technical Details of Rainwater Harvesting 13
In alluvial and hard rock areas, there are thousands of wells which have either gone dry or
whose water
levels have declined considerably. These can be recharged directly with rooftop run-off.
Rainwater that is
collected on the rooftop of the building is diverted by drainpipes to a settlement or filtration
tank, from which it
flows into the recharge well (borewell or dugwell).
If a tubewell is used for recharging, then the casing (outer pipe) should preferably be a slotted
or perforated
pipe so that more surface area is available for the water to percolate. Developing a borewell
would increase
its recharging capacity (developing is the process where water or air is forced into the well
under pressure to
loosen the soil strata surrounding the bore to make it more permeable).
If a dugwell is used for recharge, the well lining should have openings (weep-holes) at regular
intervals to
allow seepage of water through the sides. Dugwells should be covered to prevent mosquito
breeding and
entry of leaves and debris. The bottom of recharge wells should be desilted annually to
maintain the intake
capacity.
Providing the following elements in the system can ensure the quality of water entering the
recharge wells:
1. Filter mesh at entrance point of rooftop drains
2. Settlement chamber
3. Filter bed
2. Settlement tank (chamber)
Settlement tanks are used to remove silt and other floating
impurities from rainwater. A settlement tank is like an ordinary
storage container having provisions for inflow (bringing water from
the catchment), outflow (carrying water to the recharge well) and
overflow. A settlement tank can have an unpaved bottom surface to
allow standing water to percolate into the soil.
In case of excess rainfall, the rate of recharge, especially of
borewells, may not match the rate of rainfall. In such situations, the desilting chamber holds
the excess
amount of water till it is soaked up by the recharge structure. Thus, the settlement chamber
acts like a buffer
in the system.
Any container, (masonry or concrete underground tanks, old unused tanks, pre-fabricated PVC
or
ferrocement tanks) with adequate capacity of storage can be used as a settlement tank.
3. Recharging of service tubewells.
In this case the rooftop runoff is not directly led into the service tubewells, to avoid chances of
contamination
of groundwater. Instead rainwater is collected in a recharge well, which is a temporary storage
tank (located
near the service tubewell), with a borehole, which is shallower than the water table. This
borehole has to be
provided with a casing pipe to prevent the caving in of soil, if the strata is loose. A filter
chamber comprising
of sand, gravel and boulders is provided to arrest the impurities.
4. Recharge pits
A recharge pit is 1.5m to 3m wide and 2m to 3m deep. The excavated pit is lined with a
brick/stone wall with
openings (weep-holes) at regular intervals. The top area of the pit can be covered with a
perforated cover.
Design procedure is the same as that of a settlement tank.
5. Soakaways / Percolation pit
Percolation pits, one of the easiest and most effective means of harvesting rainwater, are
generally not more
than 60 x 60 x 60 cm pits, (designed on the basis of expected runoff as described for settlement
tanks), filled
with pebbles or brick jelly and river sand, covered with perforated concrete slabs wherever
necessary.
6. Recharge trenches
A recharge trench is a continuous trench excavated in the ground and refilled with porous
media like
pebbles, boulders or broken bricks. A recharge trench can be 0.5 m to 1 m wide and 1 m to 1.5
m deep. The
length of the recharge trench is decided as per the amount of runoff expected. The recharge
trench should
Technical Details of Rainwater Harvesting 14
be periodically cleaned of accumulated debris to maintain the intake capacity. In terms of
recharge rates,
recharge trenches are relatively less effective since the soil strata at depth of about 1.5 metres
is generally
less permeable. For recharging through recharge trenches, fewer precautions have to be taken
to maintain
the quality of the rainfall runoff. Runoff from both paved and unpaved catchment can be
tapped.
[Link] troughsTo collect the runoff from paved or unpaved areas draining out of a
compound, recharge troughs are
commonly placed at the entrance of a residential/institutional complex. These structures are
similar to
recharge trenches except for the fact that the excavated portion is not filled with filter
materials. In order to
facilitate speedy recharge, boreholes are drilled at regular intervals in this trench. In design
part, there is no
need of incorporating the influence of filter materials.
This structure is capable of harvesting only a limited amount of runoff because of the limitation
with regard to
size.
8. Modified injection well
In this method water is not pumped into the aquifer but allowed to percolate through a filter
bed, which
comprises sand and gravel. A modified injection well is generally a borehole, 500-mm diameter,
which is
drilled to the desired depth depending upon the geological conditions, preferably 2 to 3 m
below the water
table in the area. Inside this hole a slotted casing pipe of 200-mm diameter is inserted. The
annular space
between the borehole and the pipe is filled with gravel and developed with a compressor till it
gives clear
water. To stop the suspended solids from entering the recharge tubewell, a filter mechanism is
provided at
the top.

Maintenance
Rainwater harvesting systems require few skills and little supervision to operate. Major
concerns are the
prevention of contamination of the tank during construction and while it is being replenished
during a rainfall.
Contamination of the water supply as a result of contact with certain materials can be avoided
by the use of
proper materials during construction of the system. The main sources of external
contamination are pollution
from the air, bird and animal droppings, and insects. Bacterial contamination may be minimized
by keeping
roof surfaces and drains clean but cannot be completely eliminated. If the water is to be used
for drinking
purposes, filtration and chlorination or disinfection by other means (e.g., boiling) is necessary.
The following
maintenance guidelines should be considered in the operation of rainwater harvesting systems:
A procedure for eliminating the "foul flush" after a long dry spell deserves particular
attention.
The first part of each rainfall should be diverted from the storage tank since this is most likely to
contain undesirable materials, which have accumulated on the roof and other surfaces
between
rainfalls. Generally, water captured during the first 10 minutes of rainfall during an event of
average intensity is unfit for drinking purposes. The quantity of water lost by diverting this
runoff
is usually about 14l/m2 of catchment area.
The storage tank should be checked and cleaned periodically. All tanks need cleaning; their
designs should allow for this. Cleaning procedures consist of thorough scrubbing of the inner
walls and floors. Use of a chlorine solution is recommended for cleaning, followed by thorough
rinsing.
Care should be taken to keep rainfall collection surfaces covered, to reduce the likelihood of
frogs, lizards, mosquitoes, and other pests using the cistern as a breeding ground. Residents
may prefer to take care to prevent such problems rather than have to take corrective actions,
such as treating or removing water, at a later time.
Gutters and downpipes need to be periodically inspected and cleaned carefully. Periodic
maintenance must also be carried out on any pumps used to lift water to selected areas in the
house or building. More often than not, maintenance is done only when equipment breaks
down.
Households must establish a maintenance routine that will be carried out by family
members.
As has been noted, in some cases the rainwater is treated with chlorine tablets. However, in
most places it is
used without treatment. In such cases, residents are advised to boil the water before drinking.
Where cistern
users do not treat their water, the quality of the water may be assured through the installation
of
commercially available in-line charcoal filters or other water treatment devices.
Technical Details of Rainwater Harvesting 16
Required materials
Rain. And really lots of it, throughout the year, favorably some two metres of it!
A catchment area, usually a roof of 15-20 square metres or above is sufficient.
Roof-gutters, those can consist of bent metal sheets or even large PVC pipes 'tubes' (the
gutters should have a
large enough capacity to prevent overflow during rainfall).
Pipelines or gutters (PVC) that lead from the roof-gutters to the storage tank.
Storage tank; because of the size (between 5.000 and 12.000 liters) a concrete, a Ferro
cement or a PVC tank. Do
mind that a manhole should be present for inside-cleaning purposes. And the outlet is situated
at the bottom, it must
remain accessible.
Costing
Rainwater harvesting methods are site specific and hence it is difficult to give a generalised
cost. But first of all, the major
components of a rainwater harvesting system - rain and catchment area - are available free of
cost. A good proportion of
the expenses would be for the pipe connections. By judiciously fixing up the slopes of roofs and
location of rainwater
outlets, this could be brought down considerably. However the cost varies widely depending on
the availability of existing
structures like wells and tanks which can be modified and used for water harvesting.
Typically, installing a water harvesting system in a building would cost between Rs 2,000 to
30,000 for buildings of about
300 sq. m. The cost estimate mentioned above is for an existing building. For instance, water
harvesting system in the
CSE building in Tughlakabad Institutional Area, Delhi, was set up with an investment of Rs
30,000 whereas those in the
model projects ranged between Rs 70, 000 and Rs 8 lakh. The costs would be comparatively less
if the system were
incorporated during the construction of the building itself.
Some basic rates of construction activities and materials have been given here, which may be
helpful in calculating the
total cost of a structure. The list is not comprehensive and contains only important activities
meant to provide a rough
estimate of the cost.
Water conversation at a micro level
(a) Close taps tightly. Fix leaking taps, pipes immediately and check regularly for leaks.
(b) Replace damaged and leaking pipes, taps and valves to avoid overflow and wastage.
(c) Choose plants that are drought-resistant. Water gardens during the coolest part of the day
(d) Never put water down the drain when there mat be another use for it.
(e) Wash vehicles with a bucket and sponge instead of hose, which uses 400 liters of water. By
using a bucket upto 300 liters can be saved.
(f) Wash vegetables in a bowl of water, washing the cleanest ones first. Use this water for your
plants.
(g) Collect rainwater in large tubs of cans and use it to water your plants.
(h) A leaking toilet can waste up to 16,000 liters of water per year.
(i) Dont use your washing machine for one or two garments. Ensure you have a full load.
(j) Harvest rainwater at home. Keep a large deep structure to collect rainwater for non-potable
purposes. Rainwater harvesting is especially important in todays scenario since it
recharges the ground water levels.
A collective effort will go along way in ensuring that the city does not suffer water shortages.
Quick facts
You need 100 drops of water to fill a teaspoon
Less than 2 percent of the water on earth is freshwater. And most of that is locked up in the
polar ice caps or is part of the ground water
More than five million people, most of them children, die each year from illness caused from
drinking unsafe water
The privatisation of water industry a 400 billion dollar a year business globally one third
larger than global pharmaceuticals
Every year, the average Briton uses 10,000 gallons of water, 500 percent more than average
Indian does
The total wastewater generated in India is to the tune of 22900 million liters per day. Of this
quantity a mere 5942 million liters per day is treated
SYSTEM COMPONENTS
What are the parts of the roof top rainwater harvesting system?
ROOF The existing roof is made use of to collect rainwater. Since rainwater is pure as
it falls from the sky it is necessary that the roof be kept clean for it to remain pure when it
is collected. This means the roof will need to be swept and cleaned daily during the rainy
season in the district.

This should be carefully done by an adult (never by children unless it is accessible and
safe) equipped with the necessary implements such as a ladder, broom and a brush if
necessary.
Some schools will have shady trees to cover the roof. However leaves falling from the
roof will cause blockage in the gutters and pipes. The leaves can also color the water and
cause it to decompose and smell. Therefore, roofs should invariably be completely
cleaned of all leaves, dust, bird droppings etc. using a broom. Water should only be used
if necessary as most times a dry sweeping with a broom will be enough.
When cleaning the roof with water be careful to keep the first rain separator open so as
not to allow the dirt to come into the filter and the tank.
PVC GUTTERS: The gutters of PVC collect the rainwater fromPVC GUTTERS: The gutters of PVC
collect the rainwater from the roof and transfer it
to the filter. On sloping roofs, PVC gutters can pick up leaves, dust, small twigs and other
organic matter. The gutters need to be cleaned regularly at least weekly once. During the
rainy season the PVC gutters should be inspected and cleaned daily. The gutters are fixed to the
roof or to the walls with clamps. The clamps hold the gutter
or pipes to the wall or to the roof firmly and allow a small slope in the system to enable
water to flow in one direction. The clamps sometimes may come off due to various
reasons. The clamps should be fixed immediately whenever it is seen to be loose or when
it has come off. At all times the PVC gutters or pipes should slope in the direction of the storage
tank and
not away from it. The PVC gutters should always have an end cap at the end where
rainwater begins to flow in the direction of the tank. DOWNPIPES: PVC down pipes brings the
water from the rainwater gutters or pipes
vertically down. They should invariably be clamped firmly to the wall and should never
be loosely fixed. Always check that the down pipe is firmly fixed and if necessary replace
or tighten the clamp whenever necessary. FIRST RAIN SEPARATOR: The first rain separator or a
washout pipe as it is called,
has a valve or an end cap to allow the first little amount of rainwater to be collectedseparately.
This has most of the dust and dirt in it. The first rain separator also is used
when the roof is being cleaned or when rainwater is NOT to be collected.
It is important to ensure that the first rain separator is always kept in the closed position
and never left open. After every rain it should be opened carefully and the waste water
allowed to flow out. The pipe should then be cleaned and the valve or the end cap closed.
Sometimes the first rain separator can get jammed due to the dirt or dust in it. In such a
situation the valve or the end cap should be carefully replaced by a good plumber. LEAF TRAP:
Where the roof of a school has lots of leaves falling from a tree or trees a
conical leaf trap can be placed in the vertical down pipe. This has a mesh on top. The
mesh prevents small leaves, twigs and other material from entering the pipe and blocking
it or choking the filter. The material collected on the leaf trap if any must be removed at
regular intervals and daily during the rainy season.
FILTER: A gravel, sand and netlon mesh filter is designed and placed on top of the
storage tank. This filter is very important in keeping the rainwater in the storage tank
clean. It removes silt, dust, leaves and other organic matter from entering the storage
tank.
The filter media should be cleaned daily after every rainfall event. Clogged filters prevent
rainwater from easily entering the storage tank and the filter may overflow. The sand or
gravel media should be taken out and washed before it is replaced in the filter. STORAGE TANK:
The rainwater storage tank collects all the filtered rainwater and
keeps it for future use. The storage tank is made above the ground and on a platform. It
can also be an underground sump in some cases.
The tank is invariably painted white on the outside. This is done to keep the water inside
cool and prevent the growth of bacteria. Every year the tank must be white washed
neatly.
The tank also will be sealed from the top either with Cuddapah slabs or concrete slabs or
any local stone. It must be ensured that the top cover is permanent and always fully
covered. This will prevent the growth of algae or bacteria in the tank. In no case should it
be opened. If there are small cracks in the joints they should be sealed with cement
mortar immediately. Mosquitoes and dust should never be allowed in to the stored
rainwater tank.
The tank should also be completely water tight. If there is any leak in the tank or even
dampness, the problem should be addressed immediately with the help of a trained
engineer.

OVERFLOW PIPE: The storage tank will have an overflow pipe from the top of the

tank. In case of heavy rain, the overflow pipe will allow the excess rain water to be safely

disposed of without causing any flooding. The size of the overflow pipe should be the

same as that of the inlet pipe. It will have a mesh at the bottom to prevent rats, squirrels

and cockroach from coming in.

The mesh should be checked weekly and if torn or open should be repaired or replaced

immediately. It should also be ensured that the overflow water is drained away effectively to a
pit,

plant or storm water drain and not allowed to cause flooding.

TAP: A tap is provided in every tank to draw the rainwater out. Sometimes a tank can

have more than one tap. Invariably it is found that children play with the pipe outlet or

the tap and it is damaged. Children should be taught not to stand on the pipe or to play

with the tap. A broken tap will result in the entire system going to waste as all the

collected rainwater will flow out.

If there is no tap on the tank or if it is broken, no rainwater will be collected in the tank

when it rains. Ownership of the system should be created and the tap taken care of and

inspected daily.

If there is any leak in the tap, that too should be taken care of by replacing the washer or

by getting a good plumber to repair it immediately. Where the taps are located the area will be
cemented to drain out any waste water from

the site. This drain out water will be lead into a pit or a plant whichever is available.

WATER QUALITY CHECK: If the roof, the gutter, the first rain separator and the

filter is kept clean, the collected rainwater will be crystal clear. This is an indication that

good maintenance is being followed.

If the water is however dirty in color or it smells bad, then it means that the system is not

being kept clean.

Even if the water is clear and does not smell still it must be checked for micro-biological

contamination. The checking should daily for the first one month and then weekly if the

water is clear and not foul smelling. For this one must use a H2S strip test bottle.
Wash your hands thoroughly with soap. With clean hands the sealed bottle should be

opened. From the tap in the rainwater storage tank fill the bottle to the mark provided.

Close the cap tightly. Bring the bottle back to a safe place in a room. Observe for 24 to 48

hours. If the water turns black in the bottle then it is micro-biologically contaminated and

requires treatment before being used for drinking. If the water colour stays brown, then

the water is fit for drinking.

WATER QUALITY TREATMENT:

Though rainwater as it falls from the clouds is

very pure, it does pick up dirt, dust and bacteria once it falls on the roof. It is very

necessary to therefore check the quality of the water before using it for consumption.

Once it is established that the rainwater is not micro-biologically contaminated it can then

be consumed directly. However if the H2S strip test suggests that water has bacteria in it,

it must then be treated before it can be used for drinking.

The method suggested for treating for bacteria is chlorination. Liquid chlorine or chlorine

tablets are available for treatment of water. Depending on the volume of the rainwater in

the tank, chlorine needs to be added to disinfect the water. Chlorination should be carried

out every time there is rain and a fresh infusion of water into the tank.

Using a chloroscope, residual chlorine of 0.20 mg/litre should be established before the

water is used for drinking.

Another form of deactivating bacteria and making water fit for consumption is called
SODIS Solar disinfection of water. In this method, rainwater is kept in a PET bottle or

a glass bottle in the sun for 6 hours. One side of the bottle is painted black. The black

surface is kept on the ground. With a combination of UV disinfection and infra red heat

sterilization the water becomes fit for consumption. In cloudy weather the bottles need to

be kept in the sun longer.

RAIN WATER HARVESTING TECHNIQUES :

There are two main techniques of rain water harvestings.

Storage of rainwater on surface for future use.

Recharge to ground water.

The storage of rain water on surface is a traditional techniques and structures used
were underground tanks, ponds, check dams, weirs etc. Recharge to ground water
is a new concept of rain water harvesting and the structures generally used are :-

Pits :- Recharge pits are constructed for recharging the shallow

aquifer. These are constructed 1 to 2 m, wide and to 3 m. deep
which are back filled with boulders, gravels, coarse sand.

Trenches:- These are constructed when the permeable stram is

available at shallow depth. Trench may be 0.5 to 1 m. wide, 1 to
1.5m. deep and 10 to 20 m. long depending up availability of water.
These are back filled with filter. materials.

Dug wells:- Existing dug wells may be utilised as recharge structure

and water should pass through filter media before putting into dug
well.
 Hand pumps :- The existing hand pumps may be used for recharging
the shallow/deep aquifers, if the availability of water is limited.
Water should pass through filter media before diverting it into hand
pumps.

Recharge wells :- Recharge wells of 100 to 300 mm. diameter are

generally constructed for recharging the deeper aquifers and water
is passed through filter media to avoid choking of recharge wells.

Recharge Shafts :- For recharging the shallow aquifer which are

located below clayey surface, recharge shafts of 0.5 to 3 m.
diameter and 10 to 15 m. deep are constructed and back filled with
boulders, gravels & coarse sand.

Lateral shafts with bore wells :- For recharging the upper as well as
deeper aquifers lateral shafts of 1.5 to 2 m. wide & 10 to 30 m. long
depending upon availability of water with one or two bore wells are
constructed. The lateral shafts is back filled with boulders, gravels &
coarse sand.

Spreading techniques :- When permeable strata starts from top

then this technique is used. Spread the water in streams/Nalas by
making check dams, nala bunds, cement plugs, gabion structures or
a percolation pond may be constructed.

DIVERSION OF RUN OFF INTO EXISTING SURFACE WATER BODIES

Construction activity in and around the city is resulting in the drying up of water
bodies and reclamation of these tanks for conversion into plots for houses.
Free flow of storm run off into these tanks and water bodies must be ensured. The
storm run off may be diverted into the nearest tanks or depression, which will
create additional recharge.

Urbanisation effects on Groundwater Hydrology :

Increase in water demand

More dependence on ground water use

Over exploitation of ground water

Increase in run-off, decline in well yields and fall in water levels

Reduction in open soil surface area

Reduction in infiltration and deterioration in water quality

Methods of artificial recharge in urban areas :

Water spreading

Recharge through pits, trenches, wells, shafts

Rooftop collection of rainwater

Roadtop collection of rainwater

Induced recharge from surface water bodies.

Computation of artificial recharge from Roof top rainwater collection :

Factors taken for computation :

 Roof top area 100 sq.m. for individual house and 500 sq.m. for
multi-storied building.

Average annual monsoon rainfall - 780 mm.

Effective annual rainfall contributing to recharge 70% - 550 mm.

Individual Multistoried
Houses building

Roof top area 100 sq. m. 500 sq. m.

Total quantity available 55 cu. m 275 cu. m.

forrecharge per annum

Water available for 5 member 100 days 500 days

Family

Benefits of Artificial Recharge in Urban Areas :

Improvement in infiltration and reduction in run-off.

Improvement in groundwater levels and yields.
Reduces strain on Special Village Panchayats/ Municipal / Municipal
Corporation water supply
Improvement in groundwater quality
Estimated quantity of additional recharge from 100 sq. m. roof top area is
55.000 liters.

Steps in implementation of rainwater harvesting

PRELIMINARY FEASIBILITY STUDY
 The first step in designing a rain water harvesting scheme is a preliminary feasibility study
which involves site visit and collection of relevant data.

This includes

Assessment of site condition

Rainwater incident on site

Quantum of harvestable rainwater

Consumption pattern

Evaluate existing water supply assets

Best means to conserve water

DETAILED ASSESSMENT FOLLOW THE PRELIMINARY STUDY

Detailed assessment involves

Hydrogeological investigation

Groundwater quality analysis

Rainfall pattern analysis

Catchment management plan

Design of the rainwater harvesting system

What are the different methods to collect rainwater?

The only thing that differs in the following methods is the scale of the system. They all follow
the same principles but differ on aesthetics and actual water conservation effectiveness. Click
the pictures for a closer look.
Rain Barrels

This method is the most common and one that many people are
familiar with. This involves installing a barrel at a gutter downspout to
collect rainwater. The actual barrel may be a recycled barrel or a new
commercially available rain barrel.
Pros:

Easily implemented by anyone at any residence

Barrels are readily available in your community or at various
stores & websites
Barrels don't take up much space so they can fit into any situation
Cons:

Capacity is generally only 50 to 100 gallons

Easily overflows and wastes collection opportunities

"Dry" System

This method is a variation of a rain barrel set-up, but it involves a

larger storage volume. Essentially, the collection pipe "drys" after
each rain event since it empties directly into the top of the tank.
Pros:

Can store a large amount of rainwater

Great for climates where rainfall happens with infrequent, larger
storm events
Can be inexpensive to implement
Less complicated system so maintenance is easier
Cons:

The storage tank must be located next to your house

"Wet" System

This method involves locating the collection pipes underground in

order to connect multiple downspouts from different gutters. The
rainwater will fill the underground piping and the water will rise in the
vertical pipes until it spills into the tank. The downspouts and
underground collection piping must have water-tight connections. The
elevation of the tank inlet must be below the lowest gutter on the
house.
Pros:

The ability to collect from your entire collection surface

The ability to collect from multiple gutters and downspouts
The tank can be located away from your house
Cons:

More expensive to implement due to underground piping

Sufficient difference between gutters and tank inlet must be
available
 AGE OLD SYSTEMS

Paar system: Paar is a common water harvesting practice in the

western Rajasthan region. It is a common place where the rainwater
flows from the agar (catchment) and in the process percolates into the
sandy soil. In order to access the rajani pani (percolated water) kuis or
beris are dug in the agor (storage area). Kuis or beris are normally 5
metres (m) to 12 m deep. The structure was constructed through
traditional masonary technology. Normally six to ten of them are
constructed in a paar. However depending on the size of the paar the
numbers of kuis or beris are decided. Bhatti mentions that there are
paars in Jaisalmer district where there are more than 20 kuis are in
operation. This is the most predominant form of rainwater harvesting in
the region. Rainwater harvested through PAAR technique is known as
Patali paani.
 Talab / Bandhis
Talabs are reservoirs. They may be natural,
such as the ponds (pokhariyan) at Tikamgarh in
the Bundelkhand region. They can be human-
made, such the lakes in Udaipur. A reservoir
area of less than five bighas is called a talai; a
medium sized lake is called a bandhi or talab;
bigger lakes are called sagar or samand.
The pokhariyan serve irrigation and drinking purposes. When the water
in these reserviors dries up just a few days after the monsoon, the pond
beds are cultivated with rice.

Saza Kuva
An open well with multiple owners
(saza = partner), saza kuva is the
most important source of irrigation in
the Aravalli hills in Mewar, eastern
Rajasthan. The soil dug out to make the well pit is used to construct a
huge circular foundation or an elevated platform sloping away from the
well. The first is built to accomodate the rehat, a traditional water lifting
device; the sloping platform is for the chada, in which buffaloes are used
to lift [Link] kuva construction is generally taken up by a group of
farmers with adjacent landholdings; a harva, a man with special skills in
groundwater detection, helps fix the site.
 Johad
Johads are small earthen check dams that
capture and conserve rainwater,
improving percolation and groundwater
recharge. Starting 1984, the last sixteen
years have seen the revival of some 3000 johadsspread across more than
650 villages in Alwar district, Rajasthan. This has resulted in a general
rise of the groundwater level by almost 6 metres and a 33 percent
increase in the forest cover in the area. Five rivers that used to go dry
immediately following the monsoon have now become perennial, such
as the River Arvari, has come alive.

Pat
Bhitada village , Jhabua district of Madhya pradesh developed the
unique pat system. This system was devised according to the
peculiarities of the terrain to divert water from swift-flowing hill streams
into irrigation channels called pats.
Source: Making water everybody's business

The diversion bunds across the stream are made by piling up stones and
then lining them with teak leaves and mud to make them leakproof. The
pat channel has to negotiate small nullahs that join the stream off and
on, and also sheer cliffs before reaching the fields. These sections
invariably get washed away during the monsoons. Stone aqueducts have
to be built to span the intervening nullahs.

The villagers irrigate their fields by turns. The channel requires constant
maintenance and it is the duty of the family irrigating the fields on a
particular day to take care of the pat on that particular day. It takes
about two weeks to get the pat flowing and the winter crop is sown in
early November.
Naada / Bandha
Naada/bandha are found in the Mewar region of the Thar desert. It
is a stone check dam, constructed across a stream or gully, to
capture monsoon runoff on a stretch of land. Submerged in water,
the land becomes fertile as silt deposits on it and the soil retains
substantial amounts of water.
 Rapat
A rapat is a percolation tank,
with a bund to impound
rainwater flowing through a
watershed and a waste weir to
dispose of the surplus flow. If
the height of the structure is
small, the bund may be built of
masonary, otherwise earth is
Source:CRIDA
used. Rajasthan rapats, being
small, are all masonry structures.
Rapats and percolation tanks do not directly irrigate land, but
recharges well within a distance of 3-5 km downstream. Silting is a
serious problem with small rapats and the estimated life of a rapat
varies from 5 to 20 years.

Chandela Tank
These tanks were constructed by stopping the flow of water in
rivulets flowing between hills by erecting massive earthen
embankments, having width of 60m or more. These hills with long
stretches of quartz reefs running underneath them, acted as natural
ground water barrier helping to trap water between the ridges. The
earthen embankments were supported on both sides with walls of
coarse stones, forming a series of stone steps. These tanks are made
up of lime and mortar and this is the reason why these tanks
survived even after thousand years but the only problem, which
these tanks are facing, is siltation of tank beds. Chandela tanks
usually had a convex curvature somewhere in the middle of the
embankment; many older and smaller tanks were constructed near
the human settlement or near the slopes of a cluster of hills. These
tanks served to satisfy the drinking water needs of villagers and
cattle.

Bundela Tank
These tanks are bigger in size as compared to Chandela tanks. These
tanks had solidly constructed steps leading to water in the tank; But
these structures had chabootaras, pavillions and royal orchards
designed to show off the glory of the king who built them. But these
tanks are not as cost effective and simple as Chandela tanks. These
tanks were constructed to meet the growing water demands in the
area, maintenance of these tanks was done by the person employed
by the king but in case of smaller tanks villagers collectively removed
silt and repair embankment.

Kunds / Kundis
A kund or kundi looks like
an upturned cup nestling
in a saucer. These
structures harvest
rainwater for drinking, and dot the sandier tracts of the Thar Desert
in western Rajasthan and some areas in Gujarat.
Essentially a circular underground well, kunds have a saucer-shaped
catchment area that gently slopes towards the centre where the well
is situated. A wire mesh across water-inlets prevents debris from
falling into the well-pit. The sides of the well-pit are covered with
(disinfectant) lime and ash. Most pits have a dome-shaped cover, or
at least a lid, to protect the water. If need be, water can be drawn
out with a bucket. The depth and diameter of kunds depend on their
use (drinking, or domestic water requirements). They can be owned
by only those with money to invest and land to construct it. Thus for
the poor, large public kunds have to be built.

Also see Ran Singh who makes kunds

Kuis / Beris
Found in western Rajasthan, these are 10-12 m
deep pits dug near tanks to collect the
seepage. Kuis can also be used to harvest
rainwater in areas with meagre rainfall.

The mouth of the pit is usually made very

narrow. This prevents the collected water from evaporating. The pit
gets wider as it burrows underunder the ground, so that water can
seep in into a large surface area. The openings of these
entirely kuchcha (earthen) structures are generally covered with
planks of wood, or put under lock and key. The water is used
sparingly, as a last resource in crisis situations.
Magga Ram Suthar, of village Pithla in Jaisalmer district in Rajasthan,
is an engineer skilled in making kuis/beris.

Also see Magga Ram Suthar who has mastered the art of
making beris
Baoris / Bers
Baoris or bers are community wells, found in
Rajasthan, that are used mainly for drinking.
Most of them are very old and were built
by banjaras (mobile trading communities) for
their drinking water needs. They can hold
water for a long time because of almost
negligible water evaporation.
Jhalaras
Jhalaras were human-made tanks,
found in Rajasthan and Gujarat,
essentially meant for community
use and for religious rites. Often rectangular in design, jhalaras have
steps on three or four sides.
Jhalars areground water bodies which are built to ensure easy &
regular supply of water to the surrounding areas .
the jhalars are rectangular in shape with steps on three or even on
all the four sides of the tank . the steps are built on a series of levels .
The jhalaras collect subterranean seepage of a talab or a lake located
upstream .
The water from these jhalaras was not used for drinking but for only
community bathing and religious rites .
Jhodhpur city has eight jhalaras two of which are inside the town &
six are found outside the city .
The oldest jhalara is the mahamandir jhalara which dates back to
1660 AD

Nadis
Nadis are village ponds, found near Jodhpur in Rajasthan. They are
used for storing waterfrom an adjoining natural catchment during
the rainy season. The site was selected by the villagers based on an
available natural catchments and its water yield potential. Water
availability from nadi would range from two months to a year after
the rains. They are dune areas range from 1.5 to 4.0 metres and
those in sandy plains varied from 3 to 12 metres. The location of the
nadi had a strong bearing on its storage capacity due to the related
catchment and runoff characteristics.
Tobas
Tobas is the local name given to a ground depression with a natural
catchment area. A hard plot of land with low porosity, consisting of a
depression and a natural catchment area was selected for the
construction of tobas.

PRACTISE IN SRILANKA

Rainwater harvesting in Sri Lanka

Nearby three quarters of Sri Lanka lies in what is widely known as the 'Dry Zone',
comprising the northern half and the whole of the east of the country. Average
annual rainfall in this region is generally between 1,200-1,800 mm. Annual 2540
mm to over 5080 mm in south west of the Island and less than 1250 mm in the
northwest and south east of the Inland . Due to availability of alternative water
sources in the past, there is no longer tradition of rainwater harvesting for
domestic supply. Nevertheless, in many hilly areas lacking access to reliable wells
or gravity fed piped supplies water collection often involves a long trek to distant
sources with a long uphill walk carrying a fall container.

Following a study conducted in 1995, the

community water supply and sanitation
project (cwssp) first undertook a
demonstration and pilot project involving
the construction of about one hundred 5-
millimeter cubic tanks for household water supply. Two designs were developed a
sub surface brick tank and a surface forrocement tank. For an average sized roof of
60meter cubic a household in the project area could expect a rainwater supply
equivalent to between 150-200 liters/day or even higher during wetter part of the
year. The lankan rainwater-harvesting forum was established in 1996 to promote
the application of rainwater for the application of rainwater for domestic purposes
throughout the country and to develop technology and establish guidelines for
good rainwater harvesting practice.

With adequate rainfall allover the country, harvesting was a feasible option to
provide safe drinking water to many communities living in hill settlements in the
central hill country and to those living in north central and southern dry zones. In
the latter two areas, communities either had no access to safe drinking water or
the available groundwater was too brackish to drink. In southern dry zone, salinity
of groundwater was a major threat to human consumption, due to this people
traveled for long hours to nearby town supply source or community well. Due to
difficulties of collecting safe drinking water, people in the dry zone have their own
traditional rainwater harvesting systems. The system was used during rain season
and their collection were limited to household utensils as there was no storage.

The technology adopted the traditional wisdom of harvesting roof runoff, merged
tanks with new technology, and five cubic meter cement mortar tanks were
constructed at the household level to harvest and store rainwater. The first
experiment of organized rainwater harvesting began in a village called
dematawelihinna in bedulla in the central hills of Sri Lanka These tanks were of
two types: surface tanks made of forrocement and underground tanks made of
brick mortar. The total cost of these tanks varied from Sri Lankan rupees 7,000-
9,000 (us$90-115) depending on the type of tank. At present there are about 6,500
tanks constructed in five districts of Sri Lanka. Initially CWSSP implemented the
rainwater harvesting system and further it was taken by some non-government
organizations as a means of water supply too poorhouse holds in rural Sri Lanka.
The beneficiary contribution in construction has increased from 20% to 50% and
given better sense of ownership.

Rooftop water harvesting is practiced using

a variety of materials such as tin sheets,
bamboo gutters, banana stem files,
arecanut (areca catechu). [Link] sheets: this
is a techniques where people use sheets
formed into the shape of a gutter, tied with
jute or coir ropes and attached to the full
length of the roof. At the end of the gutter,
royal palm leaves or barks of trees are used to form a funnel shape to avoid
splashing of water at the point of exist. These tanks usually hold 225-350 liters of
water. Cadjan leaves close this storage. However, as the system of storing is not
very secure water cannot be used for 5-7 days depending on the family size. The
water, thus, collected is mainly used for drinking, which is boiled or filtered before
consumption.

[Link] stems files: mostly the poorer community uses this technique. Banana
stem are tied to a corner of the roof firmly. At times of heavy rains, props to
prevent falling under heavy water pressure support the banana stem files. The
problem with system is that banana stem files have to be replaced frequently as
they tend to break with 3-4 days of heavy rains. Users of this technique collect 6-7
pots of water under average rain conditions. This technique may appear primitive
but it is very useful to poor who do not have the capacity to buy polythene sheets
or galvanized sheets.
[Link] (areca cetchu): this technique uses arecanut sheaths as a temporary
gutter to collect rooftop runoff. The quantity of water that can be collected using
this system is limited and the sheath needs to be replaced at least once every two
weeks.

Open rainwater harvesting: in open rainwater harvesting, a number of materials

are used to capture the rainfall directly from the skies.

[Link] palms (borassus flabllifier): in this technique a large royal palm tree leaf is
placed on a wooden stand in open air. The rainwater is collected directly and is
thus cleaner than roof runoff water. This method appears to have been extensively
used in the past. Under good rainfall conditions a large royal palm leaf can collect
as much as 200 liters of water per day.

[Link] sheets: this technique is used with a polythene sheet 3 meters (m) *
3m in size, spread across in the open air devoid of trees, to collect direct rainfall.
The water thus collected is cleaner than run off water. While this technique
collects clean drinking water. It is expensive to buy polythene sheets and the
polythene is vulnerable to damage under heavy wind conditions.

[Link] sheet: this technique uses a 2m x 1m galvanized sheet in the open air
to collect direct rainfall. The galvanized sheet is tied from the two corners in the
shape of a boat. The sheet is mounted on four or six poles in the open air. Only
limited quantity of water is collected. While this system collects clean water for
drinking, the drawback is that it is costly to purchase galvanize sheets and the
sheet can rust if not maintained properly.

[Link] trunks: this is evidence that in the past, people constructed boat-like
structure from large tree trunks and lifted it in the open air to collect direct
rainfall. These structures were about 2.6 m in length with a similar depth cavity
constructed to collect rainwater.

[Link] rock cavities: in one temple in monaragala there is evidence to suggest

that rainwater was collected in large (4m*1m) rock cavities constructed in large
rock surfaces. Buddhist priest used this water to wash their robes. Presently,
people in the neighborhood use this water for drinking during the rainy season.

Rainwater harvesting with inverted umbrella Rainwater is harvested by using an

inverted umbrella in galvanized bucket. This technique is used in combination with
other rainwater harvesting techniques, since only limited quantity of water can be
collected is used for drinking purposes. Rainwater harvesting experiences in
Anuradhapura district indicate that householders collect rainwater not because of
the lack of drinking water but because of the better quality of rainwater. Capacity
to collect and store sufficient rainwater is limited due to poor economic status of
these households.

HARVESTING RAINWATER HARNESSING LIFE :

A NOBLE GOAL - A COMMON RESPONSIBILITY

Ground water exploitation is inevitable is Urban areas. But the groundwater

potential is getting reduced due to urbanisation resulting in over exploitation.
Hence, a strategy to implement the groundwater recharge, in a major way need to
be launched with concerted efforts by various Governmental and Non-
Governmental Agencies and Public at large to build up the water table and make
the groundwater resource, a reliable and sustainable source for supplementing
water supply needs of the urban dwellers.

Recharge of groundwater through storm run off and roof top water collection,
diversion and collection of run off into dry tanks, play grounds, parks and other
 vacant places are to be implemented by Special Village Panchayats/ Municipalities
/Municipal Corporations and other Government Establishments with special
efforts.

The Special Village Panchayats /Municipalities/Municipal Corporations will help

the citizens and builders to adopt suitable recharge method in one's own house or
building through demonstration and offering subsidies for materials and
incentives, if possible.

ATTRIBUTES OF GROUNDWATER :

There is more ground water than surface water

Ground water is less expensive and economic resource.
Ground water is sustainable and reliable source of water supply.
Ground water is relatively less vulnerable to pollution
Ground water is usually of high bacteriological purity.
Ground water is free of pathogenic organisms.
Ground water needs little treatment before use.
Ground water has no turbidity and colour.
Ground water has distinct health advantage as art alternative for lower sanitary
quality surface water.
Ground water is usually universally available.
Ground water resource can be instantly developed and used.
There is no conveyance losses in ground water based supplies.
Ground water has low vulnerability to drought.
Ground water is key to life in arid and semi-arid regions.
Ground water is source of dry weather flow in rivers and streams.
Recharging of dugwells and abandoned tubewells.
Technical Details of Rainwater Harvesting 13
In alluvial and hard rock areas, there are thousands of wells which have either gone dry or
whose water
levels have declined considerably. These can be recharged directly with rooftop run-off.
Rainwater that is
collected on the rooftop of the building is diverted by drainpipes to a settlement or filtration
tank, from which it
flows into the recharge well (borewell or dugwell).
If a tubewell is used for recharging, then the casing (outer pipe) should preferably be a slotted
or perforated
pipe so that more surface area is available for the water to percolate. Developing a borewell
would increase
its recharging capacity (developing is the process where water or air is forced into the well
under pressure to
loosen the soil strata surrounding the bore to make it more permeable).
If a dugwell is used for recharge, the well lining should have openings (weep-holes) at regular
intervals to
allow seepage of water through the sides. Dugwells should be covered to prevent mosquito
breeding and
entry of leaves and debris. The bottom of recharge wells should be desilted annually to
maintain the intake
capacity.
Providing the following elements in the system can ensure the quality of water entering the
recharge wells:
1. Filter mesh at entrance point of rooftop drains
2. Settlement chamber

3. Filter bed
Settlement tank (chamber)
Settlement tanks are used to remove silt and other floating
impurities from rainwater. A settlement tank is like an ordinary
storage container having provisions for inflow (bringing water from
the catchment), outflow (carrying water to the recharge well) and
overflow. A settlement tank can have an unpaved bottom surface to
allow standing water to percolate into the soil.
In case of excess rainfall, the rate of recharge, especially of
borewells, may not match the rate of rainfall. In such situations, the desilting chamber holds
the excess
amount of water till it is soaked up by the recharge structure. Thus, the settlement chamber
acts like a buffer
in the system.
Any container, (masonry or concrete underground tanks, old unused tanks, pre-fabricated PVC
or
ferrocement tanks) with adequate capacity of storage can be used as a settlement tank.
3. Recharging of service tubewells.
In this case the rooftop runoff is not directly led into the service tubewells, to avoid chances of
contamination
of groundwater. Instead rainwater is collected in a recharge well, which is a temporary storage
tank (located
near the service tubewell), with a borehole, which is shallower than the water table. This
borehole has to be
provided with a casing pipe to prevent the caving in of soil, if the strata is loose. A filter
chamber comprising
of sand, gravel and boulders is provided to arrest the impurities.
4. Recharge pits
A recharge pit is 1.5m to 3m wide and 2m to 3m deep. The excavated pit is lined with a
brick/stone wall with
openings (weep-holes) at regular intervals. The top area of the pit can be covered with a
perforated cover.
Design procedure is the same as that of a settlement tank.
5. Soakaways / Percolation pit
Percolation pits, one of the easiest and most effective means of harvesting rainwater, are
generally not more
than 60 x 60 x 60 cm pits, (designed on the basis of expected runoff as described for settlement
tanks), filled
with pebbles or brick jelly and river sand, covered with perforated concrete slabs wherever
necessary.
6. Recharge trenches
A recharge trench is a continuous trench excavated in the ground and refilled with porous
media like
pebbles, boulders or broken bricks. A recharge trench can be 0.5 m to 1 m wide and 1 m to 1.5
m deep. The
length of the recharge trench is decided as per the amount of runoff expected. The recharge
trench should
Technical Details of Rainwater Harvesting 14
be periodically cleaned of accumulated debris to maintain the intake capacity. In terms of
recharge rates,
recharge trenches are relatively less effective since the soil strata at depth of about 1.5 metres
is generally
less permeable. For recharging through recharge trenches, fewer precautions have to be taken
to maintain
the quality of the rainfall runoff. Runoff from both paved and unpaved catchment can be
tapped.

[Link] troughs

To collect the runoff from paved or unpaved areas draining out of a compound, recharge
troughs are
commonly placed at the entrance of a residential/institutional complex. These structures are
similar to
recharge trenches except for the fact that the excavated portion is not filled with filter
materials. In order to
facilitate speedy recharge, boreholes are drilled at regular intervals in this trench. In design
part, there is no
need of incorporating the influence of filter materials.
This structure is capable of harvesting only a limited amount of runoff because of the limitation
with regard to
size.
8. Modified injection well
In this method water is not pumped into the aquifer but allowed to percolate through a filter
bed, which
comprises sand and gravel. A modified injection well is generally a borehole, 500-mm diameter,
which is
drilled to the desired depth depending upon the geological conditions, preferably 2 to 3 m
below the water
table in the area. Inside this hole a slotted casing pipe of 200-mm diameter is inserted. The
annular space
between the borehole and the pipe is filled with gravel and developed with a compressor till it
gives clear
water. To stop the suspended solids from entering the recharge tubewell, a filter mechanism is
provided at
the top.

Maintenance
Rainwater harvesting systems require few skills and little supervision to operate. Major
concerns are the
prevention of contamination of the tank during construction and while it is being replenished
during a rainfall.
Contamination of the water supply as a result of contact with certain materials can be avoided
by the use of
proper materials during construction of the system. The main sources of external
contamination are pollution
from the air, bird and animal droppings, and insects. Bacterial contamination may be minimized
by keeping
roof surfaces and drains clean but cannot be completely eliminated. If the water is to be used
for drinking
purposes, filtration and chlorination or disinfection by other means (e.g., boiling) is necessary.
The following
maintenance guidelines should be considered in the operation of rainwater harvesting systems:
A procedure for eliminating the "foul flush" after a long dry spell deserves particular
attention.
The first part of each rainfall should be diverted from the storage tank since this is most likely to
contain undesirable materials, which have accumulated on the roof and other surfaces
between
rainfalls. Generally, water captured during the first 10 minutes of rainfall during an event of
average intensity is unfit for drinking purposes. The quantity of water lost by diverting this
runoff
is usually about 14l/m2 of catchment area.
The storage tank should be checked and cleaned periodically. All tanks need cleaning; their
designs should allow for this. Cleaning procedures consist of thorough scrubbing of the inner
walls and floors. Use of a chlorine solution is recommended for cleaning, followed by thorough
rinsing.
Care should be taken to keep rainfall collection surfaces covered, to reduce the likelihood of
frogs, lizards, mosquitoes, and other pests using the cistern as a breeding ground. Residents
may prefer to take care to prevent such problems rather than have to take corrective actions,
such as treating or removing water, at a later time.
Gutters and downpipes need to be periodically inspected and cleaned carefully. Periodic
maintenance must also be carried out on any pumps used to lift water to selected areas in the
house or building. More often than not, maintenance is done only when equipment breaks
down.
Households must establish a maintenance routine that will be carried out by family
members.
As has been noted, in some cases the rainwater is treated with chlorine tablets. However, in
most places it is
used without treatment. In such cases, residents are advised to boil the water before drinking.
Where cistern
users do not treat their water, the quality of the water may be assured through the installation
of
commercially available in-line charcoal filters or other water treatment devices.

Required materials
 Rain. And really lots of it, throughout the year, favorably some two metres of it!
A catchment area, usually a roof of 15-20 square metres or above is sufficient.
Roof-gutters, those can consist of bent metal sheets or even large PVC pipes 'tubes' (the
gutters should have a
large enough capacity to prevent overflow during rainfall).
Pipelines or gutters (PVC) that lead from the roof-gutters to the storage tank.
Storage tank; because of the size (between 5.000 and 12.000 liters) a concrete, a Ferro
cement or a PVC tank. Do
mind that a manhole should be present for inside-cleaning purposes. And the outlet is situated
at the bottom, it must
remain accessible.

Water conversation at a micro level

(a) Close taps tightly. Fix leaking taps, pipes immediately and check regularly for leaks.
(b) Replace damaged and leaking pipes, taps and valves to avoid overflow and wastage.
(c) Choose plants that are drought-resistant. Water gardens during the coolest part of the day
(d) Never put water down the drain when there mat be another use for it.
(e) Wash vehicles with a bucket and sponge instead of hose, which uses 400 liters of water. By
using a bucket upto 300 liters can be saved.
(f) Wash vegetables in a bowl of water, washing the cleanest ones first. Use this water for your
plants.
(g) Collect rainwater in large tubs of cans and use it to water your plants.
(h) A leaking toilet can waste up to 16,000 liters of water per year.
(i) Dont use your washing machine for one or two garments. Ensure you have a full load.
(j) Harvest rainwater at home. Keep a large deep structure to collect rainwater for non-potable
purposes. Rainwater harvesting is especially important in todays scenario since it
recharges the ground water levels.
A collective effort will go along way in ensuring that the city does not suffer water shortages.
Quick facts
You need 100 drops of water to fill a teaspoon
 Less than 2 percent of the water on earth is freshwater. And most of that is locked up in the
polar ice caps or is part of the ground water
More than five million people, most of them children, die each year from illness caused from
drinking unsafe water
The privatisation of water industry a 400 billion dollar a year business globally one third
larger than global pharmaceuticals
Every year, the average Briton uses 10,000 gallons of water, 500 percent more than average
Indian does
The total wastewater generated in India is to the tune of 22900 million liters per day. Of this
quantity a mere 5942 million liters per day is treated

Do's and Donts

Harvested rainwater is used for direct usage or for recharging aquifers. It is most important to ensure
that the rainwater caught is free from pollutants. Following precautionary measures should be taken
while harvesting rainwater:-

Roof or terraces uses for harvesting should be clean, free from dust, algal plants etc.
Roof should not be painted since most paints contain toxic substances and may peel off.
Do not store chemicals, rusting iron, manure or detergent on the roof.
Nesting of birds on the roof should be prevented.
Terraces should not be used for toilets either by human beings or by pets.
Provide gratings at mouth of each drainpipe on terraces to trap leaves debris and floating
materials.
Provision of first rain separator should be made to flush off first rains.
Do not use polluted water to recharge ground water.
Ground water should only be recharged by rainwater.
Before recharging, suitable arrangements of filtering should be provided.
Filter media should be cleaned before every monsoon season.
 During rainy season, the whole system (roof catchment, pipes, screens, first flush, filters, tanks)
should be checked before and after each rain and preferably cleaned after every dry period
exceeding a month.
At the end of the dry season and just before the first shower of rain is anticipated, the storage
tank should be scrubbed and flushed off all sediments and debris.

References

1. Rain water harvesting by fresh water flooded forests

2. Kim, Sun Joo. "Harvesting rainwater for more than greywater". SmartPlanet. Retrieved
7 February 2013.
3. Kumar, Ro. "Collect up to 10 gallons of water per inch of rain with Rainsaucers latest
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2012.
5. "Believes in past, lives in future". The Hindu (India). 17 July 2010.
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7. "Rainwater Collection in Colorado" (PDF). Colorado water law, notices. Colorado
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New York Times. Retrieved 2009-06-30. "Precipitation, every last drop or flake,
was assigned ownership from the moment it fell in many Western states, making
scofflaws of people who scooped rainfall from their own gutters. In some instances, the
rights to that water were assigned a century or more ago."
10. "82(R) H.B. No. 3391. Act relating to rainwater harvesting and other water conservation
initiatives. went into effect on September 1, 2011". 82nd Regular Session. Texas
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12. "Tamil Nadu praised as role model for Rainwater Harvesting". [Link]. 2011-09-
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17 "Lanka Rain Water Harvesting forum (LRWHF)".

18 [Link] Missing or empty |title= (help)

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