Running Head: HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE

PLAYBOOK

Rachel Vadaj

Senior Capstone Document Analysis:

High School Football Coaches: Beyond the Playbook

John Carroll University

HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 2

Abstract

The lessons that high school football coaches instill in their team go far beyond the

playbook. Each high school, coach, and player has their own unique set of circumstances,

challenges and success. The struggles that a team may experience plays a significant part in

determining what lessons the coaches will teach the team. These lessons largely consist of

characteristics and life skills that apply on and off the field. These lessons, whatever they may

be, have positive effects that will endure throughout the players life starting from their first

down of football.
HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 3

Introduction

To the untrained, inexperienced, or naive, there is more to high school football than meets

the eye. It is greater than a structured game with boys in shoulder pads, and it dominates more

than just fall Friday nights. There is an entire culture within this educational society. While the

high school boys of fall that get to don those game day jerseys down the hall seem to be the

heroes of this pigskin world, it is the coaches that have the power to influence their success. To

summarize my research in one sentence, Coaches have a tremendous impact on their student-

athletes (Steinfeldt & Steinfelft, 2010). In fact, studies show that the coach-athlete relationship

may be the most important sport interaction, and the relationship is most effective when a

dynamic process exists in which the coach and athlete share interrelated thoughts, feelings, and

behaviors (Weaver, 2016).

The curiosity of which characteristics leaders in athletics practice and preach is

increasing as sports have gained popularity and dominance in American society. Athletics in high

school are established and governed by associations organized by the state. Traditionally, these

associations cover teams for private and public high schools comprised of ninth-twelfth grade

students. The general requirements for one to be a high school athletics coach include earning at

least a bachelors degree in education, and being a faculty member of the high school they wish

to become coach at (Weaver, 2016). Although, evidence shows that hiring external coaches in

addition to employed teachers that are coaches) has positive effects such as reducing the

workload of the teachers and improving the knowledge and skills of the teacher coaches and

athletes, financial issues prevent school districts from doing so (Aoyagi et al., 2016).

To be a successful high school head football coach, the requirements continue to include

obtaining people skills and the ability to create and sustain a positive influence. This ability to
HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 4

maintain a positive influence is even more important in high school coaches than those on the

collegiate or professional level. A coachs philosophy and foundation is crucial in determining

how his or her athletes will practice, play, and communicate with others that are on and off the

team (Weaver, 2016). With this positive influence and philosophy in the picture, coaches

revealed that developing life skills could not be divorced from general coaching (Collins,

Gould, Laurer, & Chung, 2009). In addition to having specific life skill coaching strategies, it is

also critical that coaches are able to develop strong coach-player relationships, understand the

unique social context within which they worked, and adopt a philosophical orientation that

placed high importance on life skill development (p. 30). While it may be unexpected, the

importance of coaches core, governing values and philosophical beliefs about football are

paramount (p. 30).

To explain in detail what characteristics coaches preach, and what positive influence(s)

they may bestow onto their players, it is vital to first understand what outside factors contribute

to shaping the lesson plan of the coach(es). To do so, this report is in the form of a document

analysis containing both academic research and non-academic sources of information from over

30 reports, studies and articles primarily obtained via Ebscohost, with a minority of data

collected from Kanopy, local news sources, and academic textbooks.

The documentary analysis over dozens of pieces of literature, articles and films has been

organized into three parts, each answering the corresponding formulated research question in a

series of categories and subcategories which organizes the research by themes:

RQ1: What are some struggles high school football coaches face that may affect what

characteristics they emphasize in their teams?

HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 5

RQ2: What lessons do football coaches, especially those at high schools, teach their players

that are not in the playbook? In other words, what characteristics do football coaches instill

in their teams that attribute to positive outcomes on and off the field?

RQ3: What are positive outcomes on and off the field that are attributed to these

characteristics?

Struggles High School Football Coaches face that may affect what Characteristics they

emphasize in their Teams

Struggles that high school football coaches face that may affect what characteristics they

emphasize in their teams stem:

from the microsystems of family, neighborhood and school to the macro-systems of

society and culture[this] means looking at child and family development issues in the

context of communities and neighborhoods which themselves are set within the context

of larger social systems and which simultaneously reflect the biological and

psychological forces at work in the children, adolescents, and adults who act within these

systems at all levels (Garbarino, 2008).

Pay-to-Play

One common issue amongst public high school football programs is the increase of pay

to play, which is the fee a student must pay in order to become a member of an extra curricular

activity. The concept of having to pay a fee to participate in an extra curricular activity is not

new. However, the skyrocketed amount for schools that are unable to pass a levy is. Both large

city and town-funded school systems are prone to severe budget cuts caused by reduced tax

revenues and city or statewide financial setbacks (Watt, 2009). Often, sports are the most heavily

effected with costs being the highest of extra curricular activities. Also in years past, one pay-to-
HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 6

play fee covered one student to participate in any activity. Now, there is a fee for each activity.

Generally with the situation, programs have also adopted a cap limit on the amount of money

one student, or one family has to pay. For many school districts, the current pay-to-play situation

is far from ideal. Officials say that if there were other options, they would opt for a different

route. However, since there is no other option for many districts in order to keep sport programs

and other extra curricular activities alive, the controversial pay-to-play is a last-ditch effort

(Collins, 2011).

Pay-to-Play Issues. Despite pay-to-play being deemed as a solution to budget cuts, it still

poses its tribulations. The most prominent is how to, or if to, aid the student athlete whose family

cannot provide the money needed for the dues. This is a problematic occurrence in poverty

stricken areas, especially following an economic downfall. Dave Watt has two questions for this

issue that the coaches, administration and booster clubs need to address. The first is, Do we

create a fund that permits those students who meet an approved needs basis to receive grants to

play? Second, How is the fund administered to avoid fair and just evaluation of those high

school athletes who truly need assistance (Watt, 2009)?

Community and Neighborhood

The core issues of the schools community and neighborhood also play a part in the

struggles high school football coaches face when teaching a group of males that have been

surrounded by problems such as child maltreatment, juvenile delinquency, a poor parental

environment (directly contributing to the development of the child from birth and daily

decisions), and attend a school that has had low success rates as an institution, resulting in low

success rates in its students. To combat such outside forces to instill positivity and characteristics

that oppose the negativity, coaches must form lesson plans that are community based,
HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 7

community focused, and community oriented (Garbarino, 2008).

Violence. A high rate of crime and violence within a community is another prominent

outside issue coaches struggle to combat within the team. Studies have shown that most deviant

behavior of youth occurs between the hours of 2-8 p.m. This is the time between being let out of

school and being supervised by adults. As a result, mayors of cities across the United States have

been encouraging support for after-school programs, such as football. Due to limited resources in

most communities for afterschool programs and sports, the coaches have had step into greater

leadership roles to rally support in from the school district, assistant coaches, and the community

(Knop, Tananehill, & OSullivan, 2001).

Violence and self destruction can stem from gang involvement and other poor choices of

companionship as so called solutions for adolescents and teenagers who are not receiving the

feeling of acceptance or belonging either in the community, at home, or at school (Knop,

Tananehill, & OSullivan, 2001). For coaches and the players, football can serve as a violence-

prevention program by creating a physical outlet through vigorous physical activity, as well as a

mental (emotional) outlet from teammates forming a fraternal support group (National Crime

Prevention Council, 1994). However, a fear of violence may inhibit an adolescents involvement

in healthy physical activity if they do not feel they are physically and psychologically safe in a

controlled environment (Knop, Tananehill, & OSullivan, 2001). In such a case, the high school

football coaches may have to come up with recruitment programs to advertise to such

adolescents.

When it comes to a school or neighborhood needing to find a solution to end violence in

youth, football can provide a source of individual interventions and interventions directed to

families and peers. These interventions do not just aim to tell someone to stop, but to also to
HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 8

prevent them from repeating violent behaviors by using strategies such as cognitive-behavioral

and social skills training (Youth Violence Protection, 1996).

Racism. In 1982, issues of racism were at the heart of furthering the integration

movement within communities and neighborhoods (Fuentes, 1982). With countless school

districts arguably still lacking significant diversity, issues of racism still manifest today. At John

Carroll University, there is a course called Diversity and Inclusion in Sport dedicated to

educating students about issues of diversity, bias, stereotyping, and prejudice. While academic

research on racism in football is scarce, Hollywood has created two movies based on real life

events centralized on this issue: We Are Marshall, which describes the journey of a newly

appointed African-American coach and his high school team on their first season as a racially

integrated unit (imdb, 2000), and The Blind Side, the story of Michael Oher, a homeless and

traumatized boy who became an All American football player and first round NFL draft pick

with the help of a caring woman and her family (imdb, 2009). While the issues of racism are

more spread throughout the plot, the visuals are striking as Oher, a 64, 300 lb. African

American with the build of an offensive tackle walks into the primarily white, wealthy private

school of Wingate. The stereotype of someone of his race, stature and background is also brought

up as his to be adopted sister of the same age is caught in the middle of gossip of people

wondering if Oher would rape her.

Division. For team cohesion to be possible, the individual athletes need to feel like they

share a common identity as a team. Studies have shown that there is a direct correlation between

cohesion and performance. If a team is far from united, this can cause issues for high school

football coaches, both on the field and off. There are various ways that a team can be divided.

Individual players can be setting themselves apart in a negative manner, having an attitude that
HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 9

only looks out for them amidst competing for a starting position; athletes only feeling unified

within their subcategories of player positions (such as the quarterbacks, running backs,

linebackers) can cause division; Additionally, a team can feel split down the middle into two

large subgroups with offense versus defense. To summarize this issue, when subgroup

identification is stronger than overall team identification, subgroup favoritism will occur that

may ultimately impede team performance. In addition, if players feel like separate individuals

rather than a team, then the level of team identity is similarly reduced and a negative effect on

team performance should result in this situation also (Murrell & Gaertner, 1992).

Physical Health

Topics regarding health arise issues that coaches struggle with amongst their players. A

physical health issue is of the obesity epidemic in Americas youth (Landis, Peppard, Remington,

2007).

Mental Health

Social Stigmas. A general issue for high school athletes, including football players, with

mental health is the reluctance to get help. Studies have reported that high school student athletes

have greater negative attitudes toward seeking psychological help than college student athletes

(Steinfeldt & Steinfelft, 2010). Football players, as well as other athletes in high-contact sports,

when compared with their peers in non-contact sportshave reported significantly higher

levels of negative attitudes toward seeking psychological help (p. 264). One of these reasons is

because society poses an expectation that those competing in a contact sport (like football) that

promotes forcefulness and toughness against competitors should be able to tolerate (and even

accept) pain and physical risk (p. 264).

Gender Role Conflict. For mental health, gender role conflicts among men, especially
HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 10

adolescent men, emphasizes social influences on masculine gender role expectations that

produce negative outcomesbecause sport represents an influential domain in which boys learn

expectations associated with manhood it is up to the coaches to shape the acceptance of such

behaviors (Steinfeldt & Steinfelft, 2010). Gender role conflict is hypothesized to occur

cognitively, emotionally, behaviorally, and unconsciously and include personal expriences of

gender role restrictions, devaluations, and violations (Steinfeldt, Rutkowski, Vaughan, &

Steinfeldt, 2011). Such gender role conflicts are categorized into four patterns. The first is

restricted affection between men, which is a result of, how boys are socialized to experience

difficulties conveying their affection to other men (Steinfeldt & Steinfelft, 2010). The second

pattern is restricted emotionality, which is a consequence of how boys are taught to avoid verbal

expression of their emotions (p. 263). Third is the conflict between family, school, and work,

which highlights difficulties boys have in juggling multiple responsibilities across different

domains of their lives (such as those deriving from family, school, and work) (p. 263). The final

pattern is the need for success and achievement, including power over the competition, which

could translate to competition from other teams or competition from teammates to earn the

starting position (p. 263).

Athletic Role. Adopting a salient athletic identity is common amongst long-term athletes.

However, identifying with the athlete role too strongly may pose challenges for the athlete that

the coaches will have to work with. According to Steinfeldt and Steinfelft (2010), over

identification with the athlete role can have deleterious consequences, such as decreased

academic performance and difficulties transitioning out of sport (after retirement) (p. 263-4).

Suicidal Actions. Data has shown that suicide ranks as the third leading cause of death

for adolescentsThough females attempt suicide more often than males, young males aged 15-
HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 11

19 are 3.6 times more likely than females to complete suicide. Further, for each completed

suicide, an estimated 100-200 adolescents attempted to take their own lives (Taliaferro, Rienzo,

Miller, Pigg, & Dodd, 2008). Coaches must also be trained to see the warning signs of suicidal

behavior to prevent it, and be able to properly handle the emotions of those affected by a suicide,

especially in their own family or amongst their peers.

Lessons High School Football Coaches teach that are Beyond the Playbook

Sports governance and policy development for a team is largely in the hands of coaches

(Sawyer, Brodey, & Judge, 2011). Studies have shown that coaches felt like it was their duty to

play an instrumental role in molding athletes character, instilling sound work habits, teaching

athletes to strive for excellence outside of sport, help athletes set personal goals and develop

positive self-image to be active agents in shaping their athletes outside the sport venue

(Collins, Gould, Laurer, & Chung 2009). Coaches believe most of the characteristics, lessons,

skills and values they instill were automatically taught through participation (p. 32).

How Coaches instill Lessons

Each person is unique. Therefore, each coach is unique. Weaver elaborates on this,

stating, coaches possess many different qualifications and personality traits, leadership styles,

and coaching strategies (Weaver, 2016). Below are some of the most common coaching

techniques found amongst high school football coaches.

Possess Leadership Characteristics. According to a study, the leadership characteristics

that coaches deem most important (in order of relevance) are giving positive feedback, training

and instruction, social support, and democratic and autocratic behavior (Weaver, 2016). There

are also multiple layers of leadership in relation to sport, including leader behavior, leadership

style, coach/athlete personal relationship, and coach/team relationship (Westre & Weiss, 1992).
HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 12

Successful teams, whether sports related or not, are founded by enforcing strong qualities of each

individual, strategically exemplifying the strongest qualities which coincide with the strongest

qualities of other members, and aiming for accomplishing a goal. Work ethic, dedication,

enthusiasm, teamwork are the ingredients of successful coaching. Enthusiasm, honesty, and

positive reinforcement can uphold the motivation and unity of a team while striving towards a

goal

Whole Person Approach. Successful coaches strive to teach not only the athlete in

uniform, but the person within it. The focus is balanced between physical and mental coaching.

In the sporting community, this is referred to as the whole person approach, which emphasizes

developing the on and off the field strengths of an athlete. In order for the coach to maximize the

strengths of the individual athlete, the two must form a partnership with one another, a mutual

understanding that the coach is trying to discover the best qualities in the athlete. Overall, the

whole person approach encourages a positive attitude and a strong mindset in athletes to

prepare them for obstacles that arise on and off the field without having any negative impact on

performance (Scholes, 2016).

Democratic Coaching Approach. Studies have found that democratic coaches equal

better football players. In detail, the more highly classified players perceived their coaches as

being more democratic, offering more training and instruction, and providing more social

support and positive feedback (Garland & Barry, 1988). Kevin Weaver describes the democratic

coaching style as one where coaches will work with their athletes to help make appropriate

decisions and set their own goals, which follows that athletes are first, winning is second

(Weaver, 2016). Westre and Weiss define democratic coaching to be the style which represents

actions that encourage greater athlete participation in team decisions concerning goals, practice
HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 13

methods, tactics, and strategies[This] social support behavior represents actions of care and

concern for individual team members and efforts towards interpersonal relationships (Westre &

Weiss, 1992). One way of showing such democratic styles is through non-stop verbal feedback

that supported some behaviors while discouraging others to allow the players to know that the

coach is watching, and cares about the improvement of the individual player and team (Knop,

Tananehill, & OSullivan, 2001).

The opposite of a democratic coaching style is autocratic, which is characterized by

independent decision-making and stresses personal authority (Westre & Weiss, 1992).

Tailor-Made Coaching Approach. In order to maintain concentration, involvement and

productivity in an organization, tailor-made coaching is a must. Meaning, a coach must go

above and beyond to curtail the program and its lessons around the individual characteristics of

each and every player. This practice of the leader can be a powerful and effective game changer

(The Great Courses, 2, 2015).

Lessons Coaches Teach, Starting with: Coming Together

Team Unity and Cohesion. The prominence of team unity has positive effects on the

performance of a coacting sport, especially football (Murrell & Gaertner, 1992). Cohesion has

been defined as a dynamic process which is reflected in the tendency for a group to stick

together and remain united in the pursuit of its goals and objectives (Weiss & Westre, 1991).

Cohesion and unity go hand in hand, with mutual support amongst team members directly

correlating to enhance cohesion. Having cohesion is shown to be a contributing factor to creating

a positive team environment (Collins, Gould, Laurer, & Chung, 2009). Furthermore, cohesion

amongst sport teams that rely on teamwork (like football so heavily does) has been found to

create a positive correlation with completing team tasks. This is also known as task cohesiveness,
HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 14

which specifically refers to the feelings of agreement and bonding between team members on

the groups tasks, goals and objectives (Weiss & Westre, 1992).

The importance of team cohesion has been accredited for multiple positive results.

Successful teams have been found to highly value teamwork and unity, qualities that coaches

often refer to as having chemistry. Even if players may not have great individual success, they

can be a powerhouse as a collective unit (Westre & Weiss, 1992).

Coaching styles and behaviors have a significant impact on whether or not athletes will

understand or display team cohesion. Cohesion is a multidimensional construct, which can only

be adequately taught if the coach displays compatibility on the teams goals because the

coach/team relationship is a critical link to perceptions of team cohesion (Westre & Weiss,

1992). Coaches that have emphasized a democratic style, involved instruction and training,

positive comments and social support have been found to have an increased level of task and

team cohesion throughout their team (p. 41). Oppositely, coaches that have displayed an

autocratic style contributed to athletes housing negative feelings towards involvement, and did

not obtain a sense of belonging or team closeness or cohesion (p. 42).

Trust and Respect. Trust is a fundamental and essential ingredient to any team on and

off the field, even between relationships and business groups. However, you must first have

respect for others in order for trust and care to be a possibility. Regardless of what kind, strong

relationships are a key to success (Teaff, 2006). Not only do the players need to have trust

amongst each other, the coach must create trust through content and delivery that is mutually

between the coach and the players by selecting content and teaching methods that encourage

and guide these students toward active involvement and success (Knop, Tananehill, &

OSullivan, 2001).
HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 15

Since it takes time for players and coaches to earn trust and respect amongst each other, a

lesson coaches teach is self-responsibility for continued progress. When the individuals are able

to demonstrate that they can be held accountable, and reliable, for their own progress, a basis for

trust and respect is formed (p. 40). This self-responsibility is crucial, because in addition to

trusting their teammates and coach(es), a football player must also trust themselves.

In addition to learning to respect, players and must also earn respect. To do so, a lesson

coaches teach is doing ones best in a positive enterprise will always earn respect (Hawkins,

2012).

Football is considered to be a year-round sport. Next to nothing is built overnight. That is

why it is also important for coaches to be clear that this process involves more than just a few

days of team-building activities. Instead, it requires ongoing strategies that support students as

they learn how to trust their peers while gaining respect for themselves and their bodies (p. 41).

Coaches instill the importance of being healthy by instructing their athletes to get the proper

amount of rest each night, dont overwork yourself, and find a balance between being under

prepared and over prepared (Barth, 2013).

Inclusiveness. Leaders, coaches in particular, must exemplify inclusiveness within teams.

In the coaching sense, being inclusive is as simple as letting each individual know that they are

important through demonstrations in your actions. In football, it is clear that each team member

has a different set of skills and talents. The coach discovers the importance of an individual while

the athletes reveal their unique strengths throughout the season. These unique qualities make

each person possess value (Teaff, 2006). One way a coach may preach inclusiveness is by

motivating players from all backgrounds to take pride in their work and to commit to each other

to do their best (Hawkins, 2012). Another way for a coach to practice inclusiveness is to
HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 16

convince the players to include themselves in the sport. By using a positive sports coaching

approach, the coach will identify and develop their athletes strengths while learning to

overcome their negativity bias by training their brains to see the good things their athletes are

doing (Scholes, 2016).

Coaches will also teach the importance of inclusion when dealing with issues of diversity,

whether that be of race, ethnicity, gender, religious affiliations, social class or age (Cunningham,

2016).

Group Dependence. According to D.J. Garland and J.R. Barry, successful football

players are taught to have high levels of group dependence (Garland & Barry, 1998). This group

dependence ties together both the importance of team unity, trust, and inclusiveness. You cannot

carry a team to victory on your own. You must unite as a team by trusting one anothers

individual abilities to carry a team forward. One example of a successful coach with this lesson

in his planner was Coach Vince Lombardi, who throughout his coaching life was absolutely

determined to maximize the individual contributions of each player, yet to build a team with

unified determination (Hawkins, 2012).

Team Work. The old saying teamwork makes dream work is a common theme

throughout any group striving towards a common goal. Instilling the meaning of a true team can

mean coaches telling their players to play for the guy next to you (Barth, 2013). There are

multiple ways coaches encourage teamwork. One way is by creating exercise activities that

cannot be completed alone. This makes the group effort worthwhile to the individuals. A second

method is by providing incentives for individual players to work together. For example, forming

spotting pairs in the weight room (Knop, Tananehill, & OSullivan, 2001).
HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 17

Communication. Coaches need to set standards for their team that are high, but still

achievable. To adequately and thoroughly convey what these expectations are, communication

between player and coach is key (Knop, Tananehill, & OSullivan, 2001). Whenever there is a

new expectation that arises, it is pivotal that coaches leave nothing to assumption and convey the

changes clearly and strongly (Barth, 2013). Communication is vital when coaches are giving

feedback, either from watching film or about the players actions off the field. Coaches with

strong communication skills refrain from publically criticizing or calling out players in front

of the team or press for poor play or judgment. The best coaches handle these conversations

privately with the player, and this practice builds faith and trust (Barth, 2013). The coach must

adequately express that he is not upset at the player, but only his actions. Then, good coaches

will tell the player (or team) what positive things they did, and how to focus on playing better the

next time (p. 139).

One of the best ways coaches instill good communication is through displaying it

themselves through being approachable by having an open door policy, being honest with the

players instead of beating around the bush, and directly telling players what they can do to

improve themselves on and off the field (Barth, 2013).

Sacrifice. There are 11 starters to a football team. High school football teams typically

have a second and even a third string for every position. This means not everyone is going to get

the field time they may hope for. Some may not play at all in a season, especially on the varsity

level. Coaches like Vince Lombardi taught their team the lesson of sacrifice. In cases like this, a

player may demonstrate this by putting the elevation of team over self (Hawkins, 2012). Or in

other words, supporting your teammates that may be better than you and can give your team a

greater chance of winning.

HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 18

Being a part of a Better Community

Community. Coaches have realized that for a team to learn together and work toward a

common goal, a sense of community must be created. Coaches of high school football players

will instill the importance of creating a community within and around the team from Day 1 by

teaching the team to be successful, a community must be driven by the need to develop shared

values, to pursue common goals, and to promote mutual respect and caring (Knop, Tananehill, &

OSullivan, 2001). Another way a sense of community is taught by the coach is by linking this

sense of community to experiences that the students find valuable, both in and out of school (p.

41). Coaches will also instill strong expectations for cooperationshow students what it means

to cooperate in specific situations[and finally, coaches] must celebrate cooperation when it

occurs (p. 41). While teaching the importance of community, coaches are simultaneously able to

instill the importance of having fun while playing and being equitable amongst teammates

(Collins, Gould, Laurer, & Chung, 2009).

Someone Cares. One lesson that a high school football coach demonstrates is that

someone does care for the player. This is for several reasons. The first is because it is a

fundamental step in the learning process for players. For players to learn, and continue to want to

learn, they must know that their coach(es) genuinely care enough about them to make them truly

want to learn. A way coaches demonstrate that they care for the player is by frequently giving

feedback which will show support or disapproval of certain behaviors, praise them for

improvement, and challenge them to strive for better when there is more they can invest. This

non-stop feedback proves to the players that the coaches are watching and care about making

them better on and off the field (Knop, Tananehill, & OSullivan, 2001). Another way of coaches

illustrating that they care is by being a players coach, which means standing by players and
HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 19

showing support even when they couldnt complete the play, and being in tune with the

emotional state of the players (Barth, 2013).

Moral Atmosphere. Another series of lessons, which are categorized under creating a

better community, is from the importance of creating a moral atmosphere. Creating a moral

atmosphere does not always revolve around religion, although it can if it is for a private

institution. Coaches are able to build a morally sound community because sport places moral

responsibility and power chiefly into the hands of coaches. Football coaches have a significant

impact on:

cultivating an environment wherein players understand how aggress appropriately on the

field (e.g., play within the rules and the ethos of the game), and that should engage in

these behaviors only on the field. That is, coaches expect their players to be violent and

aggressive on the field (e.g. tackling someone, driving, their opponent off the line of

scrimmage), yet they also expect their players to flip the switch and find ways to be

accountable and responsible young men off the field (Steinfeldt, Rutkowski, Vaughan, &

Steinfeldt, 2011).

To make sure players know how to flip the switch, coaches teach players to compartmentalize

behaviors into categories of what is acceptable on and off the field. This way, players will not

transfer aggressive behaviors for on the field into off-field situations, such as antisocial actions

like bullying or fighting (p. 229).

Turn away from Crime/Violence. A sport such as football becomes a constructive

neighborhood support program, both from community members and peers, against violence.

Coaches reach out to young people that are most vulnerable to being susceptible to either being

violent, or being a victim to violence. Time periods that students are most likely to be involved in
HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 20

crime and violence are after-school, during the evening, and on weekends. Conveniently for

coaches, these are the time periods that football takes much out of, from practices, lifts, games,

and film reviews (Leighninger & Niedergang, 1994).

Lessons coaches teach that relate to this subject include the dangers of being involved

with drugs and/or gangs (Leighninger & Niedergang, 1994). To further promote a drug-free

lifestyle, coaches have conducted mandatory drug tests for their athletes (p. 12). Since young

people often react most positively to their peers when a conflict needs resolving, coaches take

advantage of this nature by teaching peer mediation techniques to settle disputes (p. 21). One

way coaches have turned preach into practice is by punishing fighting within the sport at all

levels-between teammates, opposing teams, etc. This is to encourage good sportsmanship, a set

of various characteristics, which contrast the nature of violence (p. 12).

Personality Behavior

Mental Game. Coaches will often teach that football is part physical, part mental, with

variations of percentages depending on the individual. Part of the mental game that coaches have

taught, along with being able to have group dependence within the team, is tough-mindedness,

extroversion, and emotional stability (Garland & Barry, 1998). Other lessons in reference to

intangible skills include determination, self-discipline, self-restraint, preparedness, courage,

resolve, commitment to doing your best, [and] taking pride in ones work, habits, and behavior is

a core value that transcends all endeavors (Hawkins, 2012). Coaches do inform their players

that such lessons like the values of commitment, preparation, focus, and restraint (p. 8) carry

with them both on and off the field. Encouraging mental progression, such as discipline, directly

correlates with coaches goals to prompt personal growth.

HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 21

Leadership. According to Thomas J. Barth, coaches are living laboratories of

leadership (Barth, 2013). However, there is no cookie-cutter definition of leadership. That is

why coaches teach the variations depending on the circumstance. Coaches may first teach a

general job description of what a leader does, which is to ensure the demands of the

organization are achieved and meet its targets, and to ensure the group members needs are

satisfied (Weaver, 2016). Some of the more specific forms of leadership coaches teach include

authentic leadership, servant leadership, and adaptable/situational leadership (Whitney,

2015). Authentic leadership means working with others while still remaining to your truest self-

identity. This leadership is directed towards athletes that have a strong sense of who they are to

encourage others to find their own true identity (p. 225). Servant leadership, also referred to as

athlete-centric leadership, is based on putting the players needs first [by] building a support

structure around them to create the optimal conditions to succeed (p. 226). Adaptable/situation

leadership simplistically refers to being able to command a crowd while still going with the flow,

adjusting in ways that would best benefit the team.

A way coaches share leadership roles with the players is by creating accountability

structures that value and support leaders (Knop, Tananehill, & OSullivan, 2001) However,

emphasizing the importance of accountability and striving to hold up to expectations (especially

of behavior) to the entire team, regardless of position, can create a team of leaders off the field

(Collins, Gould, Laurer, & Chung, 2009). To encourage individual players to step up, it is crucial

that coaches demonstrate that they support the development of strong, capable leaders (Knop,

Tananehill, & OSullivan, 2001). One such way is by providing incentives that reward actions of

effective leadership. Because individuals may be hesitant to volunteer to lead, coaches may have

selected a group of individuals, and then let those coach-selected leaders to choose other
HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 22

teammates to be in their group to complete an exercise activity. To ease these coach-selected

leaders into a leadership role easier, the coaches may also provide scripted lessons or guidelines

(p. 42). This is the stepping stone to getting players to all take up leadership responsibility, so

that everyone on the team is a leader, not just the coaches or a handful of players (Barth, 2013).

However, being a leader in any setting, let alone the gridiron, is about more than telling

people what to do. There are multifarious traits which make a good leader, including being

caring, dependable, fair, loyal, being able to express emotion, having diplomacy, endurance,

enthusiasm, and a good sense of judgment (Teaff, 2006). With all of these traits, good leaders are

not only able to build strong relationships, but have a vision of what they want to do and how

they are going to do it. A leader will create clear goals and strive to reach them on a daily basis.

Additionally, a leader will be able to channel those traits to gain the trust of the team. One way to

earn trust is through exemplifying problem solving skills. Good leaders carefully analyze issues

by looking at the topic from all points of view, rationally discussing the matter in question, and

then create a solution that will be the most beneficial to the greatest amount of people by

articulating it in a way that will inspire support (p. 4).

Other leadership characteristics that coaches teach include the importance of being in

the right spot at the right time, to focus on doing your own job responsibilities, not trying to do

other peoples jobs[and] stressing the importance of making eye contact when you speak to

someone, no matter what the context (Barth, 2013).

Ability to Adapt. Coaches teach players is that problems will almost always arise in any

situation, however, these issues, expected or unforeseen, can be overcome (Teaff 2006). Another

lesson that stems from this is the ability to adapt to necessary and often unavoidable change. The
HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 23

ability to show others how to adapt to both positive and negative change is essential for any

leader (The Great Sources, 2015).

Be Yourself. A commonly used phrase that is used to encourage someone to be genuine

(and often seen featured in inspirational posters with a sometimes unrelated photo) is be

yourself-everyone else is already taken. Keeping it real and being your natural self are lessons

coaches to their high school athletes who may be struggling to figure out who they want to be

and how they want to be perceived by their peers. But, to be oneself, one most know oneself.

Coaches encourage their athletes to learn more about themselves by engaging in the process of

personal inquiry that leads to deep and lasting self-knowledgethrough deliberate reflective

practice (Whitney, 2015).

However, this is a lesson that coaches must practice as they preach. If coaches expect

their athletes to be real, they too have to be real, and to do so, know themselves. The coaches

must too invest time and energy in a mindfulness and/or structured reflective practice

(Whitney, 2015).

Discipline. Although it is important for players to feel comfortable around their coach, it

is also critical that the coaches instill discipline. Coaches find the happy medium between being

friendly, and being an leadership figure, structure and freedom. The coachs rules must apply to

everyone in every circumstance without exceptions.

Some players, especially at the high school level, may not be mature enough to handle

too much freedom or responsibility. This coaches see this, they lay down the law for those who

are either too immature to behave like professionals or simply forget who is in charge (Barth,

2013). At times like these, coaches will establish dominance with poised aggression and

demands to avoid the team getting into turmoil (p. 140).

HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 24

Furthermore, coaches teach players to discipline themselves in their craft. A good coach

will not settle for mediocre effort or work. They push players to do push past what they think

their limits are even when you think you cannot go any farther (Barth, 2013).

Have Faith. It is illegal for a high school football coach of a public high school to instill

religious-based concepts. However, those who coach at private, religious institutions are able to

show the team that it is okay to draw on religious faith to get through trials and tribulations

because there is a higher power to lean on and get them through. Faith also poses the message

that one cannot be successful on their own, and so the coaches players should be thankful for

their blessings and gifts (Barth, 2013).

Performance

Total Effort. The effort the player puts into demonstrating these individual talents is

proportional to the worth of the players values. The more effort the player puts in, the greater

theyre worth. Coaches encourage this by teaching the importance of total effort in your work

ethic. For example, an athlete should put as much effort into each play in the fourth quarter as he

or she did in the first. No one should be more willing to work harder than you. To encourage

their players to give their all, coaches explain that this total effort lesson can apply to most any

situation throughout the players life on and off the field, including the classroom, relationships,

and at work (Teaff, 2006). Coaches also emphasize that total effort is not a choice to choose once

in a while when you feel like it. Rather, consistency is of key importance for improving (Collins,

Gould, Laurer, & Chung, 2009).

Another way of defining total effort is doing the best you possibly can. One of the most

famous football coaches who centered his core values on doing ones best is Vince Lombardi.

His paradigm of doing ones best was in large part measured by a value system typified by
HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 25

discipline, focused effort, preparedness of mind and body, punctuality, and commitment. In short,

very intentional behavior (Hawkins, 2012).

Winning. While we have learned that coaches do not believe winning is everything, it is

something, especially when it comes to keeping a program afloat or a coach keeping their job.

One common goal of coaches across the board is to prompt athletic growth and development.

Growing as an athlete not only requires mental discipline like stated above. It also in large part

includes physical discipline. Without either, athletic advancement is nearly impossible. Often,

this athletic advancement will result in wins. Encouraging athletic growth correctly also results

in the coaches stressing the importance of safety, from teaching correct tackling techniques to

educating players about the symptoms and health complications of concussions (Collins, Gould,

Laurer, & Chung, 2009).

Positive Outcomes On and Off the Field that are attributed to these Characteristics

Sports have created a platform for youth and adolescents in middle school and high

school to learn morals, values, and necessary skills that need to be developed in order to succeed

in life. However, standing on a field with a helmet and shoulder pads while holding a football

will not teach an athlete lessons that will carry out throughout their life. It is the coaches that

create an enormous impact on the lives of their athletes, both on and off the field and in the

athletes progression in life (Weaver, 2016). Studies have shown that football players can

transfer lessons learned on the gridiron to relationships, to the classroom, and to other domains

of life outside of football (Steinfeldt & Steinfelft, 2010). The lessons a good coach teaches can

translate into life skills on and off the field, including in and out of the classroom and workplace

(The Great Courses, 2, 2015). Coaches have the ability to amplify the evolution of life and

personal skills of their team. Studies have shown that highly recognized and rewarded coaches
HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 26

did not just focus on motivating their players to win. Amongst unique qualities curtailed to their

individualized programs, they also had various commonalities such as an instilled a

philosophical foundation of focusing on the players overall development, including academic,

physical, psychological and social, as a priority (Collins, Gould, Laurer, & Chung, 2009).

Development

Affected Developmental Categories. Participation in high school sports positively

impact the outcomes of athletes both on and off the field (Weaver, 2016). Peoples lives can

positively metamorphose by good coaching. Most of this impact is caused by the coaches, which

influence multiple developmental outcomes in youth. Some of these include affect, motivation,

and self-perception (p. 27). More generally, coaches emphasize the developmental facets of the

academic, physical, psychological, and social categories.

Developmental Gains. Coaches have an influence on the participation of an individual in

a sport. Additionally, they are responsible for the developmental gains of players affected from

sports development. Coaches influence multiple youth development outcomes, including affect,

motivation, and self-perception (Weaver, 2016). Studies have shown that participation in sport

leads to positive developmental gains, which emphasizes qualities such as goal setting, time

management, emotional control, better liking of school, and higher grade point average

(Collins, Gould, Laurer, & Chung 2009) (p. 30). Participation in sports also has shown that

players have shown negative developmental gains, which are decreases in detrimental

behaviors such as participating in illegal activity such as underage drinking (Collins, Gould,

Laurer, & Chung, 2009).

The lessons that high school football coaches teach their players has the potential to

increase their intrapersonal skills, such as emotional intelligence, psychological well-bring, and
HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 27

self-esteem. Additionally, the players interpersonal skills can be maximized, including having an

increased affect range and relational competence (Steinfeldt & Steinfelft, 2010). Furthermore,

athletes will gain a better sense of who they are, which in turn, allows them to keep it real and

be their natural selves (Whitney, 2015).

Healthy development also applies to the physical sense when it comes to positive effects

of being taught by a good coach. Some of these health benefits include a decrease in the risk of

cardiovascular disease, colon cancer, diabetes, osteoporosis, and strokes down the line (Tosheva,

Georgiev, & Doncheva, 2016).

Mental Health

Decrease in Gender Role Conflict. Earlier, I discussed how challenges of mental health,

specifically involving gender-role conflict, might affect the athletes experience in football.

However, positive effects can stem from such challenges. When the coach has promoted mental

health, high school football players who have been socialized longer to the subculture of football

appear to be more comfortable expressing their affection (Steinfeldt & Steinfelft, 2010).

Granted the football player is male, the sport provides a platform to teach behaviors,

expectations, and standards of what it takes to be a man. Football does such by representing a

fertile field for examining masculinity and the unique socialization process operating within this

domain (p. 263-4). While the definition of what makes a person a man varies, this is to be

taken in the social context, which contrasts the behaviors, expectations, and standards between a

boy and a man. Differences of which on a (arguably) positive spectrum include mental

growth and maturity.

HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 28

Healthy Athletic Role Identification. An additional positive outcome of coaches

striving to beneficially shape the mental health of their athletes is encouraging a healthy

relationship with their athletic role. As stated by Steinfelft and Steinfeldt,

Identification with the athlete role can have positive functions, such as connecting

members of a subculture (e.g., athletic team) to each other and distinguishing them from

outsiders. Incorporating an athletic identity can also facilitate growth of interpersonal

skills, better physical and emotional health, and development of leadership skills (p. 263-

4).

Wellbeing. Football players who have been coached with the whole person approach

have been shown to steadily become more engaged and vocal during both practices and games,

[as well as] more enthusiastic about training and playing hard (Scholes, 2016). This approach

has also been linked to increases in athlete performances and wellbeing, as well as improvement

of physical and psychic health (Tosheva, Georgiev, & Doncheva, 2016).

Studies have shown that youth who participate in sports that require frequent, vigorous

practice such as football (versus participating in little to no physical activity or sports) are less

likely to engage in priority health risk behaviors that contribute to unintentional injuries and

violence, tobacco use, alcohol and other drug use, sexual behaviors, unhealthy dietary behaviors,

and physical activity (Taliaferro, Rienzo, Miller, Pigg, & Dodd, 2008). Frequent, vigorous

activity like football has also been shown to reduce the risk of experiencing feelings of

hopelessness leading to suicidal thoughts or actions. This is because sport confers unique

psychosocial benefits through the social support and integration that coaches give to the

individuals that makes up a team (p. 545). Whats more, being involved in intense physical

activity or sports promotes positive emotional well-being, including improvements in depressed

HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 29

mood, anxiety and stress, and self esteem (p. 546). Five traits which could fall under the

category of wellbeing that players have been found to have include intelligence, self-

confidence, determination, integrity, and sociability (Barth, 2013).

Personality

Adaptability. An additional outcome from the whole person approach is that the

athletes foster optimistic and resilient mindsets that give them a sense of preparedness to the

unavoidable ups and downs that occur in sport (and in life) (Scholes, 2016).

Maturity. The theme of men and masculinity has often been applied to sport settings

because the unique context of sport provides an abundance of opportunities to teach young men

what it means to be a man (Steinfeldt & Steinfelft, 2010). In short, football coaches teach their

players what it means to be a man (p. 271).

Influence. The influence that a coach has on a player does not remain retained in the

individual. It goes on and on. Those that the coaches have influenced go on to influence others,

and in some cases, those others have gone on to become coachesand so the stream of

influence flows on (Teaff, 2006). When a coach is an influential leader, they inspire to future

influential leaders.

Pride. Football players that have been taught the value of having pride have been shown

to demonstrate restraint when it comes to a given circumstance by not over-reacting to the

situation. Also, it has been illustrated that taking pride in ones work and daily activities has

decrease destructive behaviors in settings such as the workplace (Hawkins, 2012). Along with

pride comes integrity. Outcomes of being taught integrity by their coaches result in players

displaying positive outcomes such as loyalty, doing things the right way, selflessness, standing

by your principles, and honesty (Barth, 2013).

HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 30

Community and Neighborhood

Sense of Belonging. Having a sense of community within and around the high school

football team has made the players feel valued, supported by their teachers and classmates,

connected to one another, and committed to each others learning, growth, and welfare (Knop,

Tananehill, & OSullivan, 2001). This sense of community branches out not only from player to

coach, but to educators, parents, and other members in the community that may not have been a

part of the athletes world otherwise (p. 43). A coach demonstrating care and concern for

individual team members establishes a feeling of closeness between the coach/athlete personal

relationship, coach/team relationship, and athlete/team relationship (Westre & Weiss, 1992).

Inclusiveness. Football players have been shown to demonstrate favorable social

outcomes as well (Landis, Peppard, Remington, 2007). As a result of positive coaching

approaches and demonstrating inclusiveness, less pressure is forced onto the best-performing

athletes while simultaneously giving a voice to the lesser-skilled players on the teams,

furthermore, making the athletes more engaged, involved, and vocal during both practices and

games. Overall, this boosts athlete performance and wellbeing (Scholes, 2016). Studies have

shown that athletes that have had a positive relationship with their coach(es) have had positive

experiences on the field (Weaver, 2016). Westre and Weiss research also found positive

outcomes of inclusiveness. They state that when coaches include athletes in decisions about the

teams task goals, the coach can create a greater feeling of agreement and commitment on those

task goals (Westre & Weiss, 1992). Additionally, they have discovered that coaches which

demonstrate inclusiveness (by giving equal amounts of instruction, feedback, and social

support) to all team members, regardless of position or string, have made even the non-starters

feel a sense of belonging (p. 52).

HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 31

Decrease in Violence. In a time of political and social pressure, adolescents making

healthy decisions (such as participating in football) are crucial in the efforts to lower deviant

behavior and youth crime (Knop, Tananehill, & OSullivan, 2001). Sports has been shown to

have a positive impact on combating the struggle of antisocial behavior and crime in adolescents

(Tosheva, Georgiev, & Doncheva, 2016). Students being encouraged (especially by coaches) to

play a sport like football are shown to prevent crime and violence in their homes, schools, and

neighborhoods (Leighninger & Niedergang, 1994). One of the contributing reasons is because

the athletes have an increased ability to negotiate conflict situations at home or among friends

(Knop, Tananehill, & OSullivan, 2001)

Sportsmanship. A reason coaches promote good sportsmanship amongst athletes

(especially in particularly violent neighborhoods) is because athletes on the high school level are

looked up to by the younger generation, and when sportsmanship is exuded, these athletes can be

positive adult role models to their peers. According to Leighninger and Niedergang, some of

the most positive and compelling role models for young people are older students (p. 21). This

is a positive outcome both on and off the field. Being coached football can serve as a medium

through which students learn to set goals and develop the discipline to achieve them. (Knop,

Tananehill, & OSullivan, 2001)

Moral Atmosphere. Not only does being in a moral atmosphere created by coaches have

a significant, positive correlation to the athletes on-field moral functioning across the levels of

judgment, intention, and behavior, it is also linked to influencing greater levels of social

influence or approval, goal orientation, motivational climate, team leadership, and cohesion

(Steinfeldt, Rutkowski, Vaughan, & Steinfeldt, 2011). Furthermore, being involved in a sport

where coaches are actively involved in the individual athletes socialization with an emphasis on
HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 32

developing and upholding moral values has been shown to increase cooperation, fair play,

solidarity, and support (p. 215).

Success

College and Scholarship. Participating in vigorous sports like football has been seen to

encourage the athletes, even after graduation from high school, towards lifelong learning and

education, which contributes to stimulation of economic development (Tosheva, Georgiev, &

Doncheva, 2016). Studies have shown that high school athletes have an advantage in college

enrollment, which is due to characteristics that precede participation. This gives a positive

correlation between high school football and college enrollment (Shifrer, Pearson, Muller, &

Wilkinson, 2015). Studies suggest participation in high school sports can influence an

individuals future economic outcomes, since this participation experience can define a person as

an early success in life (Weaver, 2016). One of the largest barriers for new high school

graduates is the cost of furthering their education. Studies have also shown that participation in

high school football is a factor that affects college attendance and scholarship. The data from one

such study found that more young men that played football in high school went to college and

received scholarships than young men that did not play football in high school (Henning &

Carter, 1945).

Workplace. The lessons that coaches instill into athletes carry on throughout their work

life. In fact, some managers take notes from successful sports teams about how to lead a team

in the workplace. Lessons on the field that carry on off include Integrate cooperation and

competition, orchestrate some early wins, break out of losing streaks, keep team membership

stable, call half time, [and] study the game video (Katz, 2001).
HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 33

Total Effort. The total effort concept applies to all aspects of life, on and off the field.

Coaches that have instilled these lessons in their players have seen the athletes apply this concept

to their work in the classroom and their career and to their relationships in the office, at home, or

with their peers (Teaff, 2006).

Participation in sports such has football has a positive association with academic success

(Landis, Peppard, Remington, 2007). In virtually all high schools, a certain Grade Point Average,

or GPA, is required in order to participate in sports. Coaches who have taught their players to

apply the total effort concept to the classroom, and to put the student part of the term student-

athlete first have seen increases in GPA from individual players and as a collective team.

Another aspect of life that the lessons of total effort influence is of physical health. Just

about everyone who has seen a football game knows that the sport is physically demanding.

Those that are more dedicated to the gridiron world know that it is a year-round sport, especially

for the players on the high school level and above. This is because of the intense workouts,

weight-training that enable them to meet the physical needs of their position. While nevertheless,

the rigorous physical preparation that the football players do to perform their best come game

time often leaves them in superior shape, the health benefits of football are simpler. Studies have

shown that giving your all to football in the physical sense leads to decreases in blood pressure

among those with borderline hypertension and obesity (Landis, Peppard, Remington, 2007).

Evidence has shown that those who were involved in active participation in sports (including

workouts and weight training) that incorporated rewarding activity (such as winning a game or

meeting your goals for speed or weights lifted) during adolescence were more likely to maintain

those activity patterns throughout their adult life (p. 312). Furthermore, this leads to a smaller

chance of having an obesity-related disease in the future (p. 317).

HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 34

Winning. Analyzed data from sport psychology literature and work with the primary

focus being the effect of strong versus weak group cohesion and overall team effectiveness has

shown that team unity has a positive correlation with success on the scoreboard.

Team Unity. The research using the team unity construct instilled into the teams by the

coaches indicated that players on winning teams (as determined by season win-loss record)

emphasized team unity significantly more than players on teams with losing records (Murrell &

Gaertner, 1992). Westre and Weiss research on the correlation between success and cohesion

posed similar conclusions, stating, cohesion has been linked to increases in performance[and]

cohesive teams are less likely to lose members (Westre & Weiss, 1992). Other positive

outcomes from team cohesion that coaches have perceived by their athletes include mimicking

the democratic style, engaging in higher levels of training and instruction, as well as giving and

responding well to positive feedback and social support (p. 50).

Conclusion

Throughout answering the three research questions in this document analysis, we have

learned that the driving forces in the gridiron are the coaches. This is because coaches place a

tremendous impact on their team, considering that the relationship between the coach and the

player is of upmost importance in sports. But before one can be a (head) coach at a high school, a

bachelors degree and employment at the institution is often required, let alone years of

experience being involved in the sport either as a player on the field or a(n assistant) coach or

manager on the sidelines.

Before diving into discussing the multitude of lessons that high school football coaches

instill in their team, we learned from the first research question that most of these lessons beyond

the playbook taught are affected by an abundance of diverse situations. These struggles that high
HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 35

school football coaches face affect what characteristics they emphasize in their teams. These

situations stem from the micro and macro levels, including, but most certainly not limited to,

funding issues like pay to play; community and neighborhood issues such as crime and violence,

racism, division, and child abandonment or maltreatment; physical and mental health issues,

which are related to obesity, negative social stigmas, gender role conflict, having an unhealthy

relationship with the athletic role, and suicidal actions.

Next, we explored the second research question, which was, what lessons football

coaches, especially those at high schools, teach their players that are not in the playbook (in other

words, what characteristics football coaches instill in their teams that attribute to positive

outcomes on and off the field). Before listing what these lessons are, we learned how the coaches

instill these lessons. It is vital to not leave this out, considering each coach has a unique

leadership approach, coaching technique, and personality traits. The first styles we talked about

were the difference between demonstrating autocratic and democratic behaviors in relation to

possessing leadership characteristics. According to VanDerveer, the qualities that make up a

successful coach (which creates a successful, motivated team) include dedication, enthusiasm,

honesty, positive reinforcement, team work and work ethic (VanDerveer, 1997). The other styles

we explored that coaches use include the whole person approach and the tailor-made approach.

The lessons coaches teach that are within the category of coming together include team

unity and cohesion, trust and respect, inclusiveness, group dependence, teamwork,

communication, and sacrifice. Lessons that teach how to be a part of a better community are

uphold the sense of community, someone cares for you, create and maintain a moral atmosphere,

and turn away from crime and violence. The next category of lessons was of personality

behavior. These subcategories are work on your mental game, learn and demonstrate leadership,
HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 36

form the ability to adapt, be yourself, have discipline, and (if the coach is a part of a religious

institution) have faith. The last category of lessons that coaches teach beyond the playbook that

we discovered were those that had to do with performance, such as giving total effort on and off

the field, and of course, strive to win.

The final research question we answered was what are positive outcomes on and off the

field that are attributed to these characteristics? We learned that the lessons coaches teach the

players on a team and individual level can have a positive effect on their development, including

multiple developmental categories such as that of academic, physical, psychological, and social

(Weaver, 2016). Coaches also have an influence on promoting and increasing positive

developmental gains in their athletes, while simultaneously decreasing negative developmental

gains. The next category had to do with that of mental health. The positive effects we see in this

category are a decrease in gender role conflict, healthy athletic role identification, and overall

wellbeing.

Coaches lessons also have the ability to positively shape the personality of the player,

such as having adaptability, maturity, influence, and pride. Then, we learned of the positive

outcomes on and off the field that related to community and neighborhood. Football players have

a sense of belonging and inclusiveness, show a decrease in violence and violent behaviors,

demonstrate sportsmanship throughout the field and out, and maintain a moral atmosphere.

The final category of positive outcomes on and off the field is of success. The lessons that

coaches teach cause more football players to attend college, and receive scholarships to do so,

often contining the athletes football career and exposing them to a new series of coaches. These

lessons also carryout beyond schooling and football to the athletes work life. Players that are

taught total effort then give total effort in their schooling, relationships, work, and every aspect
HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 37

of their life. Other such effects include team unity, and of course, winning.
HIGH SCHOOL FOOTBALL COACHES: BEYOND THE PLAYBOOK 38

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