An A to Z

of participation
his A-Z covers both topics about See also Cliques, Equal opportunities, Listening,

T participation, and some of the

techniques which can be used along
the way. Because the field is wide,
the entries vary, for example:
Some entries are self-contained, others are
Special Events, Starting where people are at.

Accountability
The lowest level of Government is the individual.

signposts to more detailed sections or further As people become involved and take a lead
reading. during participation processes, there may be
Some techniques relate to the general questions about who they represent and to
question of how to approach participation, whom they are accountable. Being accountable
others deal with situation further down the in an organisation means being answerable to
process when a group or groups are acting those who give authority or responsibility
together. more senior staff, a management committee,
members or perhaps funders.
Generally the items are written for someone
who is starting or managing a participation When there is no formal organisational
process, although some should be helpful for structure, accountability issues may be
anyone seeking to develop groups or handled by clarifying roles and setting up
organisations. temporary structures when you need to make
decisions and take action. This a key issue for
the practitioner managing a participation
Access process.
If you aim to ensure all sections of the See also CATWOE, Leadership, Role of the
community can be involved in meetings check
these possible barriers to participation: Accountability checklist
Timing. Is this convenient? In order to clarify your accountability
Place. Do people feel comfortable about the consider:
venue? Who can stop you doing something or
whose permission do you have to ask.
Child care responsibilities. Should a crche When and why?
be arranged? How would you describe the part you are
Age. Should you go to meet children, young playing?
people, older people at schools, clubs etc Who will be affected by your actions, and
rather than expect them to come to your what is their attitude likely to be?
meetings? What authority do you feel other people
should have in order to make decisions and
Formality and literacy. Will people be put
take action?
off by the style of meetings and expectation of
high levels of literacy and confidence?
Cultural/racial issues. Should literature be practitioner, Stakeholders.
translated? What cultural factors might be
relevant to the timing and place of meetings, Acting together
and provision of refreshments?
The level of participation of Acting Together
Disability. Is the building accessible to may involve short-term collaboration or
people with disabilities? Should a signer be forming more permanent partnerships with
provided at meetings? other interests. It is appropriate:
Poverty. Should expenses be paid in some When one party cannot achieve what they
instances? Can you reassure people they wont want on their own.
asked to put their hands in their pockets?
The various interests involved all get some
Access is more than making it easy to meet or extra benefit from Acting Together.
understand materials. For example do There is commitment to the time and effort
community leaders reflect the interests of needed to develop a partnership.
those they may claim to represent?

27
Action planning Administrative systems
After meetings draw up an action plan showing: I must create a system, or be enslaved by another
The action or task (what are we trying to do) mans.
William Blake
What has to be done first and by when.
What has to be done second, third etc. Blake probably had something grander in
Who is responsible. mind than filling a filing cabinet, but the
What resources of information, money, equipment, etc may be needed. principle applies. If you are working with any
How will you know you have achieved it the criteria for success.
organisational structure, whether temporary of
permanent, during the participation process
Action By when? Who? Resources Success criteria you will need an administrative system which
1st task By when? By whom? Money, tools? OK because
will involve some or all of the following:
A card index box or database for contacts.
2nd task By when? By whom? Money, tools? OK because
A diary.
3nd task By when? By whom? Money, tools? OK because
Correspondence between members of the
group, officials, funders, consultants etc.
Choose a different level if: Minutes of meetings and action lists.
One party holds all the power and resources Plans and proposals.
and uses this to impose its own solutions
(consider Information or Consultation). Reference material.
The commitment to partnership is only skin A filing system.
deep (consider Information or Consultation). Without some sort of system you cant find the
People want to have a say in making information you need, maintain agreement on
decisions, but not a long term stake in carrying what has been agreed, work effectively with
out solutions (consider Deciding Together). other interests.
See also Information systems
See the section on Where do you stand? for more
detail.
Advertising
Action plans Advertising is what you do when you cant go to
see somebody.
Ideas wont keep, something must be done about
Fairfax Cone
them.
Alfred North Whitehead. The advantage of advertising when seeking to
Action plans provide the answer to the inform or involve people is that you completely
question what do we do next? They are to do control what and when your message appears.
lists covering the what, who and when of next In addition a community newspaper will be
steps, and should be the result of workshops or grateful for revenue from advertising, and it
other meetings where you make decisions opens up more local contacts.
during a participation process. The task of producing an effective
advertisement will certainly help clarify what
Activists you are trying to achieve.
It is a general error to imagine the loudest On the other hand advertisements, on their
complainers for the public to be the most anxious own, can appear over-formal and inflexible and
for its welfare.
are best used with other communication
Edmund Burke.
methods.
Activists are people who are actively involved See also Communication, Media, Networking.
in projects in their community, perhaps as
volunteer workers or members of committees.
Without their commitment little would be Agenda
achieved. However, participation processes
Iit might be termed the Law of Triviality. Briefly
limited only to activists are unlikely to be stated, it means that the time spent on any item
representative or empowering: it is those who of the agenda will be in inverse proportion to the
are not activists who need greatest support to sum involved.
become involved and achieve what they want. C. Northcote Parkinson.

See also Access, Cliques, Community leaders, The agenda tells everyone what is to be
Empowerment. discussed at a meeting. It may also be used to
describe the course of action someone is
planning, but not disclosing the hidden
agenda. If you suspect that is the case, the key
question is What are we trying to achieve?.

28
 making new friends, getting out of the house,
Agenda formation developing new skills and it is important to
In order to decide as a group what to cover acknowledge these, too.
in a meeting and, hopefully, disprove
Parkinsons Law: See also Mission, Purpose, Vision.
1 Prepare large pieces of paper labelled
Content, Format, Practical details. Allies
2 Ask everyone to write items on Post-it
notes and stick them to the appropriate It is well worth investing time with people
sheet. Use prompts like: who:
What wouldnt you like missed from the Can provide personal support and act as a
meeting? sounding board.
How will we run the discussion and make
decisions? Have experience of participation you can
What items require most discussion? draw on.
Will we need refreshments, a crche? Can offer specialist knowledge and advice.
3 Discuss the items and develop a Know the area well.
consensus. Draw up the agenda, and keep
You may find allies among, for example, local
the charts to check back after the meeting
that peoples expectations where met. groups, voluntary organisations, local
councillors, colleges or universities running
relevant courses.
See also Aims and objectives, Outcomes.
See also Community, Research, Stakeholders.

Aims and objectives Analogy

Would you tell me please, which way I ought to Being able to say its like so and so is a useful
go from here?
That depends a good deal on where you want to way of helping people understand what you
get to, said the cat. are getting at, because you are then sharing the
I dont much care where , said Alice. same mental map. (Mental map is itself an
Then it doesnt matter which way you go, said
the cat. analogy). Many of the quotations in this guide
Alice in Wonderland, Lewis Carroll. work through analogy or metaphor. Analogies
may also be helpful in understanding a
Aims are a written description of what a group participation process, for example:
or organisation is trying to achieve, and the
Sport. Is it a level playing field for all
objectives are the methods by which they may
involved? What are the rules? Who are the
do that. Aims and objectives are equally
players and who are the spectators?
important in participation process: without
them you dont know where you will end up. In A journey. Where are we now? Where are
dealing with group aims and objectives, dont we trying to get to? What are the barriers?
forget that people have personal aims Cooking. What are the recipes for success?
Are you running a restaurant or helping
Clarifying aims and people cook for themselves?
objectives See also Process as a journey.
In order to clarify aims and objectives within
a group:
1 Ask each group member to write a short
Apathy
statement completing the sentence this What makes life dreary is want of motive.
organisation exists to ..., read them out and George Eliot.
record them on a chart.
2 Discuss differences and agree a joint Apathy is the state of those people who dont
statement. want to get involved in what you are offering.
3 Break the agreed aim is into components Are they apathetic or perhaps just not
and develop ideas for achieving each of interested in the same issues you are? People
these. Find common themes these are the have a right to decide their own interests and
objectives or goals.
purpose, and their own level of participation.
4 List what could be done to achieve each Theres a fine line between creating awareness
objective the working methods.
and telling people what they should have or do.
5 Prioritise these and turn them into an
action plan stating exactly what will be done
What appears to be apathy may also be
by when. anxiety about becoming involved in something
Summarised from Getting Organised. The
new and uncertain.
book Planning Together provides detailed See also Access, Awareness, Barriers to
advice on clarifying aims and planning participation, Commitment, Empowerment, Level
group activity. of participation, Ownership, Purpose.

29
 Approach contact may be more effective, particularly
used with workshops techniques. Newcastle
There is much truth in the suggestion, which I Architecture Workshop has produced a
have often heard, that effective participation is techniques pack Awareness Through to Action.
more about approach than technique. If you
put yourself in other peoples shoes, start See also Parish Maps, Starting where people are
where they are at, are open and honest, and at, and Village Appraisals.
avoid jargon, you should go a long way to gain
peoples involvement. On the other hand all the Barriers to participation
techniques in the world will not overcome
When 10 people turn up to a public meeting
distrust and antipathy caused by a we know
which has been advertised for weeks the
best approach.
organisers blame apathy. However, people may
See also Attitudes. be reluctant to get involved for all sorts of
reasons:
Assessment Cynicism
One of the first things to do in the early stages Anxiety about the sort of meeting it will be
of a participation process is take stock of Feeling they wouldnt be effective in any
yourself and the situation. A good way to do programme anyway
this is to run a SWOT analysis and to do a Not wanting to fuss
Stakeholder analysis. More formally you may
wish to undertake Community profiling, or Experience of failure
Surveys. Low self-esteem
See also Parish Maps and Village Appraisals. The book Limbering up offers a more detailed
study of barriers. A good way to start planning
a participation process is to throw up all the
Attitudes possible barriers you can think of, then work
out how to overcome them.
Belief is harder to shake than knowledge.
Adolph Hitler. See also Access, Equal opportunities.
Some of the main barriers to participation lie in
the attitudes people bring to the process. Benefits of participation
Residents may lack confidence or feel action is The benefits and problems of participation
not their responsibility. Officials may see will be seen differently by the various interests
getting the job done quickly as a top priority, involved. However, the general benefits often
even if it doesnt meet the needs of all claimed include:
concerned. Councillors may feel their power is
eroded by sharing decision making with local People who feel they have a say are more
people. Some of these attitudes are deeply likely to be positive about proposals.
rooted in peoples self esteem or concerns about Fresh ideas may emerge.
status, and will only change through a long You may get help in kind or other resources.
process of personal development. People are far more likely to be part of a
Techniques which draw out the underlying long-term solution if they have some
concerns and priorities of the different interests ownership of the early ideas.
may help. Involvement on one project or programme
See also Change, Commitment , Ownership and
builds understand, trust and confidence which
Stakeholders. may be important on other occasions.
Besides these benefits of a better product or
outcome are the process issues of helping
Awareness develop peoples confidence and skills. Benefits
For people to become involved in any process are most likely for all concerned when:
or project they need to be aware it is The main interests agree on the appropriate
happening, see some benefit or relevance to level of participation.
themselves, and feel confident about their role.
There is a common language to discuss
The three are closely linked attempts to raise
issues and develop ideas.
peoples awareness will be more successful if
they start by considering the interests of the Appropriate methods are used to get as
audience, and what will be a comfortable way much agreement as possible on desired
for people to respond. Start where people are outcomes.
value their knowledge and experience. See also Capacity building, Empowerment.
Advertising, leaflets, videos and exhibitions all
have a part to play. Networking and personal

30
Bottom up and top down Brainstorming
A term frequently used to distinguish change After you have defined the problem or question follow these steps. A
or activity among community interests (bottom group of more than five and less than 20 is best:
up) from that in government (top down). Throw up every idea you can. Dont discuss the ideas and dont
Effective participation is likely to require both. reject any even if they are far-fetched.
As the ideas come up record them on a list everyone can see. One
idea may spark off another.
Brainstorming
When the ideas have dried up, cross off those everyone agrees are
Brainstorming is one of the most widely used ludicrous.
and misused aids to creative thinking. It was Look for common themes and possible solutions.
devised during the 1930s by Alex Gordon,
working in an advertising agency in New
York, and is defined as a means of getting a
large number of ideas from a group of people
in a short time. It should not be used as a label Campaigns
for any loosely-structured session where a Although campaigns may bring to mind
group rambles around a problem in the hope of banner-waving protesters, the term is also used
striking a solution. The guidelines for to describe any programme or series of actions
brainstorming are: instituted by one group of people with the aim
Suspend judgement dont censor ideas. of achieving a change in resources, or in the
form of an organisation, or in a decision-
Free-wheel to drift around the problem.
making process, over which another group or
Aim for quantity of ideas regardless of groups of people have considerable control
quality. when this is a bottom-up process (Christine
Cross-fertilise between ideas. Flecknoe).
See also Nominal Group Technique which offers A campaign by local people to create, for
an alternative to brainstorming. example, a playground, could involve
information-gathering, surveys, public
Budgeting for meetings, exhibitions, festivals, lobbying,
meetings with officials and many other
participation activities.
Effective participation takes time and money.
The resources you need will depend on the Campaigns are dynamic they respond to
level of participation. You may need funds or events. As such they cannot be steered top-
help in kind for: down. If you are initiating a participating
process you may have to deal with campaigns
Surveys. which target your own organisation. If that
Communication materials anything from feels uncomfortable, consider:
leaflets to a video or exhibition. Is your stance appropriate? People may feel
Meetings and workshops, perhaps including they should have more influence.
the cost of a facilitator. Are you clear about your role? Are you
The costs of an on-the-ground presence, wearing too many hats: go-between, facilitator
perhaps a temporary office or shop front. at meetings, someone who controls resources?
Training. Have you spent enough time working
Start up costs if you are setting up a new through issues within your organisation?
organisation. See also Role of the practitioner, Stance.

Business planning Capacity-building

Any organisation created during a
I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and
participation process which aims to keep going I understand.
in the long term needs a business or Chinese proverb.
development plan. For a voluntary or non-
profit organisation the plan will balance the Capacity-building is training and other
costs and income of three parts of its operation: methods to help people develop the confidence
the projects, products or services provided by and skills necessary for them to achieve their
the organisation; the core staff, premises and purpose. The capacity people need depends
equipment; and any fund raising. both on their abilities and on the situation they
face. You may feel capable of tackling one
The business plan should cover at least three thing, yet feel completely differently about
years and show how fund raising and any another task. For example, parents of young
income earned covers the core costs. children campaigning for a play group might

31
 feel ill-equipped to write a technical report to a
council committee. But how many chief
Using CATWOE
executives could run a childrens tea party? 1 Use CATWOE to help identify the
The most effective capacity building is likely different elements:
to be through learning by doing rather than Customers who are the
victims/beneficiaries of the activities?
formal training courses.
Actors who does the activities?
Transformations what things change as
Capacity building a result of the activities and what do they
In order to explore where a group lacks change into?
confidence and skills ask members to: World View what views of the purpose
1 Write down what they would like to do but of the activities are possible?
dont feel up to Owners who can stop the activities?
2 Explain why they want to do it, and why Environment what constraints (rules,
they dont feel up to it roles, outside bodies, etc.) exist which might
3 Write down the opposite of the reasons restrict the activities?
4 Consider what would help them start 2 Brainstorm lists on charts under each of
feeling any of these things the headings.
5 Think of some practical actions they might 3 Use the lists under Customers, Actors,
take Owners and elements of the Environment
Summarised from Limbering Up as a start for stakeholder analysis.
4 Use Transformations to prompt further
thinking about information and resource
See also Confidence, Skills audit.
needs, monitoring and evaluation.
5 Use World View to identify groups of
Case studies stakeholders, and to start discussion of
Building an image.
A case study is a structured description of a
6 Use Owners and Environment as a start
project or organisation. If you are creating an to thinking about barriers.
organisation, reading case studies may give
you ideas for your own, although similarities
may be difficult to see unless the case study is participation and partnership. It is more of a
unpacked around key issues. One way to balance of changing the world and changing
clarify what you are trying to achieve is to try yourself than Shaw professes. For example:
and write a case study of your own project as Changing ones attitudes in order to see the
it might appear in a few years time. The other persons point of view.
checklist give you a possible structure for this. Developing new skills.
Developing trust.
Case study checklist
Increasing confidence.
Name, address, staff.
The physical and organisation change of
Area of operation and date of formation.
developing a project.
Aims and objectives.
Many of the techniques featured in this guide
Legal status, management structure,
membership. are tools for change.
Source of funds
Products, services, methods, activities. Change in organisations
Outcome measures and summary of Many problems in participation processes arise
major achievements.
because front-line staff are not backed up by
Relationships with other organisations. colleagues in their organisation. However, any
strategy for change will need the commitment
of top-level management, co-ordination, and
communication both inside and outside the
CATWOE authority.
CATWOE is a mnemonic from Operational Change is likely to produce resistance, and it is
Research which helps clarify a situation or easy to blame the community for problems
review a process: see the box for its use. which lie elsewhere.
See the sections It takes time , Guidelines on
Change how to...See also Force field analysis.

The reasonable man adapts himself to the world;

the unreasonable one persists in trying to adapt Charitable company
the world to himself. Therefore all progress
depends upon the unreasonable man. This is an organisational structure which
George Bernard Shaw. combines the advantages of a company (clear
structure, limited liability) with charitable
Change is at the heart of all processes of

32
status (tax and fund-raising benefits). Dont lose the work at the end of the session
The appropriate legal form is a company Taking photographs of the charts is an easy
limited by guarantee, where the members of way of keeping a record.
the Board are not paid, and the objects are
charitable. There are disadvantages of
charitable status see below. Cliques
See also Charitable status, Companies. Twenty per cent of the people in volunteer groups
do ninety per cent of the work.
The Diamond of Psi Upsilon
Charitable status
A clique is a small number of people seen by
If an organisation is being created as part of others to be acting together to exclude them
the participation process, the issue of whether from discussion or decisions. The members of
to seek charitable status may arise. A charity the clique may see themselves as over-worked
is not a particular form of organisation, and the only ones who care about the group or
different from a company or community group. organisation. Whoever is right (and it may be
Both may be charities, if they are accepted and both), cliques can be a significant barriers to
registered as such by the Charity wider involvement.
Commissioners. (In Scotland and Northern
Ireland registration is directly with the Inland The clique would benefit from delegation and
Revenue.) recruitment of other people to help. It may be
possible to raise these issues at the start of a
To be registered as a charity an organisation new project or participation process, run some
must restrict its activities exclusively to one or workshops, and develop a new working group
more of the following objects: or steering group.
The relief of poverty. See items on the above issues for further
The advancement of religion. discussion.
The advancement of education.
Other purposes beneficial to the community. Commitment
The benefits of charitable status include Commitment is the opposite of apathy, and is
exemption from corporation tax, capital gains, most likely when people can see some point in
capital transfer tax, and at least 50% of the being involved. A cynical view is that people
business rate or council tax. The VAT become interested when you can answer the
concessions are limited. question: Whats in it for me? However, people
Charitable status adds credibility to an do become involved for a wide range of
organisation and enables it to apply to large reasons which go beyond personal gain for
charities for funding. In general charities can example sociability, and feeling they are doing
only make gifts to other charities. The greatest something worthwhile.
disadvantage of charitable status is that it The only way you can discover peoples
restricts the political and campaigning activity interests is by talking to them which means
of an organisation. networking and running workshops. Surveys
On another front, if any income generating may give you some starting points, but you
activity is not directly in support of the wont gain peoples commitment by quoting
organisations charitable objects it may be statistics at them. Before seeking commitment
necessary to create an associated trading from community interests it is important to
company. The National Council for Voluntary ensure you have the internal commitment of
Organisations provides advice on charitable colleagues within your own organisation. This
status. is dealt with at more length in the section It
takes time.
Charts See also Apathy, Attitudes, Networking,
Ownership, Values.
These may be flip charts pads of large paper
used with an easel or simply lining paper Increasing commitment
tacked to the wall. Either way they are
essential for creative thinking in groups. List the key interests when you feel you understand their main concerns. Put a * where you
think they are and a + where you want them to be, in relation to your interests. The object of
Committees need agendas and minutes the exercise is to try to move them to the right. For example, on a project you might find:
workshops need charts. In using charts:
Who Against Neutral Support Actively Supports
Use blutack or some other method to stick Neighbours * +
charts up as you write them, so people can see Councillors * +
early work. Officers * +
Offer the pen to others in the group. In order to make the moves, think through why they are taking their current position, what
benefits there would be for them to change, and how you might bring this home to them.

33
 Committees The obvious barriers to communication are:
Lack of clarity about what you want to get
What is a committee? A group of the unwilling,
picked from the unfit, to do the unnecessary.
across.
Richard Harkness. Jargon.
Committees are meetings with an order of Hostility to you or your organisation.
business (the agenda) some agreed procedures Lack of credibility in the message or the
and officers (chair, secretary) and records person giving it.
(minutes). They range from management
committees, acting as a governing body, to
sub-committees that may meet as and when Communication checklist
necessary. In planning your communication, have you:
Committees are necessary to make formal Clarified what you want to get across?
decisions, but they are not appropriate for Identified your audience, and their likely
more creative activities like brainstorming, interests?
which are best done in focus groups and Considered what response you want ?
workshops. Reviewed what materials, events or
media would be most appropriate?
The committee may simply take time out to Planned how to deal with responses?
break into small groups. It may be appropriate
to follow a substantial creative session with a See also Special events, Media, Presentations,
more formal committee meeting to endorse the Print, Vision.
action plan.
Community
Committee checklist
Do not do unto others as you would that they
In order to improve your committee should do unto you. Their tastes may not be the
meetings, get members to agree to: same.
Read papers beforehand and bring them George Bernard Shaw
to the meeting.
Check what they dont understand and Community is a term so widely applied that it
find out any background. is in danger of losing any meaning, like
Turn up at the right time. members of the public. Arent we all? At
Stick to the agenda. worst it may be used by officials to mean
Listen to other people and consider their anyone who is not us an undifferentiated
views. mass of activists, organisations and
Think before speaking. uninvolved residents. Marilyn Taylor, in
Seek decisions on which all can agree. Signposts to Community Development,
Record what needs to be done. suggests it is more useful to think of a large
Read the action minutes and take any number of over-lapping communities
action necessary. distinguished by the characteristics of their
Report back on action taken. members, and the common interests which tie
members together and give these
See other items on the issues mentioned for characteristics a shared significance.
further discussion. The characteristics might be, for example:
Personal (age, gender, ethnicity).
Communication Beliefs.
The two words information and communication Economic status.
are often used interchangeably, but they signify Activities.
quite different things. Information is giving out;
communication is getting through. Services provided or used.
Sydney J. Harris
Place.
Communication should be seen as a two-way Common characteristics do not necessarily
process of sending and receiving messages, mean people identify with each other as a
and as such the basis for all participation. community. The factors which give these
Effective communication involves considering characteristics a shared meaning are a cultural
how your message will be received as well as heritage, social relationships, common
how you send it: the meaning of any economic interests, or the basis for political
communication is the response you get. power. Communities may be short or long
term.
This meaning is influenced by how people see
and judge you their attitude as well as the Because individuals may belong to many
content of your message and the method you different communities at the same time,
use. For that reason face to face may be more different allegiances may people pull in
effective than glossy brochures or videos. different directions. There are likely to be

34
competing and conflicting interests within local, national, international as they effect the
communities. community.
See also items below and Research, Capacity building: training people in the
Stakeholders. skills that they need to achieve their goals.
Organising by building sustainable and
Community architecture accessible organisations around issues that are
defined by the community as important.
and planning
Networking to build links between
Professionals working within community organisations where this can help to achieve
architecture and planning apply community objectives.
development methods in the built environment.
They often work from or with community Resourcing groups by linking them to
technical aid centres and see the community outside resources and expertise.
group or organisation as their client, even Negotiating to encourage service providers
though they may be funded from charitable or to adopt a community development approach,
public sources. and assist people and groups in the community
in their relationships with service providers
For typical techniques see Design Games and
Planning for Real. Newcastle Architecture and policy makers.
Workshop has produced a techniques pack
Awareness Through to Action. Community forum
A community forum is regular meeting of
Community Businesses community activists and interest groups which
and Co-operatives may also involve local business, political,
These are trading organisations which aim to religious and social organisations. It may be
combine local control, the creation of viable useful for discussion of issues of concern to
jobs for local people and financial local interests, and for stimulating contacts and
sustainability. Community coops are controlled networking. A forum is not so good for turning
by the workers, community businesses are discussion into action, where some
likely to have community representation on complementary do it organisation like a
their management committees. Development Trust may be needed.

Setting up a community
Community development forum
Community development is concerned with If you are setting up a forum:
change and growth with giving people more Ensure membership is as wide as
power over the changes that are taking place possible, and avoid domination by any one
around them, the policies that affect them and interest group
the services they use. (Marilyn Taylor, Consider splitting meetings into small
Signposts to Community Development). groups and using workshop techniques so
As such it is relevant to all levels of people have more chance to contribute.
participation. It seeks to enable individuals Seek an independent widely-respected
and communities to grow and change chair
according to their own needs and priorities Make any servicing of the forum -
developing agendas, recording discussion -
(Standing Conference on Community
as independent as possible.
Development) rather than those dictated by
Dont make the forum the only channel
circumstances beyond their boundaries. It for consultation or decision-making.
works through bringing people together to
share skills, knowledge and experience.
See also Networking, Structures.
See also Community development methods.
Community initiatives
Community development A project or organisation where the impetus
methods and control lies with community interests.
The methods used within community Examples of organisations are community
development will be particularly relevant to businesses and community co-operatives.
participation processes which seek to empower Organisations like community technical aid
community interests. Marilyn Taylor in centres, community trusts and development
Signposts to Community Development lists the trusts may aim to serve community interests,
following main methods: but be controlled by governing bodies with a
mix of community, public and private sector
Profiling and policy analysis. Developing a
representation. Rather than attempting to
community profile and analysing policies
categorise organisations as community or not

35
 solely on the basis of membership, it may be Arrangements for public report backs and
useful to consider: further community involvement.
What is the organisation seeking to achieve,
and who sets those objectives? Community profiling
Who benefits from its activities? Community profiling is a social, environmental
Where does the money come from? and economic description of an area which is
Where does control lie? used to inform local decision-making. The pack
produced by the School for Advanced Urban
See also Community. Studies offers a 10-step approach which deals
with how to form a group to undertake the
Community leaders profile, gather and analyse data, present it, and
use the results for planning action.
The term community leaders has been
favoured by some politicians perhaps See also Parish Maps, Village Appraisals.
unwilling to come to terms with the range and
complexity of interests within any community. Community technical
It is much easier to think there are a few people
to talk to than engage in complex participation aid centres
processes. But to challenge that idea doesnt Community technical aid centres are non-
mean that individuals within any community profit-distributing organisations that offer
of interest cannot take a leadership role. design, planning and other professional
See also Accountability, Activists, Community, services to community groups. They take a
Leadership. community development approach, and some
are controlled by their user groups. The
Association of Community Technical Aid
Community Operational Centres will provide more information.
Research
Operational research, or OR, has been used Community Trusts
extensively in large commercial, industrial and
Community Trusts are independent fund-
service enterprises to assist problem solving
raising and grant-making charitable trusts
and decision making. Community OR is
which serve a specific geographical area. If
different from traditional OR in style rather
there is one in your area, they may be a useful
than content, in that it works with groups that
source of information about community needs
usually have participative decision-making, a
in the area, and may support community
general suspicion of experts and need to
initiatives.
operate on small budgets and voluntary time.
For OR techniques which have been used with Community trusts raise funds from a wide
community and voluntary groups see SAST, range of sources, especially those previously
SSM, Strategic choice. Contact the Community untapped, with the aim of establishing an
Operational Research Unit for further endowment fund. Interest from this large sum
information. of capital is used for grant-making in the area.
Community Trusts should not be confused
Community planning with community development trusts (see
Development trusts) which are geared towards
weekends economic and environmental practical action.
This technique is based on the Urban Design The Association for Community trusts and
Assistance Teams which originated in the Foundations will provide more information.
United States. A multi-disciplinary team of
professionals, community representatives and Companies
statutory authorities come together for several
days to develop a strategy or master plan for A particular form of company, the company
an area. If well planned there will be: limited by guarantee, is increasingly popular
as an organisational structure for larger
Considerable preparation through research,
community initiatives and partnerships.
surveys and workshops with interested
Companies limited by guarantee do not have
groups.
shareholders instead their members agree to
Site visits. pay a nominal sum, often only 1, if the
Facilitated workshops using a range of company fails. The rights of these members to
techniques during the weekend. appoint members of the governing body the
A report covering physical design, finance, Board are defined by the constitution the
organisational structure and development Memorandum and Articles of Association.
process. The company does not distribute surpluses as
profits, but reinvests them in the company. If

36
the members of the Board are unpaid, and the seeking, and the values they hold. The
company has appropriate objects, it can seek processes to resolve conflicts include consensus
charitable status. building, mediation and negotiation.
Development Trusts are usually companies Resource Manual for a Living Revolution
limited by guarantee, as are many voluntary suggests that for successful conflict resolution
organisations. Companies limited by guarantee the following elements seem to be necessary:
are also appropriate for partnership Enough time to deal with the conflict.
organisations with Board representatives from
Defining the problem in terms which are
public, private and community sectors.
clear and acceptable to all.
See Voluntary but Not Amateur, and Just About Dealing with negative feelings in positive
Managing? for more information on companies. ways.
See also Constitution.
Helping people identify in concrete terms
what makes them unhappy with the situation
Competence distinguishing between feelings and reality.
Being competent means being able to say I For each member of the conflict to identify
know and I can. There is a sophisticated their real needs.
system of National Vocational Qualifications An opportunity for individuals to unload
which classifies the competences appropriate feelings of hurt, fear etc in the presence of
to different jobs. Less formally you can accepting people.
consider what competences will be needed for
To have at least one person preferably
any project or organisation you may be
uninvolved to give special attention to the
developing, both as a whole and for each role
process.
involved. Then carry out a skills audit to find
how far you have the capacity to do whats See the books Constructive Conflict
needed. management, Getting to Yes, and material on the
Resolve programme from the Environment
See also Capacity-building, Roles. Council. See also Consensus-building.

Confidence Consensus-building
They are able who think they are able. Consensus building is a participation process
Virgil. where participants work together to try and
reach a result which has benefits for both a
One of the major barriers to peoples
win/win outcome. It is an alternative to
involvement is lack of confidence in joining in
adversarial confrontation where one side is
activities, groups or organisations which may
trying to gain supremacy win/lose or a
be unfamiliar. In order to help:
compromise which neither side achieves what
Suggest that people who are already they want lose/lose.
involved bring along people they know.
The Environment Council runs a Resolve
Run social events where people can get to
programme of consensus building and has
know each other.
published an Action Pack by Andrew Floyer
If you must have formal public meetings run Acland. The key elements of the process are:
them towards the end of a process otherwise
A commitment of the parties to investing
they can be intimidating.
time and effort in interactive co-operation.
Concentrate on workshops where everyone
Involving the participants in designing a
can have a say.
staged process for consensus-building and
Carry out a skills and experience audits to changing it if it isnt working.
help people understand they have more
Using the process to develop relationships
capabilities that they may have thought.
so the consensus is sustained.
Tackle some projects which enable people to
use their skills and provide early success.
Consensus in a group
See also Capacity-building.
In order to help a large group make a decision:
1 The whole group defines the problem.
Conflict Resolution 2 The whole group Brainstorms possible solutions,
and identifies several for investigation.
One fifth of the people are against everything all 3 The large group breaks into small groups, which
the time.
review the problem and develop more detailed
Robert F. Kennedy.
solutions.
Within any participation process there are 4 Report back, look for consensus, identify
likely to be conflicts because of peoples remaining issues, repeat the process if necessary.
underlying attitudes, the outcomes they are

37
 Exploring future needs and interests not providing information, accepting their
taking abstract positions. recommendations, and being able to put them
Helping participants understand each into practice. It doesnt work if you wont take
others point of view. the remedy or what you need is more like
therapy.
Testing options for agreement for the
impact on every party. The process consultant is appropriate when
the solution really lies with you, but you
Constitutions havent worked out what it is, or dont have the
confidence. The consultants skill lies in asking
As soon as any group seeks to take on a the right questions and getting you to think
substantial project, it will need mechanisms for through and apply the answers. It works if you
making decisions, defining roles and possibly work at it , and should be an empowering
raising funds and employing staff. A experience.
constitution is the document which sets out the
rules for governing any organisation. It is Process consultants often take a training
necessary in order to: approach, and can be useful in helping design
and run participation processes. Beware of any
Ensure the organisations aims are clear and
consultants who offer quick fixes see the
agreed by members.
section Easy answers.
Provide formal mechanisms for making
See also Facilitation.
decisions and resolving disputes.
Clarify responsibilities and ensure
accountability. Consultation
Increase credibility with funders. Consultation is the level of participation at
Enable the organisation to apply for which people are offered some choices on what
charitable status (if it wishes to). is to happen, but are not involved in
developing additional options. It is appropriate
Register as a friendly society, industrial and where, for example:
provident society or company limited by
guarantee. An authority or organisation aims to
improve a service.
The constitution provides a reference for these
issues but it doesnt solve them on its own. It There is a clear vision or plan for a project,
can be far more productive to run some team- and limited ways of carrying it through.
building and problem solving workshops than Choose a different level indicated in brackets
pick over the niceties of the constitution if:
provided legal requirements are always Your decision wont be changed by what
fulfilled. people say (information).
Organisations may be unincorporated, in You are not clear what you wish to do and
which case they have no separate legal are seeking ideas (Deciding together).
existence, and are a collection of individuals, or You dont have the resources or skills to
incorporated as a separate entity, where the carry out the options presented (Acting
liability of individuals may be limited. Together).
See Voluntary But Not Amateur for guidance on For more detail see the section Where do you
constitutions. The National Council for Voluntary stand?
Organisations provides advice.
Continuation
Consultants Continuation is the final phase of the
A consultant is someone who borrows your participation process described in the section It
watch to tell you the time, and charges you by the takes time. Activities in this phase will depend
minute to do it. in the level of participation. For example, on a
This quotation is, of course, a completely consultation process tasks may include
unfair view of consultants. Or is it? There are analysing and reporting back on responses; in
broadly two types of consultants, expert a partnership-building process acting
consultants and process consultants. together a new organisation may be formed.

Expert consultants are appropriate when you

have defined a problem which requires the Control
application of knowledge and skills which you Control in a participation process is determined
dont possess and, for whatever reason, dont by the extent to which any organisation or
wish to acquire. The success of the consultancy interest group can influence the outcome of the
depends on getting the problem right, choosing process. Different levels of participation reflect
the appropriate consultant, briefing them well, different levels of control: an organisation

38
taking an information or consultation stance is
retaining control, while one acting with others
Simple Cost/benefit analysis
or supporting community initiatives will 1 Develop a list of options to be compared.
inevitably have less control. For this reason 2 Look at the minuses (costs) and pluses (benefits) of each option.
organisations and often politicians will 3 List anything you dont know about each option.
stick to lower levels of participation. The + - Dont Know
disadvantages of this approach are: Option 1
People are less likely to become involved or Option 2
to put in time, ideas and effort. Option 3. etc. etc.,
The controlling interest will be expected to 4 If it proves difficult to decide because there are too many dont
find all the resources. knows, carry out more research. Find out who does know, where can
you find out, who can help find out. Finding out the Dont knows can
The process is unlikely to increase the be part of your action plan.
capacity of community interests to undertake 5 If an option fits in with your statement of purpose, give it a plus. If it
any projects of their own. does not then why are you considering it?
Instead of thinking about control and power
over others, it is generally more helpful to criteria might be income generation, value for
think about power to achieve what you wish. money, jobs created; softer criteria might
include number of people involved, increase in
See also Consensus building, Empowerment,
Outcomes, Power. confidence. Which criteria you use depends on
your values. As well as criteria for deciding
between options, you will need criteria for
Cost/benefit analysis success or failure in achieving your mission
A complex technique which in a simple form (purpose or vision). Is it winning, or just
can be useful as a way of deciding between playing the game?
different options. See the box opposite. See also Values.

Creative thinking Databases

Creative thinking involves developing ideas At its simplest a database is the equivalent of a
and options for action which arent obvious. It card index system on computer, holding
is best done in workshops rather than names, address, details of publications or
committees. Techniques for creative thinking funding sources which can be searched,
in this guide include Brainstorming and printed for mailing, and turned into directories.
Nominal Group Technique. More complex databases may be used to store
and analyse survey data. The general rule for
Credit databases is to do it on paper before trying to
set anything up on computer. Information for
The way to get things done is not to mind who Action has designed database software, called
gets the credit of doing them. Cata-List, which is specifically designed for
Benjamin Jowett.
easy use by community and voluntary
Organisations are usually looking for credit, organisations.
particularly if it leads to publicity to impress See also Information system.
their funders and members. This can, of
course, cause problems if the key parties in a
participation process care more for column Deadlines
inches than achieving some common purpose. Work expands so as to fill the time available for
As a practitioner managing a process you are its completion.
most likely to succeed if you: C. Northcote Parkinson.

Try and find ways for the different interests Participation takes time, but it also needs
to achieve something of what they want. deadlines. Events and print are the most
Offer events and activities which provide compelling because you have to perform or
benefits to participants they could not get on produce for someone else. As such they are
their own. among the most important milestones in a
Dont try and take too much credit yourself participation process.
See also Timeline, Workload planning.
See also Commitment, Consensus-building,
Stakeholder analysis.
Deciding together
Criteria Deciding together is the level of participation
Criteria are the checklist of measurements at which different interests develop options
which help us decide between different courses and choose from them, but one party carries
of action, options or projects. Typical hard out the main actions. It is appropriate:

39
 When it is important that other people own groups revolve around the enthusiasm of a few
the solution. people, unless they share the load they will
You need fresh ideas. burn out and/or others will see them as a
clique. To encourage delegation:
There is enough time.
Choose a different level (suggestions in Run workshops to share ideas and develop
brackets) when: action plans.
You have little room for manoeuvre Set up small working groups to tackle
(consider informing or consulting). specific tasks.
You cant implement decisions yourself Carry out a skills audit to see what talent
(consider Acting Together or Supporting there is in the group.
community initiatives). See also Leadership.
See also Decision-making and the section Where
do you stand? Design game
Community Land and Workspace Services
Decision-making have developed this modelling technique which
uses a scale plan of the site, mounted on board.
Would you tell me please, which way I ought to
go from here? Moveable pieces, drawn to scale, are then used
That depends a good deal on where you want to by the group to create their own design. It is
get to, said the cat. best used:
I dont much care where , said Alice.
Then it doesnt matter which way you go, said When the project is definitely going ahead.
the cat. Where the site has definable boundaries,
Alice in Wonderland, Lewis Carroll. and is not too large.
Decisions are about what to do next, and in the Where the participants have an intimate
longer term. They are difficult enough for knowledge.
individuals, more so for groups of people who The benefits include:
may not know each other well. Decisions are A sense of ownership which benefits long
easiest if you are clear about aims and term management and maintenance.
objectives (no apologies for repeating Lewis
The process helps to form consensus.
Carroll here). However, it is possible to make
progress without a clear sense of purpose, if A fairly large number of people can be
you have options from which to choose, and involved in a complex design process.
criteria. You can then develop an action plan. It can help credibility of a management
committee by spreading involvement to a
Difficult decisions are problems. In order to
wider audience.
solve problems and make decisions the
following steps may be helpful although life
Playing the design game
is seldom as logical. The Strategic Choice
technique provides a more flexible, if complex, 1 Survey the site, perhaps with residents or
users, and assess the problems with them.
approach. Topics and techniques which may
2 Investigate possibilities with the group:
help are shown in brackets.
site visits, slide shows of examples.
3 Brainstorm a shopping list of possible
Delegation elements, which are then drawn to scale.
Delegation is important in groups if they are to 4 The Main Game: the group moves pieces
around on the base board plan to create
survive in the longer term. Although most their own design.
5 A Landscape Architect draws up the
Decision-making checklist results for group discussion.
1 Know who must be involved (Stakeholder analysis). 6 A detailed scheme developed to be built
2 Define the problem (Problem clarification). by a contractor, by the group themselves, or
a combination of the two.
3 Decide the information you need, and find it (Research).
4 Make sure everyone understands the information (Communication).
See also Games and simulations, Planning for
5 Think of options (Brainstorming, Nominal group technique).
Real.
6 Choose between them (Cost/benefit analysis, Kolbs four minute
evaluation cycle, For and Against, Yes or No).
7 If necessary gather more information and repeat 3-6. Destruction testing
8 Make a decision about what to do (Force Field Analysis, Solutions,
Look before you leap.
Voting).
Anon
9 Act.
10 Assess whether the problem has been solved (Plan, Act, Review). Once a group has arrived at what seems to be
Adapted from Getting Organised and How to Solve Your Problems. a solution, use the Looking first checklist on
the next page before acting.

40
 Looking first Guidelines for empowerment
1 Ask Who or what could prevent this from
If you aim to empower those involved in a Look for agreement on the outcomes
succeeding? What would be likely to make
participation process: people want. If that is not possible, be
that happen?
Be explicit about what you are trying to clear who your actions will help.
2 Dont forget that the group itself could
do, and your role. Build on peoples skills and
prevent the solution from working. So also
ask If we wanted to make sure our solution Start where people are at relate your experience, rather than always expect
proposals to their concerns. them to step beyond them.
fails, what would we do?
Use language and ideas everyone can Be realistic about what can be
3 Now list what the group should do to
relate to. achieved.
make sure that these possible causes for
failure dont happen. Help clarify what the various interests
From Getting Organised. are trying to achieve, individually and
collectively.

Development trusts See also Community development and

Development Trusts have been defined as Community development methods.
independent, not-for-profit organisations
which take action to renew an area physically, Empowerment
socially and in spirit. They bring together the Empowerment is a working style which aims
public, private and voluntary sectors, and to help people achieve their own purpose by
obtain financial and other resources from a increasing their confidence and capacity.
wide range of organisations and individuals.
They encourage substantial involvement by See also Communication, Confidence, Limits,
local people and aim to sustain their operations Outcomes, Role of the practitioner and the
section on Power.
at least in part by generating revenue.
(Creating Development Trusts, HMSO 1988).
Also known as community development trusts,
Enabling
they should not be confused with community Enabling is participation as if the participants
trusts, which are fund-raising and grant- mattered: helping people achieve their purpose
making bodies. at an agreed level of participation. It involves
helping people understand, join in decision
Development Trusts operate at the acting making, or participate actively in some
together level of participation as partnership initiative.
organisations, and are usually companies
limited by guarantee. The Development Trusts
Association will provide more information. Equal opportunities
Considering equal opportunities means
Development workers thinking about and challenging situations in
which people may not participate fully because
The term is used here for full or part time staff of, for example, their disabilities, culture,
devoted to the development of a project or gender, ethnicity, learning difficulties. Equal
process, using community development opportunities mean taking participation
methods. seriously. The checklist below raises some of
Benefits of on-the-ground workers can be: the issues to be considered.
Reaching people who dont come to
meetings.
Checklist
A source of advice and support for local
Consider:
individuals and groups.
Do examples you use reflect only white
Someone with the time to service meetings culture?
and follow up action. Do you refer to temples, mosques,
A channel to organisations that may provide synagogues as well as churches?
resources. Does your language suggest norms
The potential pitfalls are: which may not be shared by all for
example, wife and husband rather than
The worker controls the agenda of meetings partner?
and events. Do you use large enough type faces for
People who might become involved are put people with visual disabilities?
off because they dont believe they can so well Is material produced in languages which
as a paid worker. reflect the cultural mix of the community?
Do you provide a signer at public
People do not develop new skills and meetings?
become dependent on the worker, who may
leave or change.

41
 Evaluation Facilitation
Evaluation is checking whether you have Much of this guide is about facilitation
succeeded, monitoring is checking how you are helping others think through what they want
doing along the way. Both require criteria. and organise themselves to achieve it. The role
of the practitioner as someone managing a
Exhibitions participation process is frequently that of
facilitator.
Exhibitions may be used to highlight an issue,
report on a survey, or offer people some Two books, listed in Useful Publications,
options. As such they provide information, and provide detailed guidance on facilitating
allow some consultation. Unless they are part groups:
of a more substantial process they will not, in Change and how to make it happen covers
themselves, help people participate actively in preparation, team building, equal
making decisions. Creating Involvement opportunities, problem solving, and planning.
provides guidelines for publicity and Resource Manual for a Living Revolution
exhibitions. includes a section on facilitation, problems that
commonly arise, and tools frequently used at
Exhibition guidelines meetings.
Involve the community you are addressing
in preparing material. Five Ws plus H
Avoid jargon use familiar terms.
Use memorable phrases or facts. The simplest questions are the hardest to answer.
Be imaginative in using illustrations, video Northrop Frye
and drama.
Make sure you are relevant and timely Whatever you are planning to do five Ws
give people enough time to respond. provide a simple checklist to help you think of
Take the exhibition to people, perhaps the issues:
using mobile displays. What are you trying to do, decide, explain?
Provide back up information. When must you start and finish?
Why is it necessary?
Who needs to be consulted, involved?
Exit Where is it happening?
There are few things more demoralising for all H stands for How, which you need to consider
concerned than to have the key person pull out after running through the Ws.
part way through a complex participation
process. Almost as bad is for someone who See also Action plans.
presented themselves as facilitator or enabler
to hang in long after key issues have been
resolved, or a group developed its own
Focus Groups
momentum and confidence. For that reason it Focus groups are small groups of people who
is important, if you are managing a work through an issue in workshop sessions.
participation process, to consider how and
when to leave as well as how to start. For and Against
Decide: to succumb to the preponderance of one
Experts set of influences over another set.
Ambrose Bierce, The Devils Dictionary.
Everyone is ignorant, only on different subjects.
Will Rogers. An even simpler version of Cost/benefit
It may be necessary to seek professional advice analysis, also known as pros and cons.
on several fronts: for example, it is important
to consult a solicitor when setting up a Pros and cons
charitable company if you are to avoid When, in decision making, you have more
problems and delays. than one possible option which could
provide a solution:
The local Citizens Advice Bureau, and Council Make two columns on a sheet of paper,
for Voluntary Service provide signposting to one headed For and one Against.
advisers. However, empowering participation List all the points in favour and against,
processes are about finding out how to do for each solution.
things for yourself, and a good place to start is Add at the bottom of each list any other
factors which might influence you.
with the group you are working with.
Weigh the fors and againsts in making a
See also Skills Audit. decision.

42
Force Field Analysis problems they may face, the rules by which
they may operate and so on.
This is a technique for working out the forces
driving towards a solution you want, and those At their simplest simulations may involve
against. taking a particular issue and getting people to
adopt different roles and negotiate with each
Force field analysis other. More complex simulations can run over
1 Describe the problem as: several days.
The present situation. I have listed two books in Useful Publications,
The situation as you would like it to be. one educational, and one about management
2 List the forces for, and those against. games, but havent found any references which
Underline those most important, and identify
those you can influence.
are particularly relevant to participation
3 Brainstorm how you can increase the
process. The technique Planning for Real has
forces for, and reduce those against. achieved popularity not least, I suspect,
The idea behind force field analysis is that because it is one of the few packages available.
you can achieve more by reducing the I have developed a Business Planning for Real
forces against than simply pressing harder simulation in which a steering group or Board
which may simply increase the resistance. plays through different project, staffing and
Adapted from Getting Organised. funding options aided by a computer running a
spreadsheet and found that highly effective.
See also Community planning weekends.
Framework for
participation Getting things done
This guide suggests thinking about three
dimensions of participation: It is easier to seek forgiveness than to ask
permission.
The level of participation which is Paddy Docherty.
appropriate, from simply providing
information to offering support for How you make things happen within a
independent community initiatives participation process depends on the style you
The phase of the activity, from Initiation to adopt , the role you play, and what you are
Continuation. trying to achieve. The style needed to run a
project or organisation may not be appropriate
The key interests, or stakeholders involved. for someone seeking to help others to
See the Framework section. understand problems and make decisions.
See also Approach, Enabling, Facilitation,
Fundraising Leadership, Role of the practitioner.
If the participation process is more than simple
information-giving or consultation, there may Groups
well come a time when outside resources will Understanding groups is important in
be needed. In planning any fundraising participation processes because:
consider:
Many of the participants stakeholders
What do you need the money for, and how will be members of formal or informal groups.
much? Do a Budget.
Working in groups that is, holding
When will you need it? Produce a Timeline. workshops is one of the most effective
What will you do if you cant raise the total participation methods.
you need? Groups are generally necessary to plan and
Who is likely to give you the money? take forward projects.
Why should they want to support you? Well-tried methods of developing and
Will you need more money later when initial running groups can be more widely useful in
funds are used up? participation processes
The most effective longer-term groups are
those where people share a common purpose
Games and simulations and can provide support for each other,
Games and simulations offer some of the most recognising that each person brings different
effective techniques for helping people to play skills, ideas and attitudes. See two of the books
through the issues and understand the in the Useful publications section:
interests of the different stakeholders. Planning Together offers a detailed set of
Designing simulations obliges you to think exercises particularly suitable for groups and
through who the different interests are, the groups within an organisation. These range

43
 identity is the designers term for the way
Agreeing your image everything about an organisation looks and
To develop agreement within a group 4 Ask Who is the image for? and discuss if sounds, from the typeface of the letterhead to
about the way you wish to present the same image works for all. If not, make the way staff answer the telephone. This is
yourself: new sheets for each audience. important in participation processes because:
1 Write on a chart What image do we 5 List ways the organisation relates to People are sophisticated in their judgements
need if we are to meet our objectives? outsiders e.g. telephone contacts, letter- of identity. They will subconsciously check
Everyone writes down three words writing. Small groups develop ideas on how whether for example, your open, friendly,
characterising the organisation. to live up to the image.
personal style fits with the aggressive,
2 People pair up and explain their choices. 6 Produce summary charts from 3, 4 and 5. inflexible promotional material of your
3 Each pair in turn announces and Develop an action plan.
organisation. If not, they wont trust your
explains their words. Write the words up on Summarised from Organising in voluntary ability to deliver what you say if that involves
a chart. You could use Post-it notes and and community groups resource pack.
Resource 32. others in your organisation.
cluster similar terms.
Working with a designer and writer to
from taking stock, developing and sharing a develop identity on a large project is an
vision, to getting organised and evaluating excellent way of clarifying what you are trying
progress. to say and to whom.
Training and How to Enjoy It is a collection of Once you have developed a strong sense of
training exercises covering groups and identity you have to live up to it. If
meetings; publicity and campaigning; equal presentation starts to outweigh performance,
opportunities; finance and funding; planning people will spot it rapidly. The resulting
and problem solving. feeling of discomfort is a useful form of
monitoring either you deceived yourself at
See also Team building.
the outset or you are off course.
See also Communication.
Icebreakers
Icebreakers are techniques to help a group of
people get to know each other. At its simplest,
Information
just ask people to turn to their neighbour and Knowledge is power.
come up with a few questions or ideas around Francis Bacon
a point you have raised. People usually start
Information is the level of participation which
by explaining who they are, why they are there
offers least involvement it is more an
before getting around to what you asked
essential basis for real participation at higher
which is the purpose of the exercise.
levels than participatory in itself. It is
appropriate where, for example:
Ideas There really is no room for manoeuvre.
An idea is a feat of association, and the height of The course of action doesnt affect others.
it is a good metaphor.
At the start of a consultation or other
Robert Frost.
process.
The book 101 Ways to Generate Great Ideas
Choose a different level if:
provides sections on generating ideas yourself,
and in groups. These include: You are seeking to empower community
interests. Information is necessary for
Carry a pocket dictating machine.
empowerment, but seldom enough on its own.
Close your eyes and let your mind wander.
There are alternatives and others have a
Dont say But, say And. legitimate interest in developing them.
Have a brainstorming session. See the section on information in Where do you
Use a facilitator. stand?
Make a clay model of the problem.
Or take Robert Frosts suggestion and think of Information systems
an analogy see that item. Ideas can be refined
to become the options you need in order to Information systems are the means by which
make decisions. you organise the collection, storage and
dissemination of information. These may
See also Options. include your internal administrative systems,
the letters you write, print you produce,
Identity and image meetings you hold. The methods may include
the use of information technology. A
We judge information by style as well as participation process requires an information
content just as we form judgements about system which can deal with:
people by the clothes they wear. Corporate

44
 The lack of a common language jargon Initiation
often gets in the way.
The first of four stages of the participation
The lack of common ways of process described in the section It takes time.
communicating people dont all work in the In this phase some event a campaign, plans
same organisation, read the same papers, go to for a project, an offer of funding triggers the
the same meetings. Information systems are need to involve different interests. The key
particularly important if the organisational issues are then who should be involved, and at
structure you are moving towards is a what level.
network. Information is the glue which hold
networks together that may lack a formal See also Stakeholders, Level of participation.
constitution.

A basic system
Insurance
Groups undertaking any significant activities
A basic information system for participation
might include: should check their requirements for insurance.
A card index or database of contacts. For example:
A range of ways of providing information Public liability insurance to cover members
face to face networking as well as leaflets, of the group and public for personal injury or
meetings etc. damage to property.
A system for recording and reporting Premises and contents.
back what has occurred. This might be a
bulletin, or follow up meeting for example. Employers liability.
Appropriate elements of an Handling money.
administrative system.
Use of vehicles.
Professional advice indemnity.
See Administrative system.
Trustees liability.
Consult another voluntary organisation or an
Information Technology insurance broker, and assign responsibility for
maintaining insurance cover.
To err is human but to really foul things up
requires a computer. See the book Voluntary but not Amateur.
Farmers Almanac for 1978.

Information technology is the collection, Kolbs cycle

processing, storage and dissemination of Brenda Rogers offers this four minute method
information using computers and of making decisions in How to solve your
telecommunications. problems.
Like all communication methods IT can work
for or against the involvement and Quick decisions
empowerment of different groups. As the cost
of computing falls, small groups can manage With a clock, first get clear what event or
problem you are considering, then:
their mailing lists, produce newsletters and
even manage their accounts using computers. 1 Spend one minute considering how you
feel emotions, not profound ideas.
They can also waste a lot of time and effort.
Before using computers: 2 Spend another minute reflecting on these
feelings.
Clarify the aims and objectives of a project 3 During the third minute ask yourself about
of organisation. If these arent clear IT may your theories on 1 and 2 why you feel
just add to the confusion. that, what you expect to happen.
Work out the type of information you are 4 Take half a minute to reach a decision.
handling and the channels it must flow 5 In the final half minute consider actions.
through (letters, mailing lists, newsletters,
project records). This will define the software
you use word processing, database etc. See also Decision making, Plan, Act, Review, Yes
or No
Define who is responsible for managing the
information flows.
In buying computers expect to spend as much Launch
on software and training as you do on the A launch is the point at which you formally
hardware the computers, printer and other announce or celebrate a process or project. As
equipment. Expect to take some time to get a such, a launch event can come at the beginning
system up and running. of a process during the Preparation or
Some participation techniques use computers.
Participation phase or later during
See Priority Search, Village Appraisals. Continuation. The launch can be useful both

45
 externally and also within an organisation: Levels of participation
It provides a formal start line if used at the Levels of participation are the different degrees
beginning, when you can outline the overall of involvement offered to others by whoever is
process and your stance . starting or managing a participation process.
It is a good time to attract media coverage.
The levels used in this guide are Information,
It is an opportunity for social contacts. Consultation, Deciding Together, Acting
It is a deadline for making decisions and Together, and Supporting Independent
preparing materials. Community Initiatives. Methods for tackling
See also Communication, Identity and Image, problems and making progress are listed under
Time Line. each one.
No one level is necessarily better than another
Leadership each may be appropriate in different
To lead the people, walk behind them. circumstances. However they do represent
Lao-Tzu. different balances of control between the
As a reaction against the stereotype of the different interests. Empowerment may be seen
autocratic leader, it is fashionable in some as helping people reach the higher levels
management development circles to suggest provided that is what they want to do.
that everyone can be a leader that is, See also items on each level, and the section
everyone can try and fulfil their purpose in life, Where do you stand?
and help others do the same. That may not be
how most people see the issue of leadership, Limits
but it can be another helpful way of looking at
issues of confidence, capacity, empowerment Sometimes it is more important to discover what
and enabling. one cannot do, than what one can do.
Lin Yutang.
Sandy Adirondack, in Just about managing?
suggests it is helpful to think about the Theres only so much any participation or
capacity-building process can achieve, and it is
different management strengths needed within
important to agree what is realistic early in the
a group or organisation: the equivalent,
process. People are more likely to accept
perhaps, of leadership styles. She identifies: co-
limitations, if they are put openly and honestly,
ordinator, shaper, innovator, evaluator, liaison, than disappointments later. That approach
organiser, team builder, finisher, specialist. offers the different interests an opportunity to
decide whether to get involved, or take some
Leaflets and newsletters other action.
Some simple form of printed material will
almost certainly be necessary in a participation Listening
process but will not be enough alone to gain
peoples involvement. There is no substitute for One of the best ways to persuade others is with
your ears.
knocking on doors or networking. If the Dean Rusk.
participation process is lengthy, it may be
worth considering a regular newsletter or Listening is important at all stages of the
bulletin to report back on surveys, meetings participation process:
and other activities. To find out what peoples interests are.
See also Communication, Print. To learn the language they use.
To understand what role you can most
usefully play.
Leadership audit To find what people think of what is
Middlesbrough Borough Council uses a leadership audit in happening.
community development work with 100 questions for members of
groups or organisations. Participants choose statements which See also Communication.
they feel are broadly true from a list which includes, for example:
Everyone is usually involved in decisions affecting them. Management committee
Morale is high.
The governing body for a project or
New ideas and suggestions are welcomed.
organisation, to which staff are accountable. In
We feel we can have influence on decisions.
a company the management committee is the
The scores are analysed against the following attributes: vision, Board of directors. If the organisation is a
prioritising, motivation, interpersonal skills, political sensitivity,
resilience, charisma, risk taking, flexibility, decisiveness. charity the members of the management
The audit pack then suggests ways of correcting weaknesses.
committee will be trustees. In appointing
management committees it is important to

46
strike a balance between representation and
competence. Little will be achieved if everyone Media checklist
on the committee has to learn how to manage Consider why you want coverage for
an organisation. At the same time, a committee example, to publicise an event, get
which has no representation of key interests enquiries, show supporters or funders what
you are achieving.
may well find itself in difficulty.
If possible identify a reporter covering
See also Committees and the book Just about your field, or link your story to other current
managing? for detailed advice on management events.
committees. Try and turn your story into an
opportunity for pictures: essential for
Media television, likely to get you more space in
newspapers.
News is what somebody somewhere wants to Prepare a press release and expect to
suppress; all the rest is advertising. deal with newspaper reporters on the
Lord Northcliffe. telephone. However, stay in touch with
anyone you deal with and try to meet at
The media is mainly in the business of some stage. Personal contacts generally
interesting and entertaining its users, and of produce more sympathetic stories, and are
selling itself or advertising. It is not there as a invaluable if you later face a difficult
public service to promote your ideas or project. situation which could lead to adverse
There are, of course, exceptions: public service coverage.
announcements, community programmes,
specialist publications, and the newsletters of
local organisations. Parish magazines and Methods for
whats on guides can be useful. participation
However, if you are seeking space in The methods for participation featured in this
newspapers, on local radio or television, you guide fall under three main heads
will generally have to think news or features. Techniques. Frequently used short-term
Journalists judge what is news against news interventions employed by consultants and
values which vary between papers and trainers. They range from communication
stations, but generally include: materials and simple workshop sessions
Conflict (wheres the row). through to more complex methods of decision-
making like Strategic Choice.
Hardship (how many hurt, who is in
danger). Structures. Interim and longer-term
organisational structures used in participation
Oddity (thats unusual). processes. They range from working parties
Scandal (sex, corruption). and advisory committees to partnership
Individuality (what an interesting person). organisations like development trusts, and
community-based coops.
Disclosure (we can reveal).
Local journalists have a more relaxed view Longer-term programmes which may
than Lord Northcliffe, but you do need to involve staff devoted partly or wholly to the
consider whats in the story for them (and the programme as well as the use of techniques
editorial executive who will decide whether it and structures.
goes in the paper). See also the Signposts section
Features writers may be less concerned with
disclosure or scandal, but still need an Meetings checklist
interesting story to tell. Would your story be For effective meetings, consider:
worth telling to a friend outside the project? If The style of the meeting. If it is to be a creative workshop rather
not, why should readers or viewers be than a committee, make sure people know that in advance.
interested? An accessible venue (public transport, disabled access).
See also Press releases. Child care (crche, financial assistance).
What information and notice is appropriate beforehand. In general,
provide papers with options for formal meetings, but only an outline
Meetings of the aims for a workshop so that people are spontaneous.
Meetings are at the heart of participation Any aids you will need: charts, projectors etc.
processes, whether social get-togethers, The layout of the room, and scope for breaking into small groups.
committees , workshops, or public meetings. Avoid a platform and lecture-style seating if possible.
See the the checklist about meetings opposite. Good management of the meeting itself : see committees, public
meetings, workshops.
See the publication How to Make Meetings Work, Follow up to make sure that action has been taken and to inform
and also Access, Committees, Public meetings, people of the outcome.
Workshops.

47
 Mind Maps honest about what happened, and use the
results to reshape the process.
Mind maps or spidergrams are a graphical
technique for exploring solutions to problems. See Plan, Act, Review.

Drawing mind maps Monitoring and

1 Take a large sheet of paper, write your evaluation
problem in the middle, and draw a line
around it. At the end of any piece of action you need to
2 List all the reasons for the problem in a know two things that will aid future planning:
circle around the centre, each in a bubble. How do we know we have been successful?
3 Add in the solutions you can think of and What can we learn so that we can do it
connect these to any of the causes or
people involved or situations connected with
better, or what is the next step?
it. In order to do this you ideally need to be clear
Summarised from How to Solve Your about aims and objectives or purpose, and
Problems. criteria for judging success. Setting yourself
the task of creating a system for monitoring
and evaluation may help clarify the purpose
Minutes and criteria.
Minutes are the formal record of meetings. As
such they are an important reference point for Checklist
any discussions or arguments about what was In planning monitoring and evaluation,
decided. They can be a spur to action as well. consider:
See the box below on how to develop action What are we trying to do?
minutes. How will we know we have done it?
What information do we need to collect
and how do we collect it?
Mission
When is the best time to evaluate how
Mission is what you wish to achieve. The term successful it has been?
is much favoured in business management, but What can we count to use in monitoring
can confuse people with its military or and evaluation?
evangelical overtones. Purpose is an Who externally will judge and on what
alternative, although it has a slightly different terms?
sense I think mission has a stronger What satisfaction are we looking for?
emphasis on end result.
See also Aims and objectives, Outcomes, See also Criteria, Outcomes.
Purpose.
Muddle
Mistakes If you find you arent sure what to do next, or
There is nothing wrong with making mistakes. just seem to go around in circles, try one or
Just dont respond with encores. more of these techniques:
Anon
Check that you agree on your aims and
You will certainly make them at least in the objectives.
eyes of some of those involved. Try and be Do a SWOT analysis.
Brainstorm some new ideas.
Action minutes Develop priorities by drawing up a Time
Turn minutes of meetings into action plans by: Line.
1 Creating a standard form with these headings. Follow the Plan, Act , Review cycle.
Meeting Date See also Problem clarification.
Attended by Apologies

Agenda item Action By whom Deadline Negotiation

Item 1 To do Who By when Negotiation is a back-and-forth
Item 2 To do Who By when
communication designed to reach an
agreement when you and the other side have
2 During the meeting one member records the items and action to be taken. The chair or some interests that are shared and others that
facilitator helps by making sure clear decisions are taken
are opposed. (Getting to Yes).
3 Photocopy the forms and circulate at the end of the meeting.
Summarised from Planning Together. Practitioners in participation processes are
bound to get involved in negotiation as

48
different interests try and work out what they achieve what you want, or just take the next
want from any situation, and have degrees of step. They are ideas on how to tackle problems
control over the results. You can end up trying and reach solutions.
to mediate between different factions, In order to generate options use Brainstorming
facilitating groups discussions, or negotiating or Nominal Group Technique.
between community interests and their own
organisation. Getting to Yes advocates: See also Creative thinking, Ideas.

1 Separating the people from the problem. Put

yourself in other peoples shoes to see the Outcomes
problem from their point of view; dont attack The term outcomes is used in this guide to
the people, address the problem. describe those results of plans and actions
2 Focus on interests, not positions. Try and which you are seeking to achieve.
find areas where the outcomes you are seeking Thinking in terms of outcomes which you may
will overlap. see, hear, feel as well as the more abstract aims
3 Invent options for mutual gain. Be creative and objectives should help clarify what to do to
in developing ideas which could serve to achieve what you want. One of the most
achieve the overlapping interests. important questions in any participation
4 Insist on objective criteria. Agree ways of process is What outcome do you want?
judging and reaching solutions which are See also Aims and objectives, Plan, Act Review,
agreed to be fair. Purpose.

Networking Ownership
Networking is the business of making informal The stake that people have in an idea, a project
contacts, chatting, and picking up further or an organisation is fundamental to their
contacts. It is the way to learn: commitment. Not invented here is a powerful
What people are interested in the issues block to gaining peoples involvement
they consider important. whether they are councillors, officers,
The sort of ideas and language they find professionals, business people or residents. For
familiar. that reason early brainstorming workshops,
where everyone has a chance to contribute
Who are the key people and organisations ideas, are important.
the stakeholders.
Some networking is essential before other more See also Control.
formal information-giving like producing
leaflets, staging exhibitions and holding Parish maps
meetings. Two specific techniques are
A technique in which features of human and
suggested in the book Creating Involvement:
natural interest which local people value are
1 Telephone trees. A group of people takes shown on a map of the locality and publicly
responsibility for ringing several others, who displayed. The maps can be any size, shape,
in turn ring a further round of contacts. scale or material such as paint, ceramic,
2 Co-ordinators take responsibility for keeping
people in their street or block informed.
Nominal Group Technique
1 Before the meeting clarify what information it is hoped to gather, then
Nominal Group develop two specific questions.
Technique 2 At the meeting, explain the procedure and split into small groups of 6-
8, each with a leader. Display the questions.
This technique sometimes called Snowball
3 People work on their own (or in pairs) quietly for 10-15 minutes
can be used with fairly large groups and is
answering the questions.
often more successful than Brainstorming with
4 Group members read out and the leader lists the results. Items
small groups.
are clarified or challenged if necessary.
See also Action plans, Brainstorming. 5 Group members vote for their top 5 answers to each question.
6 In plenary session the group leaders display and explain summary
Options charts, and an overall summary is made if possible.
7 The next stage depends on the content of the meeting, and where it
As I learnt very early in my life in Whitehall, the is in an overall process. People can be asked to move back into small
acid test of any political question is: What is the groups to take forward particular ideas. Alternatively, people may be
alternative? given 5 stickers each and asked to vote for their priorities.
Lord Trent.
8 The meeting should close with a summary of what has happened and
There is no alternative is seldom true. Options what the next stages are likely to be.
are the different ways in which you might

49
 textiles or photography. Advice and
information is available from the Parish Maps Past and future
Project at Common Ground, who publish two 1 Split into groups of 3 or 4
useful booklets Parish Maps and The Parish 2 Provide each group with a large piece of
Boundary. Rural Community Councils have paper label PAST at the top, and FUTURE
at the bottom, and about 20 Post-it notes.
helped with parish maps by providing
information and support (contact ACRE for 3 Each group member writes what they
thought most worthwhile or successful in the
local addresses). past, and what they should be tackling in
future. One point to a note.
Participation 4 People stick notes on the appropriate part
of the paper, and cluster them when they
1 A process during which individuals, groups are similar.
and organisations are consulted about or have 5 Small groups report back to the larger
the opportunity to become actively involved in group.
a project or programme of activity. Adapted from Training and How to Enjoy It,
2 The third phase of the participation process John Grayson.
described in the section It takes time. In this
phase whoever is promoting and managing participation process, and takes them as one of
participation engages with the range of the main dimensions of the framework of
interests in the community, using methods participation. The phases are:
described in this guide. Initiation: something triggers the idea of
participation, and a champion emerges for the
See also Easy answers and Guidelines on how
to...
process.
Preparation: the practitioner who will
manage the process plans it with the
Partnership promoter/champion, makes informal contacts
Partnerships are formal or informal and agrees a strategy.
arrangements to work together to some joint Participation: materials are produced, events
purpose. In my view: held, and other participation methods used to
Informal partnerships work best when the involve a range of interests.
project is specific and can be achieved Continuation: the proposals, projects or
relatively quickly: the purpose is clear, and programmes agreed in the previous phase are
outcomes achievable. taken forward
Where the task is complex and long term it The section It takes time describes the phases
may be necessary for formalise the partnership in more detail.
through some constitution or contractual
arrangement. This provides a structure for
decision-making and agreeing ways of Plan, act, review
working. Do what you can, with what you have, where you
What doesnt work is to try and tackle a are.
wide range of issues through an informal Theodore Roosevelt.
partnership, particularly if the parties do not In order to make regular checks on progress
know each other well. and keep your plans under review, see
On the other hand, simply setting up a development of your participation process as a
partnership structure doesnt solve the cycle:
problems. You still need to work through Plan how you will achieve your aims.
clarifying joint purpose, values etc.
Take action on the basis of these plans.
See also Acting together.
Review progress regularly.
If necessary, modify your plans.
Past and Future Put the new plans into action....and so on
This is a simple technique in which a group
uses past shared experiences to think about the
future. See the box above. Planning for Real
Planning for Real is a powerful technique for
Phases of participation involving individuals and groups in decisions
about their neighbourhood, a site or building
Participation is not achieved in one survey, by producing a three-dimensional model. The
leaflet or meeting it is a process. People and Neighbourhood Initiatives Foundation has
groups need time to understand what is produced a pack for the three-stage process:
proposed, develop trust and work out what to
1 Everyone from school children to residents
do. This guide identifies four main phases in a
and local workers are encouraged to be

50
involved in the process of preparing the model. Post-it notes
A local skills survey may also be carried out.
A great technical aid to collective decision-
2 The model is exhibited at different places making, and an improvement on basic
around the locality cafes, libraries, shops and Brainstorming. When running workshops give
pubs with extensive publicity. people pads of Post-its to write their ideas on,
3 Workshops are held at which everyone is then stick them on a chart and move them
encouraged to place cut-out cards representing around into groups.
uses, problems or other issues on the model.
Small groups concerned with specific issues re-
arrange suggestions and negotiate with other
Power
groups. An action plan is produced. Behind participation processes lie issues of
The Neighbourhood Initiatives Foundation power and control. For example:
produces a range of packs to facilitate the Do all key interests have an equal ability or
process. Planning for Real and similar model- opportunity to participate if they wish?
based techniques can be very effective in Who designs the process, and to whom are
involving people because they allow hands on they accountable?
responses, do not rely on written material, and Who sets the timetable and controls the
give everyone a say. If the technique is to be funds?
used honestly rather than to create false
expectations it is important that: Who makes the final decisions?
People are aware of the real world Participation techniques can disempower
constraints on making physical and other people if they are used consciously or
changes. unconsciously to mask these fundamental
questions.
It is clear where responsibility for decisions
lies, and how far the ideas developed will be See the longer section on Power and also
taken on by, say, professional designers who Access, Control, Empowerment, Ownership.
may be involved in the process.
If there is to be some degree of community Practitioner
involvement in implementation, some The term used in this guide to signify the
organisational development takes place. person most concerned with how a
See also Design Game, Structures and the book participation process is moved forward.
Creating Involvement for a longer discussion. See also Role of the practitioner.

Politicians Preparation
I have never regarded politics as the arena of The second phase in the process of
morals. It is the arena of interests. participation described in the section It takes
Aneurin Bevan.
time. In this phase the practitioner managing
Politicians councillors, MPs will be the process should clarify key issues with
important stakeholders in any participation whoever is promoting the process, make
process. They are in the business of identifying informal contact with interests in the
different interest groups, and balancing community, and develop a strategy.
priorities. On the one hand they may be a See also Guidelines on how to...
stumbling block, concerned about challenges to
their power and status.
Presentations
On the other hand they can be an invaluable
source of contacts and influence. Like any Speaking without thinking is like shooting without
taking aim.
other stakeholder it is important to see things Spanish proverb.
from their point of view to find what they are
interested in, what they are seeking to achieve Presentations are speeches with props. These
and to get to know them informally. Try and may range from a simple flip chart to slides
judge their leadership style, and work with and videos. However, the effectiveness of your
them accordingly. You may get more done if presentation will depend more on careful
planning than technology. See the checklist on
you let them take some credit.
the next page for some of the issues to
See also Leadership, Stakeholders. consider.
See also Communication, Information, Press
releases.

51
 techniques for participation requires
Presentation checklist understanding of the overall process, and
Define your objective. For example: to with as much emphasis as possible on skilled application. There are no quick fixes.
inform the audience of our new project and benefits for the audience.
explain how they can be involved. Prepare your visual aids flip chart, Print
Brainstorm your main ideas using index slides and a handout.
cards or, if you have one, an outliner on a Remember KISS keep it short, and Print is not always the most effective means of
computer. (This is like a word processor simple: one main ideas per sheet or slide. communication, but it is important everything
with automatic sub-heading and sub-sub- Use short phrases only as prompts to your of importance is written down and appropriate
headings). presentation. material is freely available. Among the print
Keep the main ideas to not more than Presentations are most appropriate for methods you may use are:
five if possible. Organise others as sub- informing and consulting rather than
points Committee reports and other formal papers.
deciding together. However they are an
Put yourself in the place of the audience excellent way of clarifying what you are
Are they freely available and if not, why not?
and think what impression they will get and trying to say and getting feedback at Few people may be interested, but making
questions they will ask. the start of any participation process. them available combats rumours and dispels
If necessary revise your presentation mistrust.
Letterheads for a project or new
organisation. These may seem simple, but
Press Releases raise important questions of what you are
Journalists are bombarded with press releases called, where you are based, and the way you
and bin most of them. Generally personal present yourself.
contact produces more result on important Leaflets and posters. Useful in two ways.
issues. However, you may well need to produce First externally to promote meetings or give
press releases to announce events, provide a simple explanation of your project. Second
background, summarise reports or circulate internally challenging you to agree on what
speeches in advance. you are trying to say, to whom, and what
See also Communication, Five Ws plus H, Media. response you want.
Newsletters. Worth doing if you have
regular new information, or production is a
Checklist good way of involving people. Bulletins linked
Write the release as a news story to events can be effective. Drop newsletters if
covering who, why, what, where, when, how. they become a chore or the self-congratulatory.
Use a short headline and an interesting Folders. Instead of, say, a substantial
first paragraph. brochure, consider a card folder containing a
Avoid jargon. newsletter, leaflet, and inserts on letterheads. It
Keep it short. is much easier to update.
Include lively quotes if possible.
Reports. Putting the results of a project
Use one side of the paper only, wide between covers builds credibility. Considering
margins and double spacing.
the report during a project, not just at the end,
Date the release, and indicate if there is a
time embargo on use.
may help you clarify what you are trying to
achieve. If you are running an organisation,
Provide a contact number for further
enquiries. take trouble over your annual report for the
same reasons.
See also Identity, Information.
Principles of
participation Print checklist
The advice in this guide is based on the In preparing print consider:
following principles: Who your audience are.
Effective participation requires a planned What response you want from them: are
process in which the key interests agree on the you informing, consulting, etc?
level of participation which is appropriate. The tone of your message are you
promoting yourself, or offering help?
Participation involves developing agreement
The use of illustration: pictures are worth
on both what is to be achieved the outcomes quite a few words.
and how it is to be done the methods.
Style and identity. A clear message and
Participation is a process of learning and effective design carries more weight than
development for all concerned. It takes time. lengthy waffle. Working with a designer will
give you a fresh perspective on what you
People will only be involved if they are trying to say.
understand each other, have the confidence to
participate, and can see some point to it.
The use of short-term methods and

52
Priority Search Public meetings checklist
Priority Search is a unique survey technique If you do hold a public meeting:
used by the Priority Focus Team, set up by Ensure good preparation and publicity.
Sheffield City Council, to conduct consultation Research local concerns and focus on these rather than generalised
exercises. The five stages are: issues.
1 The key issue or problem is identified with Keep any presentations short with opportunities for audience
the client, and a survey plan developed. response.
Consider running workshop groups with report back, rather than
2 Focus groups, each of about 20 people,
keeping everyone together all the time.
representative of those to be surveyed develop
Choose someone independent and locally respected as chair.
ideas for solutions around the key issue.
Ensure the venue is easily accessible.
3 The solutions form the basis for Build on the results.
questionnaire design.
4 The questionnaires are completed by the Purpose).
wider population.
3 What is the best way to get there? (Action
5 The team analyses the survey results and Planning, Decision Making, Options).
produces a report for the client showing the
consensus order of priority for all those 4 What barriers may you face? (Barriers to
surveyed, and the differences, common themes participation, Problems)
and trends among different groups in the 5 How you will know how far you have
community. travelled? (Monitoring and Evaluation,
Success).
See Creating Involvement. for a fuller description.

Problem clarification Public meetings

Although widely used, public meetings are not
You cant find an appropriate solution unless
the most effective method of involving people.
you are sure that you are tackling the right
While they may be useful for giving
problem. A lot of ideas, discussion, and
information, and gaining support around a
decision-making suffer from a failure to keep
clear-cut issue, they are poor vehicles for
asking: Is this really the problem?
debate and decision-making. Classic public
meetings with a platform party can easily be
Clarifying problems dominated by a small number of people, and
become stage sets for confrontation.
Heres a few ideas on how to make sure you
are clear: See also Access, Five Ws and H, Meetings,
1 Explain the problem to someone else, Presentations, Publicity, Workshops. The book
simply. Listen to what they say. Creating Involvement provides further guidance
on planning and running public meetings.
2 Consider what would be a solution what
outcome you are seeking. Where are you
now? What are the obstacles in getting from Publicity
here to there?
3 Split what you may want from what you
There are three key questions to ask before
really need and concentrate on the needs. embarking on any publicity:
4 Do a SWOT analysis. 1 Who are you trying to reach? For example,
members of an organisation, the general public,
Problems sponsors, media, politicians.
Problems are what make us think. In 2 What result do you want? For example,
participation processes they are the barriers to opinions, volunteers, funding, support.
progress, conflicts, uncertainties which make it 3 How will you respond? For example,
difficult to know what to do. personal contact, leaflets, events or in other
See also Barriers to participation, Decision ways.
making, Problem Clarification The answers to these questions will determine
your choice of publicity method for example,
Process as a journey exhibitions, media, events, print or audio-
visual.
Planning and carrying out a project or
participation process can be seen as a journey. See also Communications, Identity and Image,
The key questions, and topics and techniques Five Ws plus H.
which may help answer them are:
1 Where are you now? (Assessment,
Stakeholder analysis, SWOT).
2 Where do you want to be? (Outcomes,

53
 Purpose Research
If one does not know to which port one is Knowledge is a process of piling up facts;
steering, no wind is favourable. wisdom lies in their simplification.
Seneca Martin H. Fisher.

A statement of purpose, or mission statement, The research you may need to do in planning
is a summary in a sentence or two of your and starting a participation process will
intention your aims and objectives. It may be depend in part of the level of participation you
the broad statement of the reason for a project are considering.
or a groups existence. Statements of purpose For example:
may start out as broad intentions like we aim For levels of information and consultation
to create a better place to live and work. They you will need to research and prepare clear
become meaningful when the aim is followed proposals early in the process to put to other
with statements of how: for example by interests.
providing advice and support for practical
If you are aiming for Deciding or Acting
environmental projects. There may be a
Together, it will be more appropriate to delay
number of these how to statements which are
research into options until this can be agreed
objectives. If they are measurable, they become
together.
targets. Purpose will be important on two
fronts: If you are supporting community initiatives,
you may wish to support other peoples
In clarifying why you are carrying out a
research.
participation process.
Whichever level you are working at it will be
In reaching a common view among those necessary to find out who are the key interests.
involved about what result outcome they
want. See also Community, Stakeholder analysis.

See also Aims and objectives, Outcomes, Vision.

Resources
In a participation process you may need two
Recruitment sets of resources: first the skills, money and
Enlisting the support of people for a project, or equipment to run the process, and second, the
their membership of a group or organisation, is resources for any project or organisation that
most likely to be effective if you: develops from the process.
Put yourself in their shoes what benefit See also Budgets for participation, Fundraising,
are you offering them? Skills.
Provide a chance for people to think through
what is involved, perhaps in a small group. Role of the practitioner
Ask existing members to bring friends
The go-between wears out a thousand sandals.
along. Japanese proverb.
See also Barriers to participation, Commitment.
Much confusion arises when people are not
clear about the intentions and responsibilities
of practitioners involved in participation
processes. For example enabler sounds fine,
Creating a statement of purpose but people will be mistrustful if they feel that
This may be done directly by working as individuals and a group on as well as facilitating the discussion you are
the statement, or by working up from options and objectives. making decisions on who gets what resources,
To create a statement directly and have your own agenda. If you are seeking
Work individually to write down one or two sentences expressing to empower people, it is particularly unhelpful
your intention. to act as a spokesperson for a group
Pool these and amalgamate by identifying areas of agreement, negotiating with authorities, or to act as go-
and discussing disagreements. between. It prevents the different interests
To work from options: getting to know each other and developing
Brainstorm specific ideas to achieve your aim. mutual trust, and can lead to filtering of
information and closing options.
Summarise 8-10 of these on cards, with a paragraph description
of each. See also Enabling.
As a group place them in order of priority.
Reflect on the common theme which lies behind the projects, and Roles in groups
the criteria you used to priorities.
Develop the statement of purpose around the common theme,
One of the many benefits of working in a
and a statement of values which reflects the criteria. group is to be able to share responsibilities
with different people undertaking different

54
parts of the work. You may all want to have an
equal say, but even groups that work as Auditing skills
collectives find it easier to have different In order to find out what talent you have:
individuals taking responsibility for co- 1 List the tasks you have to carry out in as much detail as possible,
ordinating a particular area of work. Whilst using a brainstorming session if necessary.
every organisation has different needs and 2 Choose 10 random tasks and ask each member of the group to:
different roles, the following checklist may be Score each task 1(no good) to 5 (very good) on how good they would
useful. be.
State what they would need to do to become very good (e.g. practice,
training).
Group roles checklist 3 Pull your ideas together, and for each item list:
Chairperson for the main committee. Who can do it, and how well.
Secretary. What would be involved in getting more people competent.
Chairperson for working groups.
Treasurer.
Spokesperson. Skills Audit
Publicity officer. You may need to look no further than your
Meetings organiser. own group for the expertise you need for your
Volunteers organiser. project or campaign.
Work co-ordinator.
Administrator.
Small Group
You may want to rotate some of these roles
around the group. Large meetings and committees are not good
for working through difficult issues. You can
often make a lot more progress by taking some
time out in smaller groups and reporting back.
Roles of participants
Marilyn Taylor, of the School for Advanced
Urban Studies, suggests that in planning Breaking into groups
participation a local authority should see those In order to allow members of a large group a
involved in three possible roles: say:
As citizens who have certain political rights 1 Introduce the issue to the large group, and
set tasks for smaller groups. State time
and duties, including the right to vote. As such
limits, how to report back, and arrange
they have an interest in every part of the where each group should go.
policies and operation of any authority.
2 Break into smaller groups of not more
As paymasters, people contribute a than 6 to 8. Meet and discuss the issue.
significant amount of the authoritys finances Appoint a facilitator, recorder, reporter if
and have a right to call the authority to necessary.
account for the way it spends their money. 3 Report back to the large group.
As consumers, people use different services 4 As an alternative reshuffle into new small
paid for by the local authority and sometimes groups and report back to each other within
the groups
provided by them (e.g. parks, education,
highways, leisure, libraries, housing, waste Summarised from Resource Manual for
Living Revolution.
disposal etc).

Shop front Socials

A temporary office or shop front in the Among the committee meetings and workshop
community you are working with shows sessions allow time for social events where
commitment to meeting people on their own people can get to know each informally. People
terms, rather than in meetings you have are far more likely to get involved in
arranged. It provides an independent address something which is fun.
and contact for any project. However, be
careful that: Solutions
The shop front doesnt substitute for the Simple solutions are like a bunch of spare keys.
substance of what you are trying to achieve. They seldom work.
You can afford the cost and have people to Anon.
staff it. Solutions have to be custom-made for the
You arent setting up a problem for someone problems they are going to unlock. They are
else to take over. reached by clarifying the problem, having
ideas and generating options, and then decision
making.

55
 The book 101 Ways to Generate Great Ideas Consultation or Acting Together. Stance is the
has a section on Techniques to Develop suggestion or assertion that a particular level
Solutions. Most are oriented to commercial is appropriate which may not be generally
development; generally useful methods include: accepted. For example, a local authority may
What words of praise will be said when you start a consultation process but find that
have a solution? residents want more say. Negotiating stances
is an important early stage of a participation
List the attributes a solution may have, process. See the section Where do you stand?
before trying to see it in total.
Suggest a metaphor for the problem.
Reverse the situation, then reverse the Deciding your stance
problem. In deciding where you stand consider:
See also Clarifying problems, Destruction testing, What level of participation are other
Options, and the Easy Answers section. interests likely to consider appropriate?
What level will your colleagues or others
in your group accept or support?
Special events What skills and resources will be
Special events and festivals are one way to needed? Will you be able to follow through?
reach people who are not interested in formal Will you change your stance if others
meetings. Possibilities include parades, dont accept it?
bringing in community artists, making models,
holding exhibitions, getting school children
involved through art work, drama or music, Start where people
friendly competitions, involving local shops
and businesses in events.
are at
Special events bring fun and celebration into If you really want to involve as many people as
participation. However, they require lots of possible, you have to go to them rather than
allies in order to plan and carry them. expect them to come to you. That mean:
See also Allies. Going to their place rather than yours
homes, clubs, pubs, churches, mosques,
Chambers of Commerce.
Stakeholders
Starting with other peoples concerns rather
Stakeholders are those who have an interest in than your own.
what you are or may be doing, because they
will be affected or may have some influence. See also Access, Special events.
For example:
Who will benefit from your proposals? Staying involved
Who may be adversely affected? People need to experience some benefit or
Who may help or hinder? encouragement if they are to stay involved.
The study Limbering Up found people stopped
Who may have skills, money or other being involved because of:
resources?
Disagreements.
Who decides?
Nothing being achieved.
Having no real say.
Stance
Domination by a clique.
One of the most important decisions to be
made in a participation process is the level of They were encouraged by:
involvement offered to the various interests by Feeling they would be effective.
whoever initiates the process for example,
Experiencing success.
Stakeholder analysis Seeing peers involved.
In order to think through the role of stakeholders: Feelings of personal benefit.
Consider who the key stakeholders are. See also Conflict resolution, Cliques, Confidence,
Put yourself in their shoes: how are they likely to react ? Success.
How might you wish them to react?
What do you need to do to involve or influence them? Steering group
Draw this up on a flip chart.
If you are at the level of participation of Acting
Who? What is their likely What response or What has to be done? Together, and aiming to create a formal
attitude? change do you want? partnership, it may be appropriate to set up a
Stakeholder Attitude Response Action steering group which is a shadow of the

56
management committee or Board that you will
be creating later. Adopt similar procedures for Running SAST
the steering group that you will use for the 1 The group splits into small groups and there is a final discussion to bring ideas
management committee that should help each takes an option to consider. The task together and plan next steps.
ensure that early decisions are taken are in the of each group is to sell its option in an uring the final discussion
interests of the partnership, rather than simply uncritical 15 minute presentation to the other
groups. The common actions are turned into an
the self interests of the various representatives. action plan.
2 As each group makes its presentation the The advantages are translated into
See also Board, Management Committee, Team facilitator notes the main points on two
building, Terms of reference. agreed criteria.
charts, one headed actions one headed
advantages. The issues of debate are clustered and
treated as areas of uncertainty which may
SAST 3 After each presentation the audience
questions and criticises, and these points
require further investigation.
Strategic Assumption Surface Testing is a are recorded on a third chart headed Activities to investigate these
uncertainties may be transferred to the
technique for a large group to examine debate.
action plan.
different options for action and then develop a 4 The three sets of charts are exhibited, and
common action plan.
5 Broad-range community associations such
Strategic choice as neighbourhood and community councils.
Strategic choice is a sophisticated technique for
making decisions and developing action plans Choosing a structure
in situations with many options and Issues to consider in choosing a form of
uncertainties. This can be done in a workshop organisation include:
session, or using Strategic Choice software Geography.
STRAD available from Stradspan Limited. Relationship to the political system.
Strategic choice works through four modules: The relationship with new and existing
Shaping, where the main areas for making bodies.
decisions are identified in order to provide a Balance of community and local authority
representation.
problem focus.
The level of participation offered.
Designing, where you start to explore ways Formal status of the organisation.
forward by seeing which combinations of Method of operation.
options from decision areas could be combined.
Comparing, where the implications of
See also Community forum, Community
different paths through the strategic problem initiatives, Development Trusts.
are assessed.
Choosing, where you review what to do
about key areas of uncertainty and move
Success
towards action plans. Success may take many forms in a
The book Planning Under Pressure provides a participation process. Ultimately it may be
detailed description. associated with some product achieving
your aims and objectives, or purpose. It may
also be about a successful process meeting
Structures for deadlines and targets along the way, ensuring
participation that people are staying involved.
Organisations like local authorities often See also Criteria, Outcomes.
favour participation methods which fit their
own way of working so they invite people to
join committees, or set up other structures. Supporting independent
Jerry Smith, of the Community Development community initiatives
Foundation, suggests there are five main Supporting community based initiatives means
classes of organisation used by local helping others develop and carry out their own
authorities: plans. You can, of course, put limits on what
1 Consultative bodies. you will support. It is the most empowering
2 Councillor bodies usually based on wards or level of participation provided people want to
other local authority administrative divisions. do things for themselves. They may, quite
properly, choose a lower level of participation.
3 Joint bodies composed of councillors and
Supporting community initiatives is
community representatives.
appropriate:
4 Narrow-range community organisations like
Where there is a commitment to empower
tenant co-operatives, community housing
individuals or groups within the community.
associations, and community economic
development trusts. Where people are interested in starting and

57
 running an initiative. workshop technique for starting to plan a
It is unlikely to be appropriate when: participation process, or review where you are.
Community initiatives are seen as a good
thing in the abstract and pushed on people Team building
from the top down.
The process of helping a group of people
Where there arent the resources to maintain develop shared aims and objectives, values and
initiatives in the longer-term. a plan for putting them into action. People
See the section Where do you stand? for more working together have more opportunities to
detailed discussion. get to know each other than, for example,
members of a management committee meeting
Surveys every month or two so team building
workshops can be particularly useful.
Surveys provide an important starting point
for participation processes. Whether they Most techniques for developing ideas and
enable people to participate significantly in making decisions together will help with team
decision making, and subsequent action, building, because they help people understand
depends very much on the way they are done: each others interests and priorities. Similarly
Questionnaire surveys whether conducted techniques specifically designed for team
by interviewers or completed by respondents building can be useful in participation
may be improved if local groups are involved processes.
in the design, collection and analysis. Village See the book Planning Together.
Appraisals are designed and carried out by
local groups, who may then use the results to
press for action or to start their own projects. Techniques
Parish maps have provided the starting The term is used here to describe any short-
point for a large number of rural and urban term device which helps make progress in a
projects. They offer wide scope for participation process. This may be a
involvement because of the many ways in brainstorming workshop, a task like writing a
which they can be developed, and the focus on leaflet to help clarify what you are trying to
familiar features in the locality. achieve, or a more complex game or
simulation.
Priority Search uses a focus group,
representative of those to be surveyed, to Techniques are particularly useful for
generate ideas which become part of the consultant, facilitators and trainers because:
survey questionnaire. However, taking action They are discrete pieces of work with clear
rests with the local authority or other body preparation and results.
commissioning the survey.
If used well, everyone gets a sense that
See the book Creating Involvement for discussion things have moved forward.
of these and other survey techniques, and items
mentioned above. They are a good way of breaking out of
conventional committees and public meetings
which may not have worked in the past.
SWOT However, techniques should not be seen as
SWOT stands for Strengths, Weaknesses, quick fixes, but as milestones in a long term
Opportunities and Threats. Its a good process. If people feel they are being
manipulated, or made to jump through hoops
they will avoid further involvement or oppose
Using SWOT further activities.
When you are clear what your aim is:
1 Brainstorm issues under each heading. Strengths and weaknesses relate to internal Choosing a technique
matters for the group or organisation, opportunities and threats to the external. Divide up a
chart, and ask people to fill in and stick on Post-it notes. In order to decide on a technique, using this
guide:
2 Draw up a summary and discuss how to build on your strengths, do something about
your weaknesses. make the most of the opportunities, avoid or eliminate the threats. Browse through the A to Z to get an
overview of possibilities.
3 Turn these conclusions into an Action plan.
Review the level of participation and your
stance, and the techniques recommended
Strengths Weaknesses as appropriate.
Review the phase of process, and
recommended techniques.
Use the Guidelines on how to... section.
Opportunities Threats Read Easy answers for some cautionary
comments on techniques.

58
Terms of reference Meet people informally.
Any subcommittee or working group should Deliver what you promise.
have clear terms of reference covering:
The purpose and membership of the group. Values
Who services it with agendas and minutes. Values are statements of what we consider
How often it meets and for how long. important. Since they may be emotive, political,
and difficult to express, they are frequently
The topics or issues the group covers. hidden. However it is difficult to understand
The powers of the group to make decisions. each other or reach agreement if we are unclear
What funding it has, if any. about values. For example, council officers
To which committee or group it reports faced with a tight project timetable may be
back. frustrated by a community group which insists
on numerous meetings, held in the evenings,
See Just About Managing? for a longer leading to the appointment of a representative
discussion. steering group.
The officers value cost-effective delivery of
Time Line product acceptable to their political masters
It takes time to save time. and the Government; the comunity group
Joe Taylor. values openness and democratic process. In
Everything takes longer than you think even groups where there may be underlying
when you know it does. Drawing a timeline is differences of values it is often most productive
a simple technique to set priorities among to concentrate first on what there is in common
activities and events which must be completed by discussing outcomes what you would like
within a given period of time to happen at the end of the day and how you
Draw a horizontal line on a piece of paper. can get there. A group which has agreed aims
and objectives may explore shared values by
Graduate it into appropriate blocks of time considering the image it wishes to present.
(days, weeks, months). The first mark is NOW,
the last the completion date. See also Aims and objectives, Criteria, Identity
and Image, Outcomes, Purpose.
Think of all the tasks to be completed.
Place the tasks on the time line in the order
of when they have to be done, and which are
Videos
the most important to do at a particular time. At first sight video might seem a powerful
medium for launching an initiative, but it can
See also Workload planning.
be costly and inflexible if you have to pay a
professional team. A well-scripted slide show is
Trading company cheaper, easy to change, and gives you
Charities cannot engage in income-generating personal contact with the audience. Slide
trading unless it is pursuit of their objectives. shows and twin-projector audio-visual
They can, however, set up subsidiary trading presentations can be transferred to video.
companies which covenant profits back to the These dont compare with professional videos,
charity. If you are considering this type of but save carrying the equipment around to
arrangement consult a solicitor and an small groups.
accountant experienced in the field. See also Communication.

Trust Village appraisals

The most brilliant presentation will achieve This is a technique promoted by ACRE
little if the audience suspects they are being Action for Communities in Rural England
misled and workshop techniques will fail if through which local people use surveys to take
people feel they are being manipulated. Trust stock of village life and encourage action by
is an essential foundation for all aspects of both volunteers and local authorities. A format
participation. has been established for local residents to carry
In order to develop trust: out surveys of the services and facilities in
Draw out and deal with any suspicions from rural areas, and there is computer software
past contacts. available. ACRE suggest a 12 stage process to
Be open and honest about what you are use this:
trying to achieve and about any problems. 1 Form a steering group
Be prepared to make mistakes and admit 2 Decide the aims of the appraisal, and the
them. area to be covered.

59
 3 Consider how you plan to fund the project. Voting
4 Draw up a realistic timescale and consider Seeking a standard committee-style majority
publicity. vote on a major issue is not an effective means
5 Familiarise yourself with the software. of involving people in participation processes.
6 Decide on the issues that are important to However, simple voting techniques can be
your community and list them. useful in small groups to decide between
options.
7 Use the menu of questions from the
software to design a questionnaire.
Voting by ticks
8 Print, distribute and collect the
For a group to decide quickly between
questionnaire. different options or solutions:
9 Use the software to make a first analysis. 1 List the possible options.
10 Review the aims of the appraisal and 2 Make sure they are understood by
produce a report with recommendations for everyone.
action. 3 Give each voter ten ticks (or small sticky
labels) to mark his or her choices. These
11 Launch the report, and decide on the
can be spread through the list or allocated
authorities to negotiate with. to one choice.
12 Review the situation after a year to see 4 The item with the most ticks or labels
how things are progressing. wins.
Contact ACRE for further information. From Getting Organised.

Vision
You see things; and you say Why? But I dream
Why encourage
things that never were, and I say Why not? participation?
George Bernard Shaw
Marilyn Taylor, of the School of Advanced
The idea of a vision of the future seems to me Urban Studies, offers the following reasons for
rather broader than purpose or mission, local councils and other authorities to consider
because it places more emphasis on values and promoting participation:
approach how you do things as well as the Legislation or central government
result you achieve. Vision may be a helpful encouragement. A number of Acts impose
term if you are using participation techniques consultation requirements, and many funding
that encourage people to create pictures of programmes also specify community
what they want, or develop models. involvement.
See also Limits, Outcomes. Dissatisfaction with public service delivery
has led to government seeking to remove
Voluntary sector services from local government control;
councils have responded with decentralisation
This blanket term is often used to cover a wide and devolution of powers which involve
range of organisations which are very different participation.
from each other:
Efficiency and effectiveness may be
Self-help groups of people with a shared improved by involving the community and
interest seeking to assist each other. consumers. At the very least it forestalls
Community groups of activists concerned conflict and can more positively bring new
with a locality or local issue. ideas, perspectives and resources into policy
Small local charitable organisations with making and problem solving. Resources can be
management committees and paid workers. better targeted.
National charities with local branches. Consumers are demanding involvement.
Bodies like development trusts which may These days people are more likely to take
see themselves as not-for-profit companies. action on issues of concern to them.
Each will have its own style of working, and See also Benefits of participation.
community of interest. Although a very
important route to these communities, they Working groups
should not be seen as representing the
community. A working group is a small group set up with
a specific task to complete, with members
See also Community. chosen for their appropriate skills. Working
groups are a good way of making sure
interested people can get involved and make a
contribution. In setting up working groups:

60
 Create clear terms of reference.
Workshop guidelines
Set a limit on how long they continue.
When running a workshop session:
Encourage creative thinking rather than
1 Plan space and equipment:
formal committee procedures.
Wall space or stands for charts.
See also Creative thinking, Time line. Space for separate group working.
Coloured pens, Post-it notes, chart paper
Workload planning and blutack, coloured stickers/stars.
2 Agree with participants what is going to
This technique which combines action plans happen in the session
with a time line can be useful in planning 3 If using charts or handouts, check literacy
participation process. and colour-blindness. Working in pairs or
small groups can help to overcome
Workload planning problems.
1 Set up a calendar of days, weeks or 4 Stick to an agreed timetable keep an
months for the process, with the period eye on the clock.
across the top of a sheet of paper. 5 Write clearly, and encourage others to
2 Identify main events like meetings and write on the charts but dont force them.
publications as milestones in the process, 6 Encourage work in small group (3-5),
and position them as on a time line. even if there is a lot of talking and input in
3 Work out the subsidiary tasks to achieve the whole group sessions.
the milestones, including which must be 7 Speak clearly, and listen carefully to what
started before or after others. people are saying both in groups and in
4 Draw these under each other as lines plenary sessions.
across the calendar, the length of line 8 Check out understanding before writing on
indicating time to complete, with start and charts.
finish points marked. 9 Be happy to make mistakes and admit
5 Allocate responsibilities. them.
Project management computer software is 10 Dont establish yourself as the expert.
available to carry out workload planning, but Ask naive questions.
can be rather time-consuming to use.
See the book Planning Together, Activity 30,
for a fuller description. With the heart, ask:
Am I being honest, and trusting my
See also Time line.
intuition?
Do I deserve better?
Workshops
Workshops are meetings at which a small
group, perhaps aided by a facilitator, explore
issues, develop ideas and make decisions. They
are the less formal and more creative
counterpart to public meetings and
committees. As well as generating a lot of
useful content, workshops provide a good
opportunity for all concerned to get to know
each other better something which seldom
happens at more formal meetings.
See the book Creating Involvement for
descriptions of different types of workshops.

Yes or No
Spencer Johnson in Yes or No: A Guide to
Better Decisions uses an extended journey
metaphor for decision-making processes and
offers a technique for making decisions which
is similar to Kolbs cycle, and Plan, Act,
Review. He argues that it is important to take
decisions using both head and heart. With the
head consider:
Are you meeting a real need?
Have you developed and thought through
options?

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